Central European countries in the late 20th early 21st century. The latest developments in Eastern Europe

Significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society is considered to be the dominant feature of the development of states. However, the countries faced a number of complex problems, crises and upheavals. These are the technological and information revolutions, the collapse of colonial empires, global economic crises, social performances in the 60s and 70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded some kind of restructuring of economic and social relations, choice of paths further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world.

The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. With reduced unemployment, relatively stable prices, rising wages workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s, when some of the negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc.

Changes in the 60s After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheaval has come.

A wave of social action led to political change in most Western European countries. Many of them in the 60s. Social Democratic and Socialist parties came to power.

Social-democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special training and retraining programs were adopted work force. Progress in the solution social problems was one of the most significant achievements of the Social Democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policy soon became apparent - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to assert the psychology of social dependency, when people, not working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces.

In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, she won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain Conservative Party, the government was headed by M. Thatcher

The main components of the policy of the neoconservatives were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment state regulation economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization entrepreneurial activity). AT social policy equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, an aggravation international environment

The encouragement of private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important achievement was added to the achievements of this period. historical event- unification of Germany in 1990

In the late 90s. In many European countries conservatives replaced by liberals

Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling them to democratization. Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties. But the attempts of the new leadership to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. worsened economic situation, the flight of the population to the West acquired a massive character. Opposition forces formed, there were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.

In most countries, the communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". However, not everywhere the revolutions were "velvet". In Romania, opponents of the head of state, Nicolae Ceausescu, staged an uprising in December 1989, as a result of which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, a war immediately began between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support Western countries, and most of the Serbs were exterminated or expelled.

In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, an interethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. On the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the armed forces of the NATO countries intervened. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to the pressure of superior NATO forces.

The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.

In 1998 open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999 NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally illegally declared independence.

After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the "color revolution", the disintegration of the FRY continued. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro seceded, and two independent states: Serbia and Montenegro.

The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place peacefully. After a referendum, it was divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving on to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations went down in history under the name "shock therapy", as they were associated with a fall in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.

By the end of the 90s. the situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome, economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. They played a big role in this foreign investment. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.

In foreign policy all countries of Eastern Europe are oriented towards the West, most of them in early XXI in. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.

The countries of Eastern Europe were captured by Germany and then liberated by the troops of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Some of these countries (Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania) initially fought on the side of Hitler. After the end of the war, the countries of Eastern Europe fell under the influence of the USSR.

Developments

1940s- in the countries of Eastern Europe there was a wave of coups, which brought the communists to power; during these years, new states appear on the map of Europe.

1945- formation of the Federal People's Republic Yugoslavia, led by the communist government of Josip Broz Tito. Yugoslavia included Serbia (as part of Serbia - the Albanian autonomies of Kosovo and Metohija, Vojvodina), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia.

The first cracks in the united socialist camp appeared in 1948 when the Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, who wanted to conduct his policy largely without coordination with Moscow, once again made a self-willed step, which served to aggravate Soviet-Yugoslav relations and break them (see Fig. 2). Before 1955of the year Yugoslavia fell out of a single system, and did not return there entirely. In this country, a peculiar model of socialism arose - Titoism based on the authority of the country's leader Tito. Under him, Yugoslavia turned into a country with a developed economy (in 1950-1970, production rates quadrupled), Tito's authority was strengthened by multinational Yugoslavia. The ideas of market socialism and self-government formed the basis of Yugoslav prosperity.

After Tito's death in 1980, centrifugal processes began in the state, which led the country to disintegration in the early 1990s, the war in Croatia, and the mass genocide of Serbs in Croatia and Kosovo. By 1999, the former flourishing Yugoslavia lay in ruins, hundreds of thousands of families were destroyed, national enmity and hatred raged. Yugoslavia was made up of only two former republics - Serbia and Montenegro, the last of which seceded in 2006. In 1999-2000 aviation of NATO countries carried out bombing strikes on civilian and military targets, forcing the incumbent president - S. Milosevic to retire.

The second country that left the united socialist camp and was no longer part of it was Albania. Albanian leader and staunch Stalinist Enver Hoxha did not agree with the decision of the XX Congress of the CPSU to condemn Stalin's personality cult and tore diplomatic relations with the USSR, leaving the CMEA. The further existence of Albania was tragic. Hoxha's one-man regime led the country to decline and mass poverty of the population. In the early 1990s between Serbs and Albanians, national conflicts began to flare up, resulting in the mass destruction of Serbs and the occupation of primordially Serbian territories, which continue to this day.

For other countries socialist camps more stringent policies. So when in In 1956, unrest broke out among Polish workers, protesting against unbearable living conditions, the columns were shot by the troops, and the leaders of the workers were found and destroyed. But in the light of the political transformations taking place at that time in the USSR, associated with de-Stalinization of society, in Moscow they agreed to put the repressed under Stalin at the head of Poland Vladislav Gomulka. Power will later pass to General Wojciech Jaruzelski who will fight against the politically rising the Solidarity movement representing workers and independent trade unions. Movement leader - Lech Walesa - became the leader of the protest (see Fig. 3). Throughout the 1980s. "Solidarity" was gaining more and more popularity, despite the persecution of the authorities. In 1989, with the collapse socialist system, in Poland, Solidarity came to power. In the 1990s - 2000s. Poland is on the way European integration joined NATO.

In 1956 an uprising broke out in Budapest.. The reason was the de-Stalinization and the demand of the workers and the intelligentsia for fair and open elections, the unwillingness to be dependent on Moscow. The uprising soon resulted in the persecution and arrests of members of the Hungarian state security; part of the army went over to the side of the people. By decision of Moscow, ATS troops were brought into Budapest. Leadership of the Hungarian Workers' Party led by a Stalinist Matthias Rakosi, was forced to appoint to the post of prime minister Imre Nadia. Soon Nagy announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Department of Internal Affairs, which angered Moscow. Tanks were again brought into Budapest, and the uprising was brutally crushed. became the new leader Janos Kadar who repressed most rebels (Nagy was shot), but began to carry out economic reforms that contributed to the fact that Hungary became one of the most prosperous countries in the socialist camp. With the collapse of the socialist system, Hungary abandoned its former ideals, and a pro-Western leadership came to power. In 1990-2000 Hungary joined European Union (EU) and NATO.

In 1968 in Czechoslovakia A new communist government was elected, led by Alexander Dubcek who wanted to carry out economic, social and political transformation. Seeing an indulgence in domestic life, all of Czechoslovakia was engulfed in rallies. Seeing that the socialist state began to gravitate towards the world of capital, the leader of the USSR L.I. Brezhnev ordered the introduction of ATS troops into Czechoslovakia. The correlation of forces between the world of capital and socialism, which cannot be changed under any circumstances, after 1945 was called "The Brezhnev Doctrine". In August 1968, troops were brought in, the entire leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was arrested, tanks opened fire on people on the streets of Prague (see Fig. 4). Soon Dubcek will be replaced by a pro-Soviet one. Gustav Husak, which will adhere to the official line of Moscow. In 1990-2000 Czechoslovakia will break up into the Czech Republic and Slovakia Velvet Revolution» 1990), which will join the EU and NATO.

Bulgaria and Romania throughout the entire period of the existence of the socialist camp will remain faithful to Moscow in their political and economic transformations. With the breakup common system, pro-Western forces will come to power in these countries, which will be tuned to European integration.

Thus, the countries People's Democracy', or countries ' real socialism” over the past 60 years have experienced a transformation from a socialist system to a capitalist system led by the United States, being largely dependent on the influence of a new leader.

Bibliography

1. Shubin A.V. General history. recent history. Grade 9: textbook. For general education institutions. Moscow: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
2. Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. M.: Education, 2010.
3. Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: Education, 2011.

1. Military industrial courier ().
2. Internet portal Coldwar.ru ().
3. Internet portal Ipolitics.ru ().

Homework

1. Read paragraph 21 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. and answer questions 1-4 on page 226.
2. Name the countries of Europe included in the so-called. Orbit of the USSR. Why did Yugoslavia and Albania drop out of it?
3. Was it possible to maintain a common socialist camp?
4. Have Eastern European countries changed from one patron to another? Why?

Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and duties is being formed. In doing so, attention should be paid to the following.

• The development of science, engineering and technology has reached a new level.
• The transition of production to new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
• Global economic ties deepened.
• Global ties arose that covered the main spheres of life of peoples and states.

All this led to the renewal of the picture of the Society.

Globalization

The modern world gives the impression of a pluralistic one, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), South Asia(India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.

Western Europe

After years finding Europe in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. EU countries, with a population of approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth just over $5.5 trillion a year, that is, more than in the United States (just under $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from relations of the “younger brother-big brother” type to an equal partnership.

Eastern Europe

Russia

In addition to Europe, a huge impact on the fate modern world provided by the Asia-Pacific region. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore.

If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of the world GNP, then by 1982 it had doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world gross national product (that is, it became approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of world economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. Rise in South-East Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.

China

In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China draws attention to itself: in fact, the GNP of the so-called Greater China”, which includes China proper, Taiwan, Singapore, exceeds Japanese and practically approaches the US GNP.

« Greater China» the influence of the Chinese is not limited - in part it extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia, they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century The Chinese made up 1% of the population of the Philippines, but controlled 35% of the sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is, in fact, the Chinese economy. An agreement between the PRC and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone has recently entered into force.

Near East

In Latin America, liberal economic policy in the 1980s-1990s. led to economic growth. At the same time, the use of harsh liberal recipes for modernization in the future, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees during market reforms, increased social instability, contributed to relative stagnation and an increase in the external debt of Latin American countries.

It is precisely the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” headed by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted in a referendum guaranteeing the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical service. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of power, two more are formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.