Sound alternation. Positional alternations of consonants
§one. The concept of positional alternation
Surprisingly, in Everyday life we regularly encounter different language processes. In this lesson, we'll talk about one of them. Consider such a phenomenon as the positional alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants). We note right away that we are talking about phonetic process and not about spelling.
In the flow of speech, the sounds that we utter undergo various changes. Why is this happening?
The fact is that the sounds of the same morpheme (part of a word) fall into different positions: strong or weak.
Positional alternation- replacement of one sound with another when its position in the word changes.
Strong position- this is such a position in which the sound is clearly pronounced in the word, and in the letter it is transmitted by the corresponding sign (letter).
Weak positionconsider the one in which the sound is heard indistinctly, is not pronounced at all, or is pronounced with changes. In this case, the spelling of the word differs from its pronunciation.
Let's look at the transcription of these words:
[maroWith] and [heat]
Now let's write these words in compliance with the spelling rules:
maboutroh, heat
Please note that the spelling of the first word is significantly different from its sound, and the second word is spelled the same as it is heard. This means that in the word "frost" the first vowel and the last consonant were in a weak position.
§2. Positional alternations consonants
Find out which positions are strong and weak for vowels and consonants.
Doesn't change, stays alwaysin strong position consonant [th].
Strong position for hard and soft consonants is their position:
– at the end of the word: you [l] and ty[ l"];
– before vowels:[ e]ub and [ d"] ate;
– before hard consonants: ba [n] ka and ba [n "] ka.
Weak forhard and soft consonants is the position:
– before soft consonants: for example, in the word pi [s "m"] enny;
– before [w "], [h"]: for example, in the word baraba [n "w"] ik.
Voiceless and voiced consonants also have theirweak and strong positions .
The sounds [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th] do not have a deaf pair, so there are no weak ones for them positions.
Strong positions for the rest of the consonants in terms of deafness / voicedness, the provisions are:
– before vowels: volo[ s]s or[ h] uby;
– before consonants [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th], [c] and [c "] : for example, in the words [z] loy and [ With] loy, [h] venet.
Weak positions :
– at the end of the word: steam [s];
– before deaf and voiced consonants (except [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th], [c] and [in "]): turn [with] ka.
§3. Positional vowel alternations
Now consider the positional alternations of vowels.
Strong position for a vowel, the stressed position is always, and the weak, respectively, unstressed:
in[a]r[about]that
Often this alternation is characteristic only for vowels.about ande .
Compare:
m [o] kryi - m [a] mole and m [u] dry - m [u] dretz
There are also features in the pronunciation of sounds, which in writing are indicated by the letters E, Yo, Yu, Ya.
Why do you need to know the cases of positional (phonetic) alternation of sounds? It is necessary to know this for the development of spelling vigilance.
If you do not know these processes and do not recognize them in words, then you can make a mistake in applying one or another spelling or when morphological analysis the words.
One of the clearest proofs of this assertion isrule :
In order not to make a mistake in writing a consonant at the root of a word, you need to choose a related word or change the given word so that a vowel comes after the consonant being checked.
For example, du [p] - du [b] s.
§four. Brief summary lesson
Now let us repeat once again what we have learned about such a phonetic process as the positional alternation of sounds.
Alternation is the substitution of one sound for another.
Positional, i.e. depending on the position of the sound in the word.
Important to remember:
Positional alternation of sounds is not reflected in writing!
Sounds are characterized by strong and weak positions.
In a strong position, the sound is pronounced distinctly and is transmitted in writing by the corresponding (own) letter.
For vowels, the position under stress is strong.
For soft and hard consonants, a strong position is a position at the end of a word, before a vowel or before a hard consonant.
For deaf and voiced consonants, positions are also strong before a vowel and before consonant sonorants [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '] [l], [l '], [in], [in "] and [th].
In other cases, in the flow of speech, sounds change, alternate - these are weak positions.
Different sounds can be pronounced at the same place in the same morpheme. In the forms of the word goat, goat, goat, goats, in the words goats, goat, capricorn, the root is the same. But we pronounce [h] (goat, goats), then [h "] (goat, goat, capricorn), then [s] (goats), then [h], a rounded consonant, during the pronunciation of which the lips are tense and stretched out in tube (goat). Vowels are also not pronounced the same: to [b] are evil, to [o] s - to [a] for, to [a] green. The first consonant is not the same: before [a] it is [k]: [ka] for, before [o] it is [k]: [k] ozly, [k °] lake Such a change of sounds is called alternation.
Alternation occurs only in the same morphemes. Replacing [s] with [s] or vice versa in the words ko [s] a, ko [s] a, we will not get alternation - the roots are different here.
Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. So, in Russian, the sound [g], hitting the end of a word, is replaced by the sound [k].
Alternation [r // k] in Russian is positional alternation. Positional alternation is called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in this language system. The alternation [r // k] is phonetic. Phonetic alternations have positions, i.e. conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable.
But here's another example - alternation [g // w]: friend [g] a - other [g] ny, boom [g] a - boom [g] ny, tai [g] a - tae [g] ny, move [t] at - mobile [g] ny, can [g] y - possible [g] ny. This alternation is carried out in many words, and one might think that it is due to the position before [n]. This would mean that it is also phonetic.
But this is not so: [g] before [n] is not necessarily replaced by [g]: [g] ohm - [gn] ag, mi [t] at - mi [g] to go, to step - sha [g] to go. phonetic
there is no positional conditionality here. But there is another positional conditionality: the alternation [r // f] knows no exceptions in the position before the adjective suffix -m-. The position here is morphological, the alternation is morphological positional. In addition to positional alternations, there are also those that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend - friends, ignorant - ignorant, death - pestilence - exterminate. Such alternations are associated only with specific words.
According to the rules of Russian spelling, phonetic alternations are usually not reflected in writing. We write the same root of the word leg - legs, although all three sounds in the first form and in the second are different. Non-phonetic alternations are usually written in different letters: foot - footboard. Phonetic alternation- this is the alternation of sounds related to the same phoneme. Non-phonetic alternation is the alternation of phonemes.
In real speech, sounds are pronounced differently, it depends on the individual characteristics of the speaker, his social and territorial affiliation, positional conditions for pronouncing the sound. Sound changes caused by any neighboring sounds are called combinatorial. The convergence of the articulation of two sounds is called accommodation , for example, in the Romance languages, as well as in the Proto-Slavic language, back-lingual consonants, being in front of the front vowel, turned either into hissing, or into middle-language affricates, or into fricatives: penetrate, penetrating, tremble - tremble and under. The similarity of sounds to each other is called assimilation , for example, squeeze [squeeze], lat. affere from ab-fere. In some cases, the reverse process is observed - dissimilation - dissimilarity of sounds with similar articulation: Rus. what [what]. Assimilation occurs in both vowels and consonants; dissimilation is much less common.
Alternations of sounds are quite regularly observed in the language, for example, in Russian all vowel sounds (except U) in an unstressed position are able to alternate with each other, voiced consonants alternate with deaf ones, hard with soft ones. However, despite this, people still identify sound complexes into words and morphemes. We give the following examples: in words table and on table the root vowel and the final consonant are pronounced differently, and different vowels are also pronounced in following words: five, minus five, five digit; but in words tooth - teeth, snow - snow the final consonant is pronounced differently. In order to understand sounding speech, it is necessary to identify significant units of the language by meaning and by sound. AT said words sounds alternate positionally, that is, they change, but their mutual exchange is natural and depends on phonetic position , that is, specific conditions of pronunciation.
Sounds that alternate positionally exist in the language as an identity, a series of positionally alternating sounds is called allophones
, and the language unit, represented by a number of allophones - phoneme
. The phoneme is opposed to sound as a unit of language to a unit of speech, it is thanks to phonemes that we distinguish and identify words and morphemes, the phoneme is a functional unit of the language, as it distinguishes words. The basic principle of identifying and analyzing phonemes is formulated as follows: if in a given language the differences between two given sounds make it possible to distinguish different words or different grammatical forms, these sounds refer to different phonemes. Yes, phoneme< a >in Russian it is represented by the following allophones [a, Λ, b, i, b], compare in the following words: shaft, on the shaft, gross, five, without five, five-ton[v'al, n'vΛ'lu, vlΛv'oy, p'at', b'sp'i't'i, p't'i'tonk], phoneme<д> - next next allophones [d, d ', t], for example: ice, icy, on ice[l'ot, l'd'i`noy, nΛ`l'du]. Phoneme
Therefore, all phonetic positions can be divided into those in which neutralization occurs ( weak positions ), and those in which neutralization does not occur ( strong positions ). So, for most vowels in Russian, the position under stress is strong, and the position without stress is weak; consonants also have their own positions: for voiced consonants, the position at the end of the word and before the voiceless consonant is weak, and the position before the vowel is strong.
A phoneme is always named after the variety that appears in a strong position. If a number of positionally alternating sounds is common to several phonemes, and there is no strong position in this case, then such a unit is called hyperphoneme . For example, for unstressed vowels in the word pencil there are no strong positions, the same should be said about the initial and final consonant in the word suddenly, compare the phonetic and phonemic transcription of these words: [karΛndash, vdruk],<к а/о р а/о н д а ш, в/ф д р у г/к>. (Phonetic transcription is in square brackets, and phonological transcription is in diamond-shaped brackets).
The positional change of consonants is observed in the following features:
1) change of consonants according to voicedness - deafness.
A voiced sound changes to a deaf one in the following cases:
a) at the absolute end of a word:
Friend - friend, oaks - oak
[g] // [k], [b] // [p]
b) before a deaf consonant:
all - everything, low - low
[in '] // [f], [z] // [s]
A voiceless consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one:
ask - request, from the window - from the mountain
[s’] // [s’] [s] // [s]
2) change of consonants according to hardness - softness.
Wed: Bridge - bridge, ride - ride, bow - bow.
[st] - [s’t’], [zd] - [z’d’], [nt] - [n’t’].
3) change of consonants [h], [s] to hissing before hissing sounds [g], [w].
Often this exchange is accompanied by a change of consonants in sonority - deafness.
For example: sew - [shit ']:[c] [w] + [w] = [w] long,
squeeze - [zhat ']:[s] [s] [g] + [g] = [g] long.
4) The consonant system of the Russian language is characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. The so-called unpronounceable consonants are observed in combinations: stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, stl, ntsk, vstv.
For example: [g'i / ha / nsk 'ij].
Thus, the consonants [d], [t], [l], [c] alternate with zero sound -.
SECTION "GRAPHICS"
The concept of graphics. Development of writing
Graphic arts- This is a branch of linguistics that considers the relationship of letters of the alphabet to the composition of phonemes. Also, this word is a set of letters or styles that are used in writing.
Russian literary language It exists in two forms: oral and written.
Writing emerged as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of descriptive characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It has come a long way in its development.
We use sound, or rather phonemic writing. In it, signs (letters) serve to convey phonemes in a strong position, as well as the sounds of Russian speech.
The list of all letters is arranged in a certain order, which is called alphabetically(from the name of the Greek letters "alpha" and "vita") or alphabet(from the name of the first letters Slavic alphabet"az" and "beeches").
Our writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, an alphabet created at the end of the 9th-10th centuries by Byzantine missionaries Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius. The Cyrillic alphabet was compiled for the translation of Greek church books into Old Church Slavonic (the Macedonian dialect of the Bulgarian language).
In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet appeared at the end of the tenth century in connection with the adoption of Christianity in 988. It was based on the Greek alphabet
Since 988, all aspects of the language have changed (vocabulary, phonetics, grammar). Along with the language, Russian writing developed and improved.
Until the 16th century, our writing was continuous - there were no spaces between words. At the end of the words were put "b" and "b".
In the development of graphics and orthography, the reforms of Peter I played an important role, on the initiative and with the participation of which the Civil Alphabet was created in Russia (1708-1710). The ecclesiastical font was replaced by a civil one: the letters of the civil alphabet, unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, were simpler in geometric outlines and closer to those of the Latin alphabet. Some letters have disappeared from the alphabet.
For more than 1000 years, only three letters have appeared in the Russian alphabet: the letter "yo" introduced by N. Karamzin in 1797, letter "e" legitimized by Peter I, but was used in Russian writing earlier, the letter "th" introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735
FROM small changes this alphabet is still in use today.
To late XIX century, a draft graphic and spelling reform was prepared, but it was approved on December 10, 1918 by a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars. The graphics were simplified, the letters were eliminated from it: “yat”, “and decimal”, “fita” and others.
For the period from 1918 to the present, no changes have been made in the composition of the Russian alphabet.
Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letter and phoneme
The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. Arrangement of letters in alphabetical order conditionally, but knowledge of it is necessary in order to freely use dictionaries, alphabetical lists and indexes.
Each letter has its own name, equal to one sound or two: a - [a], b - [be] etc.
Ten letters are vowels, of which letters a, o, uh, i, u, s- simple (unambiguous), letters e, yo, yu, i- iotated (two-digit). Twenty-one letters are consonants. Letters b and b sounds are not indicated. The lettering has 2 varieties - printed and written. Each distinguishes between lowercase (small) letters and uppercase (capital) letters, with the exception of b, b, s.
Letter- an element of the alphabet, which is the inscription of a certain configuration, this is a drawing that cannot be pronounced.
In addition to letters, graphics also use non-letter graphics: accent mark, hyphen (dash), punctuation marks (the rules for their use apply to punctuation), apostrophe, paragraph mark, spaces between words, parts of text, as well as font emphasis (italic, bold font, discharge, etc.), underlining, highlighting.
Phoneme - this is an insignificant unit of language, which in speech is realized by a number of positionally alternating sounds. The main function of the phoneme is distinctive. In writing, we designate a phoneme in a strong position. As a result, it turns out that each morpheme ( significant part words), since it contains the same phonemes, it is always written the same way.
Water - water - water fungus - mushrooms
[in / dy] - [in a / yes] - [vb / d ’and e / noj] [r ’and p] - [g r’ and / b s]
<о>: [about] - [ a ] - [b]<б>: [P] - [ b ]
Sound alternation
Why do words alternate sounds? This happens during the formation of grammatical forms of the word. That is, sounds in the same morpheme, for example, in a root, can replace each other. This substitution is called alternation. We note right away that we are talking about phonetic processes, and not about spelling words.
In certain cases, not only vowels alternate, but also consonants. Most often, alternation is found in roots, suffixes and prefixes.
Moss - moss, carry - carry, cool - cooler, friend - friends - make friends - at the root of the word;
circle - mug, daughter - daughters, winter - winter, valuable - valuable - in suffixes;
wait - wait, call - convene, rub - votru - in prefixes.
There are two types of alternations: historical (they cannot be explained, they arose a long time ago and are associated with the loss of vowels [b], [b] (sn - sleep, flatter - flatter) or with an inexplicable identity of consonant sounds (run - run) and phonetic ( positional in a different way, since they depend on the position of the sound in the word [nΛga - nok], they can be explained from the point of view of the modern Russian language, for example, the alternation [g / / k] arose because the consonant sound is preserved before the vowel, and in at the end of the word, the sound is deafened, changing its sound quality).
Historical alternations
Phonetic (positional) alternations
|
Vowel sounds | |
|
[o//and e //b] [a// and e //b] [e// and e //b] |
in [about] bottom - in [Λ ]yes - in [b] diana tr [a] wka - tr [Λ] wa-tr [b]weedy n [about] s - n [and uh ] set - n [b] Suna P [a] t - p [and uh ] type of [b]tenth With [e] m - with [and uh ] mi - with [b] tenth |
|
vowel sounds | |
|
voiced - deaf hard - soft |
but [and] and - but [w] mo[ l]- mo [l']b |
Historical alternations are revealed during word formation and form change.
Phonetic (positional) can be determined by the reduction of vowels and the assimilation of consonants.
Many fluent vowels when changing monosyllabic and two-syllable nouns according to cases [o, uh, and / / -]:
mouth - mouth, ice - ice, stump - stump;
fire - fire, knot - knot, wind - wind, lesson - lesson, nail - nail, beehive - beehive;
bucket - buckets, window - windows, needle - needles, egg - eggs.
There are fluent vowels in short adjectives:
short - short, bitter - bitter, funny - funny, long - long, cunning - cunning.
In the roots of multispecific verbs, alternations of vowels and consonants also occur:
touch - touch, inspect - inspect, collect - collect, send - send, ignite - ignite, understand - understand, compress - compress.
It is important to know the alternation of sounds in order to correctly apply spelling rules when it is difficult to write letters in different parts speech. If you do not recognize the alternation, you can make a mistake and when morphemic analysis when highlighting parts of a word.
Sound alternation- this is a natural difference in sounds in variants of this and the same morpheme.
Stressed vowel alternation. Soft consonants cause the articulation of the vowel to shift forward and upward. In transcription, this shift of the initial and final phase of the vowel is indicated by dots above the letter: /h¢ as/, /ma ¢t/.
Between soft consonants, there is a forward and upward shift in the central part of the vowel: /h ast/ and /h as/, /mel/ and /m el/ - the vowel - E of the front row moves (forward) up. /pike/ and /pike/.
We see that the alternation of stressed vowels after soft and before soft consonants occurs with their significatively strong position, but different perceptually.
Solid consonants before and after /А,О,Э,У/ do not affect the vowel in any way: /jaguar, gift, yes/ - the same sound is everywhere /A/ - the environment does not affect the sound - this is a perceptually strong position for /А,О,Э,У/ and weak for /I/; position after soft.
In a weak position, sounds, adjacent to the consonant, adapt the vowel to their articulation. This can be heard by ear. In the word mass is pronounced /A/, the position here is strong. In the word meat, it is pronounced /A/ - the sound is extraordinary throughout its sound - it is more advanced. In the word /Ira/ it is pronounced /I/ - this is the main variant of the phoneme /I/, the quality of the sound is not determined by the position. In the word /cheese/ - it is pronounced /Y/, and then it is pronounced /I/: /sy-i-i-ra/.
Thus, in a perceptually weak position, /A/ is the result of the adaptation of /A/ to the preceding soft consonant, and in the same way /Y/ is the result of the adaptation of /I/ to the preceding hard.
Alternation of unstressed vowels. Unstressed vowels differ quantitatively and qualitatively from stressed vowels: they are shorter than stressed ones and are pronounced with less force and different timbre. In connection with this distinction, stressed vowels are called full vowels, unstressed - reduced vowels.
There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable.
Potebnya proposed a formula conditionally estimating the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units of 3,2,1. Stroke 3, 1st pre-strike - 2, others - 1. / b ispLradak / - a mess, / per and pdgLtofk /.
The strength of an unstressed vowel depends on the following conditions: 1. an uncovered syllable is equal to the 1st pre-stressed one: attack /LtkLvat/, stork/stork/.
The strength of the stressed final open syllable fluctuates between 1 and 2 units: hat / hatL / \ reduced vowels of the 1st degree (in 2 units striking force) and a vowel of the 2nd degree, (in 1 unit) - b and L.
The qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The body of the tongue occupies a position close to neutral. Unstressed /И/ /Ы/ - high vowels: the tongue does not reach the upper position: /vitrine/, /cheese/.
When pronouncing the vowel A in the 1st prestressed syllable, the tongue does not reach the lowest position, its more accurate image is L: /trLva/, in the 2nd prestressed syllable, the sound A corresponds to /b/ - the tongue occupies the middle position: /npLdat/ .
Alternation of consonants.
1. Alternation of voiced and deaf consonants.
A) At the end of the word, voiced noisy ones are replaced by deaf ones: /oaks/, /dup/, bu/d/eat - bu/t/.
B) Before deaf consonants, voiced ones will be replaced by deaf ones: ska / s / ka - / ska / sk / a, lo / w / echka - lo / sh / ka.
C) Before voiced consonants, voiceless ones are replaced by voiced ones: / pro / s / it / - / pro / sb / a /, young / t / it - young / d / ba, ta / k / oh - ta / gzh / e.
2. Alternation of consonants in the place and method of formation.
A) Before the anterior palatine (w, w, h) noisy dental noisy ones are replaced by the corresponding anterior palatal ones: without a wife / fugitive /, from miracles o / h / miracles.
B) Explosive consonants before fricatives are replaced by affricates /T/- /Ts/: pour - /sprinkle/, five- /pyatsya/, pinch off - o / h pinch, kindergarten - de / c / garden.
3. Alternation of hard and soft consonants.
The hard consonant is replaced by a soft one in the following positions:
A) Dental before soft teeth;
mo/st/ - mo/st/ik
bridle - at / zd / echka
The sounds /L/, /L/ do not participate in the action of this pattern: /L/ is not replaced by /L/ - by /l/ny - by /ln/et; before /l/ the replacement of a hard tooth with a soft one is optional;; /zl/it and /zl/it.
B) Before /H/ and /Sh/, the sound /N/ is replaced by /N/: vago/n/- vago/nch/ik, deceit - deception/nch/iy.
4. Alternation of consonants with zero sound.
A combination of three or more consonants may be subject to simplification:
/stn/: honor - che/sn/y - honest;
/sts/: six -she / ss / from - six hundred;
/stsk/: tourist - turi / sk / y - tourist;
/stts/, /zdts/: bridle - under the bridles - under the /sts /s;
/rdts/ and /rdch/: heart - se/rts/e, se/rch/isco.
POSITIONAL AND HISTORICAL ALTERNATIONS
Positional changes in sounds lead to the concept of alternation of sounds (phonemes). The alternation of sounds is a natural difference in sounds in variants of the same morpheme. For example: timid - timid there is an alternation in the root of the sounds [b] and [n].
The alternation of sounds may concern several variants of only one morpheme, but most often it has a broader character and covers several or many morphemes and their variants: bargain-trade-trade; city - cities - non-resident. In these examples, there is an alternation of sounds [o] - [L] - [b].
These alternations are called positional, as they are explained by positional changes in sounds (phonemes) in accordance with the current phonetic laws (the law of qualitative reduction, the law of stunning voiced consonants before deaf ones, etc.)
Positional alternations are the alternation [p`] / [p]: turner - turner, door - door - in connection with the law of assimilation of soft consonants by hardness), and the alternation of [w] and [s]: sew - twist (in connection with the law of assimilation of the dental before the anterior), etc.
But not all alternations of sounds within morphemes (in their modern versions) are explained by the current phonetic laws of the Russian language. Many alternations have remained from the former state of the Russian language - from the Old Russian, Common Slavic languages - as a result of phonetic laws that have long disappeared. So, for example, once in the Russian language there was a law of transition of sound combinations [kt] and [th] into [h], which gave the words night from noct, be able from might, oven from pect. Now such combinations are not replaced by [h] (cf .: practice, elbows, nails), That means the law is no longer in effect. As a result, alternations [k] - [h] and [g] - [h] remained from him (cf .: flowed out - flow out, saved - save.
The phonetic law of the past may cease to act as a phonetic factor, but its consequence may be not only the alternations of sounds in morphemes that have survived from the time of its action, but also the alternations of sounds in new morphemes that appeared after the loss of the law, by analogy with the existing sound correspondences in old morphemes. So, once the sound [k] before front vowels turned into [h]: pen - rune, century - eternal; by analogy with this, but not according to the law of the first palatalization, similar correspondences developed much later in the morphs of new morphemes ( barrack - barracks, bed - bed, block - block). Also, due to the fall of reduced vowels, an alternation of [o] by zero sound appeared in the word forms of sleep-sna, sleep; [e] - zero sound in the word forms day - day, day; later, by analogy with these, but not due to the loss of reduced sounds, appeared ice - ice, ice; ditch - ditch, ditch.
Alternations of sounds left over from the time of phonetic laws that were in force, but already lost, as well as the same alternations that spread to new morphemes later by analogy, are called historical.
The main historical alternations in modern Russian are as follows:
1. In the area of vowels:
[o] - zero sound: shore - shore, sleep - sleep, funny - funny, strong - strong;[e] or [b] - zero sound: day - day, all - all, terrible - terrible, sick - sick; [and] // [o] - lead - leads, command - will, divide - share;
[s] // zero sound: break through - break through, call - call, plug - shut up;
[s] // [y]: dry up - dry up, breath - du;
[s] // [o] or [ L]: breath - sigh - breathe in; jerk-sya - shudder; to blaze - to burn;
[o] // [a]: wear - wear out, poll - interrogate, mowing - mow;
2. In the area of consonants:
[k] // [h]: hand - pen, old man - old man, river - river;
[g] //[g]: a book - a book, a leg - a knife, an enemy - an enemy, a horn - a horn;
[x] // [w]: fly fly, dry - to dry, fear - terrible;
[c] // \h]: bird - bird, face - personal, egg - testicle, hare hare;
[e] // [g], [wa]: childbirth - give birth, give birth; fit - fit, pleasing; seeing off - to see off, driving.
[sk] // [sh`]: shine - shine, crack - crack, gloss - burnish;
[b`]`//[bl`]: to love - I love, to hammer - hollowing, to insult - an insult.
[v`] // [vl`]: catch - catch, catch; become - becoming, declare - statement;
[p`] or [p] // [pl`]: scream - scream, drip - drops, drown - heating;
[t] // [s]: weave - weave, bloom - flowers;
[d] // [s]: lead - lead, fall - fall.
[st] - [w`]: grow - growing, clean - cleaner.
A sound from a pair of historical alternations can enter another pair in a positional alternation. So, in case childbirth - give birth sounds alternate [d] - [g]; the first of these has positional alternation with [d ` ] childbirth - give birth and with [t] genus - genus. In such cases, all alternating sounds in several variants of one morpheme form a whole alternating (alternative) group (for the given variants of the morpheme, gender is [d] - [d ` ] - [t] - [g] - [zh].)
In addition to the alternations of sounds left over from the history of the Russian language and having a more or less regular, sometimes quite frequent character, there are single or less typical cases of alternation of sounds in morpheme variants, cf .: bloated - puffy(alternation in the suffix [t] - [tl]) , cat Kitty ( alternation at the root [t] - [w].
Alternations are usually considered to be the changes of sounds in this morpheme, which developed in the bowels of a given language and are explained by its internal, primordial reasons. The list of original alternations of the Russian language, given above, can be supplemented with alternations borrowed along with foreign words, which include the corresponding alternating sounds:
[k] - [c]: electrification - electrify, application - apply;
[h ` ] - [st ` ]: fantasy - fantastic;
[s`] - [t] - [t`]: skepticism is skeptical, chaos is chaotic;
[e] - [and]: cousin - cousin;
[ts] - [s]: clown - clown.
Hyphenation
How to divide a word into syllables? There are usually as many syllables in a word as there are vowels: wolf (1 syllable), river (2 syllables), rise (3 syllables), advanced (4 syllables), intonation (5 syllables), corresponding (6 syllables). How long word, the more syllables.
A syllable can consist of one vowel sound (the pronoun "I", the union "a"). But most often a syllable consists of a combination of a vowel and one or more consonants (the conjunction “but”, the pronoun “you”, the preposition “under”). Vowels are the most sonorous and are syllable-forming.
Syllables end in a vowel sound (MA-MA) and are called open. And if at the end there is a consonant sound (mOY, fodder), then the syllable is considered closed. Also, syllables can be covered, that is, they begin with a consonant sound (Fa-Bri-Ka) and uncovered (Yav) - they begin with a vowel.
Syllables open at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: craft [r "b | m" and e | slo '], good [bla' | g], pipe [pipe | ba '].
Syllables closed at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: personal [l "i'h" | nyj "], quarter [kvΛr | ta'l], tip [ko'n" | h "ik].
Open and undisguised syllables: ау [Λ|у'].
Closed and uncovered syllables: already [ush], lawsuit [lawsuit].
When we pronounce words, we do not pause between syllables (remember reading by syllables!). But sometimes hyphenation helps us in life. For example, we are chanting a slogan in the stadium. To make it sound clear and legible, we repeat the words syllable by syllable (“We-re-bya-ta-mo-lo-dtsy!”). Either in the forest, or in the mountains, or at the other end of the street, or on the other side of the river, we need to shout something, we will use the syllable division - and they will immediately hear and understand us (“A-u-i-here-and-do-do -my!").
There is a law of ascending sonority that all syllables obey. This means that the sounds in the word are arranged in order: from less sonorous to more sonorous. All sounds can be divided into groups according to sonority. The most sonorous (conditionally 3) are vowels, followed by sonorants (conditionally 2) and the last are noisy consonants (conditionally 1).
When we divide words into syllables, we rely on 5 rules.
First. We divide into syllables only in transcription.
Examples: hero [b|gΛ|ty'r "], headman [hundred'|rj|st].
Second. In most words, the syllable section passes after the vowel, leaving the syllable mostly open.
Examples: an orphan [s "and | pΛ | ta '], a locomotive [p | pΛ | vo's].
Third. But a syllable section can be both after a sonorant sound and after if they are next to a noisy consonant.
Examples: brand [ma’r|kj], stick [pa’l|kj], kayak [bΛj "|da’r|kj].
Fourth. Noisy consonants belong to another syllable if combined with noisy or sonorous sounds.
Examples: mask [ma'|skj], fiber [v|lΛ|kno'].
Fifth. Two sonorous consonants also belong to another syllable.
Examples: rake [gra'|bl "and], barracks [kΛ|za'|rm].
We reason like this. There are three vowel sounds in the word “get up”, which means three syllables: [fstΛ|j"o'|t"b]. The word "for example" also has three vowel sounds, so there are three syllables: [n | pr "and e | m" e'r]
Check yourself! Write a sentence using phonetic transcription, divide the words into syllables. Note that there are no pauses!
Travelers traveled without incident...
And here is the correct answer!
[Pu | t "and e | she' | stv" b | n "b | k" b | j "e ' | xb | l "and | b "and e s | fs" a ' | to "their | pr" and | cl "u | h" e ' | n "and j"].
Syllable division in Russian
Syllable division can be considered in three phonetic positions.
1. The simplest and most indisputable case of syllable division is the division of a word into open syllables of the type dog, cuttlefish, pro-da-yu. Here the rule that knows no exceptions applies: a single intervocalic (i.e. standing between vowels) consonant enters one syllable followed by a vowel.
2. An intervocalic combination of two GSSG consonants can theoretically either go entirely to the next vowel (Г-ССГ) or be distributed between two syllables (ГС-СГ). (There is no GSS-G syllable division in Russian.) The first option seems natural. Of great evidentiary value in the question of syllable division are data on the nature of the transition from a vowel to a subsequent consonant. The idea that the nature of the transition from one sound to another can serve as a criterion for establishing a syllabic boundary was first expressed by the Swedish linguist B. Malmberg in 1955. If the first component of the intervocalic combination was included in one syllable with the preceding vowel (GS-SG) , it would be characterized by a close connection with this vowel. However, according to spectral analysis, transitions from vowel to consonant (in our examples from stressed /a, e/ to /n, P/) in word forms like wound, turnip, where syllable division is beyond doubt, and in word forms like ra-nka, re-pka, where it could be assumed that closed syllables ran-, rap-, have no significant differences. Thus, there is every reason to believe that consonants /n, P/ do not adjoin stressed vowels and therefore do not enter the same syllable with them. If we extend this provision to all structures of the GSSG type, then we can say that the intervocalic combination goes to the next vowel. This is also true for three-phonemic consonant combinations of the G-SSSG type. Thus, the structure of the preceding open syllable is not violated by intervocalic combinations.
Let us illustrate syllable division in Russian with specific examples.
|
barrel |
a-lfa |
|
ton |
|
noodles |
gang |
slippery |
gamma |
|
bru-ski |
dirk |
nautical |
villa |
|
a drop |
cardboard |
oh-tu-yes |
Ma-rra(R. p. from Marr) |
|
rags |
skates |
subject | |
|
ski-zhnya |
pa-lto |
weight |
The only exception to this rule is the combination /j/+ consonant: /j/ always falls back to the preceding vowel ( gull, war, howl-howl). Phoneme /j/ in this phonetic position appears in its allophone, usually called "and non-syllabic", which definitely indicates its proximity to the vowel /and/.
3. When a consonant or combination of consonants is at the end of a word ( cat, dispute, nose, coal, tail, repair), conditions are created for the formation of closed syllables.
Two positions of the final consonant should be distinguished: either at the end of a word in the flow of speech, or at the end of a word before a pause. In the first case, the final consonant or combination of consonants is adjacent not to the previous vowel, but to the next one, which is part of another word ( ku-pi-l a-na-us - "bought a pineapple", ku-pi-l ma-shi-nu, ku-pi-l sko-in-ro-du), even if there is already one or more consonants before that vowel. In the second case, there is no vowel after the final consonant. However, since the flow of speech in terms of articulation is a sequence of closing-opening movements (closing corresponds to a consonant, and opening corresponds to a vowel), it is quite possible to assume that after a consonant, before a pause, an opening movement will occur, generating some very short vowel element. The resulting phonetic effect is determined by the nature of a particular consonant. Yes, final /R/ becomes multi-stressed and in duration approaches an unstressed syllable. vowel sound after /R/ is found easily. Final deaf explosives are characterized by aspiration and a longer explosion, in the spectrum of which separate areas of energy concentration, a kind of formants, are distinguished, which indicates the presence of a vocal element, only pronounced without participation vocal cords, i.e. deaf. "Word cat, pronounced at the absolute end of the phrase, before the pause receives the following syllabic organization: ko-t"[Bondarko, 1998, p. 212]. In this regard, it is interesting to note that Professor A. I. Thomson, a linguist with a remarkably fine phonetic ear, in 1922 argued that the final hard consonants in Russian have s-shaped coloring, and final soft - and-shaped. In this coloring, Thomson saw a reflection of the reduced vowels [ b] and [ b], which existed in the Old Russian language. To a large extent, the final sonants lose their consonant nature.
As a result, we can say that the structure of an open syllable characteristic of the Russian language also appears in the case of a final consonant before a pause. The opening movement following the closing produces a very short vowel element that cannot be phonemically attributed. This is a purely phonetic syllable, in contrast to the usual "phonemic" syllables, in which the phonemic nature of the components can be established without difficulty.