European system of international relations: basic components and sources of dynamics. The World History

New system international relations began at the end of the twentieth century as a result of the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the bipolar system of international relations. However, during this period, more fundamental and qualitative systemic transformations took place: together with the Soviet Union, not only the confrontational system of international relations of the Cold War period and the Yalta-Potsdam world order ceased to exist, but the much older system of the Westphalian peace and its principles were undermined.

However, throughout the last decade of the 20th century, there were active discussions in world science about what the new configuration of the world would be in the spirit of Westphalia. The dispute flared up between the two main concepts of the world order: the concepts of unipolarity and multipolarity.

Naturally, in light of the just-ended Cold War, the first thing to come to mind was a unipolar world order backed by the only remaining superpower, the United States of America. Meanwhile, in reality, everything turned out to be not so simple. In particular, as some researchers and politicians point out (for example, E.M. Primakov, R. Haas, etc.), with the end of the bipolar world, the very phenomenon of superpowerism disappeared from the world economic and geopolitical proscenium in its traditional sense: “During the “cold war," as long as there were two systems, there were two superpowers - the Soviet Union and the United States. Today there are no superpowers at all: the Soviet Union has ceased to exist, but the United States, although it has exceptional political influence and is the most powerful in the military and economic terms state of the world, have lost such a status” [Primakov E.M. A world without superpowers [ Electronic resource] // Russia in global politics. October 2003 - URL: http://www.globalaffairs.ru/articles/2242.html]. As a result, the role of the United States was not only, but one of several pillars of the new world order.

The American idea was challenged. The main opponents of the US monopoly in the world have become United Europe, China, Russia, India and Brazil, which is gaining more and more strength. For example, China, followed by Russia, adopted the concept of a multipolar world in the 21st century as an official foreign policy doctrine. A kind of struggle has unfolded against the threat of the domination of unipolarity, for maintaining a multipolar balance of power as the main condition for stability in the world. In addition, it is also obvious that over the years since the liquidation of the USSR, the United States has actually failed, despite its desire for world leadership, to assert itself in this role. Moreover, they had to experience the bitterness of failure, they "got stuck" where, it would seem, there were no problems (especially in the absence of a second superpower): in Somalia, Cuba, the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq. Thus, the United States at the turn of the century failed to stabilize the situation in the world.

While there were disputes in scientific circles about the structure of the new system of international relations, a number of events that took place at the turn of the century, in fact, themselves dotted all the i's.

Several stages can be distinguished:

1. 1991 - 2000 - this stage can be defined as a period of crisis of the entire international system and a period of crisis in Russia. At that time, the idea of ​​unipolarity led by the United States categorically dominated world politics, and Russia was perceived as a “former superpower”, as a “losing side” in the Cold War, some researchers even write about possible collapse RF in the near future (for example, Z. Brzezinski). As a result, during this period there was a certain dictatorship in relation to the actions of the Russian Federation by the world community.

This was largely due to the fact that foreign policy The Russian Federation in the early 1990s had a clear “pro-American vector”. Other tendencies in foreign policy emerged approximately after 1996, thanks to the replacement of the Westernizer A. Kozyrev as Minister of Foreign Affairs by the statesman E. Primakov. The difference in the positions of these figures led not only to a change in the vector Russian politics- it is becoming more independent, but many analysts are talking about transforming the model of Russian foreign policy. Changes introduced by E.M. Primakov, may well be called the consistent "Primakov Doctrine". “Its essence: to interact with the main world actors, without rigidly adhering to anyone.” According to the Russian researcher Pushkov A., “this is the “third way”, which allows avoiding the extremes of the “Kozyrev doctrine” (“the position of America’s junior partner and for everything or almost everything”) and the nationalist doctrine (“to distance oneself from Europe, the United States and Western institutions - NATO, the IMF, the World Bank"), to try to become an independent center of gravity for all those who have not developed relations with the West, from the Bosnian Serbs to the Iranians.

After E. Primakov's resignation from the post of prime minister in 1999, the geostrategy he had determined was basically continued - in fact, there was no other alternative to it and it corresponded to Russia's geopolitical ambitions. Thus, Russia has finally succeeded in formulating its own geostrategy, which is conceptually quite justified and quite practical. It is quite natural that the West did not accept it, since it was ambitious: Russia still intends to play the role of a world power and is not going to agree to the downgrading of its global status.

2. 2000-2008 - the beginning of the second stage was undoubtedly marked to a greater extent by the events of September 11, 2001, as a result of which the idea of ​​unipolarity is actually collapsing in the world. In political and scientific circles, the United States is gradually beginning to talk about moving away from hegemonic politics and the need to establish US global leadership, supported by the closest associates from the developed world.

Besides, in early XXI century there is a change political leaders in almost all leading countries. Comes to power in Russia new president V. Putin and the situation begins to change. In Putin finally approves the idea of ​​a multipolar world as a base in Russia's foreign policy strategy. In such a multipolar structure, Russia claims to be one of the main players, along with China, France, Germany, Brazil and India. However, the US does not want to give up its leadership. As a result, a real geopolitical war is played out, and the main battles are played out in the post-Soviet space (for example, “color revolutions”, gas conflicts, the problem of NATO expansion at the expense of a number of countries in the post-Soviet space, etc.).

The second stage is defined by some researchers as “post-American”: “We are living in the post-American period of world history. This is actually a multipolar world based on 8-10 pillars. They are not equally strong, but have enough autonomy. These are the USA, Western Europe, China, Russia, Japan, but also Iran and South America, where Brazil has a leading role. South Africa on the African continent and other pillars are centers of power.” However, this is not a “world after the US”, much less without the US. This is a world where, due to the rise of other global "centers of power" and the strengthening of their influence, relative value role of America, which has been observed in the global economy and trade over the past decades. A real “global political awakening” is taking place, as Z. Brzezinski writes in his latest book. This "global awakening" is determined by such multidirectional forces as economic success, national dignity, raising the level of education, information "armament", the historical memory of peoples. Hence, in particular, there is a rejection of the American version of world history.

3. 2008 - present - the third stage, first of all, was marked by the coming to power in Russia of a new president - D.A. Medvedev, and then the election of V.V. Putin to the former presidential post. In general, the foreign policy of the early 21st century was continued.

In addition, the events in Georgia in August 2008 played a key role at this stage: firstly, the war in Georgia was evidence that the “transitional” period of the transformation of the international system was over; secondly, there was a final alignment of forces at the interstate level: it became obvious that the new system has completely different foundations and Russia can play a key role here by developing some global concept based on the idea of ​​multipolarity.

“After 2008, Russia moved to a position of consistent criticism of the global activities of the United States, defending the prerogatives of the UN, the inviolability of sovereignty and the need to strengthen regulatory framework in the field of security. The United States, on the contrary, shows disdain for the UN, contributing to the "interception" of a number of its functions by other organizations - NATO in the first place. American politicians put forward the idea of ​​creating new international organizations according to the political and ideological principle - on the basis of the conformity of their future members with democratic ideals. American diplomacy stimulates anti-Russian tendencies in the policy of the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and tries to create regional associations in the CIS without Russia's participation,” writes Russian researcher T. Shakleina.

Russia, together with the United States, is trying to form some kind of adequate model of Russian-American interaction "in the context of a weakening of the overall controllability (governance) of the world system." The model that existed before was adapted to take into account the interests of the United States, since Russia had been busy rebuilding its own forces for a long time and was largely dependent on relations with the United States.

Today, many people accuse Russia of being ambitious and intending to compete with the United States. The American researcher A. Cohen writes: “... Russia has noticeably tightened its international policy and, in achieving its goals, is increasingly relying on force rather than on international law... Moscow has stepped up its anti-American policy and rhetoric and is ready to challenge US interests wherever and whenever possible, including the Far North.

Such statements form the current context of statements about Russia's participation in world politics. The desire of the Russian leadership to limit the dictates of the United States in all international affairs is obvious, but thanks to this, there is an increase in the competitiveness of the international environment. Nevertheless, "reducing the intensity of contradictions is possible if all countries, and not just Russia, realize the importance of mutually beneficial cooperation and mutual concessions." It is necessary to work out a new global paradigm for the further development of the world community, based on the idea of ​​multi-vector and polycentricity.

1. What is the essence of absolutism?

Under absolutism, all power (legislative, executive and judicial) is in the hands of the monarch. However, it differs from Eastern despotism. First, the absolute monarch most often was not at the same time the head of the church. Secondly, despite his absolute power, the monarch had to take into account certain rights estates (for example, the nobility), as well as other restrictions formally confirmed by documents on behalf of the monarch himself (for example, in France, special ordinances of the king confirmed many norms of local law).

2. What are the reasons for the transition of European countries to absolutism? What are the prerequisites for strengthening the central government in the countries of Western Europe?

Reasons and prerequisites:

In the context of religious wars, the church could no longer be a factor of stability, only the central government could become such, especially since it was often required to unite adherents of different faiths;

The increased effectiveness of regular armies weakened the influence of the feudal militia, and hence the local nobility;

Many strata of society that had already gained influence were interested in strengthening the central government (the petty nobility, including the younger branches of noble families, merchants and other financial elites);

The growth of colonial trade and the policy of mercantilism provided the monarchs with significant financial support;

The influx of precious metals and other valuables from the New World also financed the activities of certain monarchs.

3. What are the features of absolutism in England and France. Why did resistance take him religious forms?

Peculiarities:

All real power was concentrated in the hands of authorities completely controlled by the king (in England - the Privy Council and the Star Chamber, in France - the Great Royal Council);

The main opposition to absolutism was the big feudal nobility;

The bodies of class representation continued to sit, but no longer played their former role;

The kings did not want to resort to the help of the estate authorities, therefore they sought alternative means replenishment of the treasury, widely relied on financial circles and generally pursued a policy of mercantilism;

During the formation of absolutism, there were persecutions of royal power against large feudal nobility, many of whose representatives were subjected to executions, exile, and other punishments with confiscation of property.

Resistance to absolutism took on religious forms because the religious doctrine of the Middle Ages already contained an ideological justification for the struggle against power. Even according to the teachings of F. Aquinas, a monarch who did not righteously ruled was deprived of the right to the throne. The Protestants included the same provision in their doctrine from their first speech against Charles V, using in fact a ready-made Catholic model.

4. Tell us about the essence of the Edict of Nantes. Did he ensure real equality between Catholics and Huguenots? What consequences did he have?

The Edict of Nantes in 1598 equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in France. He even left the latter a certain autonomy, including control over certain fortresses. However, under the conditions of absolutism, the policy of the monarch plays the main role. The actions of subsequent rulers were aimed at the actual revision of the provisions of the edict until its complete abolition in 1685.

5. List the contradictions of European politics at the beginning of the 17th century. Which of them mattered the most?

Contradictions:

The struggle against the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe;

Confessional conflict in Europe.

Of greatest importance was the religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. As a third force, Orthodox Russia participated in this contradiction, but its actions were limited to the neighboring Commonwealth and Sweden. To this moment European countries abandoned the idea of ​​a broad coalition against the threat of the Ottoman Empire with the involvement of Russia as an ally (this idea was periodically returned to later), therefore this knot of conflicts remained on the periphery.

The main conflict remained between Catholics and Protestants, because it included many contradictions as far back as the 16th century, and also continued to divide not only states, but also the subjects of one monarch (for example, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation), served as a reason for the disobedience of subjects to the monarch.

6. What are the main stages of the Thirty Years' War. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?

Czech-Palatinate period (1618-1624);

Danish period (1625-1629);

Swedish period (1630-1635);

Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648).

The second part of the question is the same as the next question.

7. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?

Confessional affiliation has almost ceased to be a factor in European politics;

Economics began to play a greater role than before in European politics along with dynastic interests;

The principle of the sovereignty of the state was finally established, also in the religious question;

There was a new system of international relations - Westphalian;

The Habsburgs retained most of their lands, but their position in Europe weakened;

France received whole line lands along the Rhine;

Sweden received land on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea;

Protestantism in the Czech Republic was completely destroyed, but Germany continued to be divided along confessional lines;

The lands of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, where most of the fighting took place, were completely devastated by the war, and the empire ceased to play an important role in the economy, politics, etc. for a long time.

8. What were the features of the Westphalian system of international relations? Are its principles still relevant today?

The Westphalian peace system was aimed at ending decades of conflict. Many of its mechanisms were aimed at minimizing confessional conflicts. Today, in a secular society, they are not relevant. But some of the principles enshrined then are still in effect, for example, the sovereignty of the government of an independent state.

In October 1813, the forces of the new anti-French coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain and Portugal) defeated the French army in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig. In March 1814, coalition troops entered Paris.

Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed king, was placed on the French throne. Napoleon retained the title of emperor, but was forced to sign an act of renunciation and go into exile on the island of Elba (see lesson). To discuss and create new post-war device The Congress of Vienna was convened in Europe.

Events

May 1814. - Russia, England, Spain, Prussia, Portugal signed a peace treaty with France. Under this treaty, France was deprived of all the territories conquered during the years of revolutionary wars.

September 1814 - June 1815. - Congress of Vienna. The first diplomatic congress in world history met in Vienna. Almost all European states took part in it. Biggest Influence The congress was attended by representatives of five powers: Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and France.

Congress tasks:

1) return the pre-revolutionary borders of France, restore the Bourbon dynasty in France;

2) to carry out the territorial reorganization of Europe and the colonies;

3) take measures to prevent new revolutions and conflicts in Europe.

Results of the Congress of Vienna:

• Russia ceded most of the Duchy of Warsaw.
• Prussia received the Rhineland, Westphalia, and western Polish lands.
• Austria received Lombardy and Venice.
• Great Britain received the island of Malta, the island of Ceylon, the Cape in southern Africa.
• The German Union was created from 39 states (it included, among others, Austria and Prussia).
• The secular power of the pope over the Roman region was restored.
• At the congress, a whole system of alliances and agreements was adopted, which were designed to restrain the aggression of individual states. Thus, a legal (legitimate) order based on a system of universally recognized international treaties has developed.

1815. - The Holy Alliance was concluded between Russia, Austria and Prussia. Later, this treaty was signed by almost all the rulers of European states.

The treaty was intended to guarantee respect for the European borders adopted at the Congress of Vienna. The Union was aimed at preventing wars and revolutions in Europe, as well as protecting monarchical and religious values.

Members

Clemens Metternich - Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria, Chancellor from 1821 to 1848. He was chairman of the Congress of Vienna.

Alexander I- Russian emperor.

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord - French political and statesman. He headed the French delegation at the Congress of Vienna.

Louis XVIII- French king of the Bourbon dynasty.

Alphonse de Lamartine- French political figure, poet, historian.

Conclusion

The Congress laid the foundations for the Vienna System of International Relations. One of its features is the desire for a peaceful settlement international problems. The Vienna system began to collapse in the middle of the 19th century.

Among the reasons for the collapse of the Vienna system:

• Rise of national movements. The desire to revise the borders in accordance with the rights and interests of nations. The emergence of supporters of an independent foreign policy that would defend national interests.
• The aggravation of the Eastern Question and the beginning of the Crimean War (see lesson). Three great powers (Russia, France, Great Britain), whose cooperation within the framework of the Vienna system ensured peace, began to fight against each other.
• Revolutions in Europe 1848-1849 In the manifesto of A. de Lamartine, the treaties of 1815 were declared null and void.

From September 1, 1814 to June 9, 1815, a congress was held in Vienna
press with the participation of 216 delegates from all European countries. Here
gathered the flower of European aristocracy and diplomacy. On the
against the background of magnificent receptions, balls and festivities, there was a tense
work on documents designed to change the political
which map of the continent in accordance with the results of the war and you
work the new principles of international relations. key
important role during the Congress of Vienna was played by representatives
Russia, led by Alexander I, the British delegation under
the leadership of Keslrie, and then Wellington, an Austrian can-
Zler Metternich (formally, Austria was represented by the emperor himself)
Franz I), Prussian diplomats led by Hardenberg,
as well as representing France Talleyrand.

At the initiative of Talleyrand, the work of the congress was based on
the principle of legitimism is false - the recognition of exceptional
the rights of those ruling houses and dynasties that exist
wali in Europe before the start of the revolutionary wars. In interpret-
Metternich’s conception, the principle of legitimism became more pronounced
to a pronounced ideological and legal character - speech
was about the preservation of the "eternal", "sanctified by history" legitimate
of the law of monarchs and estates, as the most important basis of the general
natural order and tranquility. But in reality, re-
decisions of the Congress of Vienna were subordinated to the desire to clearly
delimit the spheres of influence of the great powers in the formation
a stable and, if possible, balanced political
maps of the continent.

Based on the principle of legitimism, the congress participants
stood up for the preservation of the fragmentation of Germany. Wherein,
at the suggestion of Metternich, it was decided to create a Germans-
cue union of 38 small German states, as well as
Austria and Prussia. The Sejm was supposed to manage this union,
the seat of which was chosen Frankfurt am May-
not. The most acute disagreements between the participants of the Congress
sa caused the Polish-Saxon question. Prussia calculated
la annex Saxony and most of the Polish lands
to your territory. Alexander I was ready to support the re-
dacha of Saxony to the Prussians, but saw the Polish lands as part of
ve of the Russian Empire as the Duchy of Warsaw. Austria,
as well as France and England tried to counteract the
leniya of Russia and Prussia. Talleyrand obtained Metter-
niha and Kesselrey conclude an alliance of England, Austria and France
against Prussia and Russia. January 3, 1815, was signed by Thai
a new agreement under which the three powers were obliged not to
let any redistributions of existing gra-
prostrate, including preventing Saxony from joining
Prussia, on whatever terms. Has been achieved
the same agreement on joint military action in case
violent attempts to change borders.

In the midst of the discussions of the Congress of Vienna in France,
there was a coup d'état. Landed on the coast with
a small group of dedicated soldiers and officers, Napoleon
March 19, 1815 triumphantly entered Paris. Trying to contribute
split into a coalition, he handed over to Alexander I the text of a secret
th agreement of three powers. However, the threat of recovery
Leonov's empire was stronger. Without interrupting work
Congress, the Allies formed a new - already the seventh
account - the anti-French coalition. It included An-
glia, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, Spain, Portugal-
Leah, Holland.

percussion military force coalitions represented 110,000
the Anglo-Dutch army of Wellington, advancing from
Brussels. Its left flank was supported by 117,000 Prussians.
Blucher's army, and the right - 210,000 Austrian
army of Schwarzenberg. As a strategic reserve for
The Riviera was preparing a 75,000-strong Austro-Italian army
Frimont, and in the central Rhine region - 150 thousand
Nay Russian army of Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon managed to
the army is only about 280 thousand soldiers. His only chance
was the defeat of the English and Prussian troops even before the end
niya redeployment of Russians and Austrians. June 16 in the battle
at Ligny, Napoleon managed to defeat Blue
dick, but the lack of forces prevented the pursuit of the Prussians and
their complete destruction. With the army of Wellington, the French met
huddled near Waterloo on 18 June. Napoleon had in this battle
72 thousand people against 70 thousand from the enemy. Franz-
PS fought desperately, but the unexpected appearance on the battlefield
the Prussian corps allowed Wellington to win the battle
nie. Soon Napoleon was forced to abdicate again.
table. July 6-8, the Allies entered Paris and restored
power of the Bourbons.

June 9, 1815, a few days before the Battle of Waterloo,
representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain
Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the
final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. Franc-
The nation lost all its conquests. Belgium and Holland
were merged into the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Togo included Luxembourg. The Vienna Treaty legalized the creation
of the German Union. The Rhine was annexed to Prussia
sky area, Westphalia and Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland
“eternal neutrality” was guaranteed, and the boundaries of its race
extended by the provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. Norway
gia, which was dependent on Denmark, transferring
lass of Sweden. The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored,
which again included Savoy and Nice, 81 T8.KZh6 Ge-
Well, I. Lombardy and Venice became part of Austria, and the dukes
tva Parma, Tuscany and Modena came under power
various representatives of the House of Habsburg. secular power
the pope was restored, and the boundaries of the papal state
The states were expanded to include Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna.
England received the Ionian Islands and Malta, as well as
consolidated the captured Dutch colonies in Asia.
Polish lands with Warsaw were annexed to Russia. On the
this territory the Kingdom (kingdom) of Poland was created,
bound by dynastic union with Russia. In addition, for Ros-
earlier acquisitions were recognized as this - Finland
and Bessarabia.

The General Act of the Congress of Vienna contained special
ty, which concerned the relationship between the European
mi countries. Established rules for the collection of duties and su-
revenues from the border and international rivers of the Meuse,
Rhine and Scheldt. The principles of free court were determined
walking. The appendix to the General Act spoke of the
banning the slave trade. In Vienna also was also achieved
agreement on the unification of the diplomatic service. Us-
There were three classes of diplomatic agents. To the first
mu included ambassadors and papal legates (nuncios), the second -
envoys, to the third - chargé d'affaires. Has been defined
and a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats. All these innovations
(“Vienna Regulations”) included in the annex to the General
act of Congress, have become the norm international law and
entered into diplomatic practice for a long time.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna formalized the principles of a new
system of international relations based on the ideas of
political balance, collective diplomacy and legitimacy
mysma. The Vienna system did not lead to the elimination of contradictory
whose among the great powers, but contributed to the accession
in Europe relative calm and stability. From the creation
with the Holy Alliance at the end of 1815, she received a bright
ideological and even ethical substantiation. But,
in general, this political construction was very contrary to
the stormy and social processes which have developed in
European society. The rise of national liberation
and revolutionary movements doomed the Vienna system to everything
new crises and conflicts.

Vienna international system
relations (1815-1870)

Lecture 4 The system of international relations within AT Eastphalian model: " E European concert" and the interwar system

1. "E" European concert" as a system of international relations

In the XVII - XVIII centuries a common practice among the absolutist states of Europe was a kind of interstate "mergers and acquisitions" - the redistribution of territories to resolve conflicts and maintain a changing balance of power. The natural state of relations between states was indeed a “war of all against all”, where everyone tried to improve his situation at the expense of others . At the same time, ambitious goals often did not correspond to real resources: wars were fought with the help of expensive professional mercenary armies, as a result, victory often depended on the amount of money in the treasury and the ability to collect taxes. The model of behavior for states at that time was not to maintain a balance of power, but endless revision of the existing order, striving for hegemony, those. dominance in influence.The situation changed after the Napoleonic Wars.

Congress of Vienna 1815 laid the foundation for the system of international relations, called"European concert"(another name is the Vienna System of International Relations). By "concert" we mean concerted action, because with in English term concerttranslated as "consent, coherence, harmony in plans and actions." If we apply a historical approach to the analysis of the Concert of Europe, then we will be interested in facts about signed agreements and secret agreements, territorial redistributions, armed conflicts, but theoretical analysis also requires studying the structure and environment of the system.

After the victory over Napoleon at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), the major European powers discussed what the political map of Europe would look like in the future. Agreements signed in 1815 regulated territorial issues. The main violins played in the "European Concert" Russia, Austria(later— Austria-Hungary), UK, Prussia(later - Germany) and France. The Vienna System of International Relations is called system collective security, because agreements between the great powers were aimed at maintaining the status quo and preventing conflicts in Europe.

The "concert" of the five powers can be compared with the modern "Group seven ”, which is also not an international organization, but is a forum of great powers. An important criterion for membership and in “ Seven ”, and in the “Five” - the development of the economy, and the lag of Russia from its partners in terms of industrial development is typical both for the 19th century and for the modern stage.

To discuss the emerging changes in the balance of power, the powers periodically met at international conferences. : St. Petersburg (1825), Paris (1856), London (1871), Berlin (1878) other. In the era of the "European Concert" the foundations were laid humanitarian law, i.e. war rights: in 1864 signs Geneva Convention on the improvement of the condition of the sick and wounded in active armies , at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907 were adopted conventions on the laws and customs of war. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, for the first time, unified system of seniority of diplomatic ranks agreed , which streamlined diplomatic relations between states.

Within the framework of the Concert of Europe, relations between states acquire a new dimension with the advent of the firstinternational organizations. Already in 1815 was created Permanent Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, in the second half of the 19th century. Other organizations began to appear: International Telegraph Union(later renamed to international union telecommunications) - in 1865 G., Universal Postal Union- in 1875 G., International Committee to combat the slave trade- in 1890 G., The Hague Conference on International Private Property Law- in 1893 d. According to the Union of International Associations, in 1909 there were 37 governmental and 176 non-governmental organizations. However, regulation initially occurs in non-political areas that states were ready to entrust to international organizations . The first international organization in the political sphere arises only after the First World War - it is the League of Nations.

Appearance and development from 1830s technology for the construction of railways, steamships and telegraphs had no less impact on international relations than the Internet at the end of the 20th century. From the end of the XVI to the beginning of the XVIII century. going onmilitary revolution, which creates the prerequisites for European expansion to other regions of the world, and the development of transport made it possible to project military power over considerable distances and relatively quickly transfer troops to almost any geographical point . The superiority of the Europeans in military technology was so great that a detachment of several hundred people could defeat the native army of several tens of thousands of soldiers. At the end of the XIX century. thanks to transport and military technologies, Europeans capture colonies in Africa, Asia, Middle East, Latin America. If during the period of the emergence of the Westphalian model, conflicts took place in Europe itself, then at the end of the 19th century. the arena of confrontation has moved to the colonies.

It was during the period of rapid development of European empires on the turn of XIX-XX centuries. there is a line of research as geopolitics, which theoretically substantiates the need for territorial expansion. German geographer Friedrich Ratzel(1844-1904) formulated in 1897 concept of "living space", later it was used by the Nazis to justify expansion. At the beginning of the XX century. notoriety is gained by the concepts of British geopolitics Harold Mackinder(1861-1947), who believed that the political power of the state directly depends on its geographical location . The world was presented to geopoliticians as a single space, where there was a confrontation between the imperialist powers for dominance at sea and on land. The term "Great Game" and put forward already in the 20th century. Zbigniew Brzezinski, the concept of the “great chessboard” describes precisely the geopolitical confrontation of the major powers, for which developing countries are just a platform for sorting out relations.

In the field of economics at the end of the XVII century. politics is spreading protectionism — absolutist states protected their merchants in order to levy more taxes on wars from increased incomes . About until the middle of the 19th century. governments tried to control industrial production and development of technologies, keeping them within national boundaries . For example, before creatingInternational Telegraph Union, which made it possible to establish uniform rules regulation of this sphere, duties were levied on telegrams at the border, and the text itself was transmitted orally across the border by customs officers, which, of course, led to significant distortions.

Significant growth interstate trade and a decrease in the level of protectionism occur in the second half of the 19th century, when states introduce most favored nation treatment . Industrialization, the development of transport, colonial conquests contributed to the development of the export of raw materials from the colonies, which, in turn, purchased manufactured goods from the metropolises. However, unlike in the post-World War II era, there was no international trade regime during the Concert of Europe era.

The development of trade exchanges was facilitated by the establishment in 1878 gold standard, which fixed the exchange rates of major currencies in gold Great Britain played a central role in this system. The emergence of centralized absolutist states leads to the emergence of single state currencies. By the 16th century in Europe is developingfinancial order in the form of an organized system of credit relations: states needed loans to finance wars, the development of trade created a demand for banking services , which made it possible to avoid the risks associated with the transportation of money across borders. In the second half of the XIX century. growing foreign investment and loans . The industrialized European countries accumulated a surplus of savings, which were invested in foreign, usually infrastructural, high-yield projects in developing countries and colonies. Developing countries, on the contrary, did not have sufficient state savings and therefore willingly took loans for the development of industry.

At the end of the XIX century. the first majormultinational corporations, operating in various countries , did foreign investment, but were mainly raw material orientation. Their predecessors are usually considered to be the East India Companies. , with the help of which trade was carried out between Europe and Asia. Such companies had considerable power: they had their own currencies and even their own private armies of many thousands . However, these companies were still engaged in trade, and not in production. By the end of the XIX century. transcontinental trading companies disappeared, and their functions were taken over by the governments of the metropolitan countries, which by that time had strengthened their state power.

An important role in the era of the "Concert of Europe" was played by migration processes. In the second half of the XIX century. a large-scale wave of migration from Europe to the Americas begins: according to various sources, before the First World War, Europe left about 50 million migrants. In many ways, the reason for migration was industrialization, which left rural residents without work, and they moved to those states where the labor force was just not enough. Migration allowed Europe to get rid of the unemployed and low-income segments of the population who could organize social unrest and revolution. Generally 19th century migrations came from North to South (from developed countries to developing ), while the trend is now reversed.

In general, the Concert of Europe system was considered quite stable due, first of all, to the coordinated regulation of international processes and relations between the great powers. 19th century

The reason for the consent of the great powers is their homogeneity political systems and forms of state : they were all monarchies and empires . Fearing revolutions like Great French, monarchies agreed on collective action to suppress possible revolutionary movements.

In the 19th century opposition between two forms of government and government is planned — dynastic monarchies and republican democracies. Moreover, the vector of development of world political processes was not initially obvious.

AT first half of XIX in. the first ones start to appeardemocratic states. AT further democratization processes proceeded in waves, as a result, this phenomenon was called "waves of democratization" - this concept was proposed by a well-known American political scientist Samuel Huntington.

Wave of democratization- this is a group of transitions from non-democratic to democratic regimes occurring in a certain period of time, the number of which significantly exceeds the number of transitions in the opposite direction in a given period.

First long wave of democratizationdated 1828-192 6 years, i.e. approximately coincides with the era of the "European concert". Of course, the democracies of the XIX century. are very different from modern ones, therefore, researchers consider it a sufficient criterion for democracy that 50% of the adult male population have the right to vote, and the responsible head of the executive branch either retains the support of the majority in the elected parliament or is elected during periodic popular elections. The first wave of democratization begins with USA, by the end of the 19th century. specified criteria reach Switzerland, France, Great Britain, British Overseas Dominions, at the beginning of the 20th century. — Italy and Argentina. The phenomenon of emerging democracy was described in his study "Democracy in America" ​​(1835-1840) by the French thinker Alexis de Tocqueville(1805-1859), where he pointed out, among other things, the problems generated by new form organization of society: this is the centralization of power and the dependence of the individual on the bureaucracy.

The confrontation between monarchies and republics also took place at the level of ideologies . In the era of bourgeois revolutions and the emergence of nation-states secular ideologies emerge — liberalism, conservatism and socialism. The textbook "The World of Political Science" edited by A. Yu. Melville gives the following definition:ideology — a relatively systematized set of interrelated ideas, ideas, concepts and doctrines both about the structure and functioning of society, and about ways to achieve the state of society that meets the interests of the bearer of these ideas which creates the basis for an organized political activity, regardless of whether the goal of ideology is the preservation, transformation or destruction of political reality.

In early Marxism, ideology was considered a "false consciousness" because it always represents reality in a distorted way, ideologists present an imaginary image of reality as reality itself. In more neutral termsideology — it is a belief system that explains and justifies the political order preferred by a given society .

The basis of classical liberalism is laid by the works John Locke and the Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723-1790). Liberal ideology develops during the period of bourgeois revolutions and includes such components as individualism, the ideal of individual freedom in all spheres public life- but freedom limited by legal and political equality ("equality of opportunity"), tolerance, pluralism, faith in progress, participation in politics through various forms of representation.

As a reaction to bourgeois revolutions and liberalism arises the ideology of conservatism, which calls for reliance on tradition, and not on abstract ideals. The ideologists of conservatism are confident in the innate inequality of people, the imperfection of human nature, believing that best form organization of social life is a hierarchy.

Another opponent of liberalism is socialism, which took shape as a political ideology in the 19th century. Instead of the principle of individualism, socialism offers a reliance on society, egalitarianism ("equality of results"), a class approach and the ideal of public property instead of private. The radical trend of socialism is the ideology of Marxism.

The ideology of Marxism should not be confused with Marxism as a theory. German sociologist, philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818-1883) created together with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) philosophical theoryhistorical materialism, according to which "it is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness." The material basis that has a decisive influence on all aspects of society , Marx thought mode of production , which represents unity of productive forces(who produces wealth) and industrial relations(the relationship between those who produce and who consume goods). Marx singled out five historical modes of production(formations) — primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. Among the shortcomings of Marxism, its Eurocentrism is often cited - the scientist failed to explain the "Asian" mode of production, which did not fit into his scientific constructions.

Main subjects in Marx's theory are not states or societies, but social classes- for example, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and they "have no fatherland", i.e. these are international communities with shared interests, regardless of the country of residence. Exactly therefore, Marx considered states in the international arena as secondary actors , and themselves international relations - only as a superstructure on the economic basis, which determines all relationships . The essence of both domestic and international relations is the struggle of the exploited proletariat against the imperialist bourgeoisie. Marx's theories were developed by V. I. Lenin (1870-1924), who considered the causes of wars and revolutions to be the fierce political confrontation between the imperialist colonial powers and the economic struggle between the monopolies .

And although Marxism as a theory of international relations has never enjoyed popularity, Marxism as political ideology led to significant changes in international relations of the 20th century, laying the foundation for the largest social experiment in the history of mankind to build socialism.

2. Interwar system of international about relations: the formation of "classical" theories

Relatively stable the multipolar system of the "Concert of Europe" ceases to exist with the beginningWorld War I (1914-1918). The local war in the Balkans in 1914 quickly developed into a world war due to the system of military alliances (Entente, Triple, and then the Quadruple Alliance), which ensured an almost automatic escalation of the conflict. Political alliances, in fact, devalued the emerging economic interdependence, which could have prevented an armed conflict. The First World War differed from the wars of previous centuries primarily in its geographical scope. . Since the colonial powers participated in the war, fighting were conducted not only in Europe, but also in Africa and the Middle East. One of the main geopolitical consequences of the war was the collapse of four empires — Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German, and also Russian, replaced by the Soviet Union.

In 1919a decision is made to establish the League of Nations first world political organization (except for the USA and Saudi Arabia, at one time or another, the League of Nations included all the states of the world that existed at that time), whose goals were prevention of conflicts and maintenance of peace through the creation of a system of collective security . After the First World War, such a theoretical direction arises as liberalism (idealism), who tried to answer the question about the causes of war and peace and understand how to avoid a repetition of such a tragedy. The creator of the League of Nations became the spokesman for the ideas of liberalism american president USAWoodrow Wilson.

"Fourteen Points" from the President's Message USA V dro V Ilson to Congress on January 8, 1918.

(extract)

Our program is the program of universal peace. This program, the only possible program, is the following:

1. Open peace treaties, openly discussed, after which there will be no secret international agreements of any kind, and diplomacy will always act frankly and in full view of everyone.<...>

1. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of equal conditions for trade of all nations standing for peace and uniting their efforts to maintain it.
2. Fair guarantees that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest possible level consistent with national security.
3. Free, frank and absolutely impartial settlement of all colonial disputes, based on the strict observance of the principle that in the resolution of all questions relating to sovereignty, the interests of the population should have same weight compared with the just demands of the government whose rights are to be determined.

<...>

14. A general association of nations should be formed on the basis of special statutes in order to create a mutual guarantee of the political independence and territorial integrity of both large and small states.

Interwar explorers (Pitman B. Potter, Al-fred E. Zimmern, David Mitrany) dealt mainly with describing the activities of the League of Nations and its potential to provide international security, as well as the problems of collective governance and economic interdependence between states , laying the foundations for such areas as the study of international organizations and integration.

The theoretical basis of interwar studies was mainly federalism, which later inspired the "fathers" of European integration. More of a political program than a theory, federalism saw the ultimate goal of integration as the creation of a new unified federal state or supranational structures from once sovereign states . AT 1943 d. the work of David Mitrany appears, in which the foundations of a competing theory were laid - functionalism.

According to the Federalists to create a new political community, it is necessary to replace national governments with supranational institutions. According to functionalists, international organizations should be created to meet basic functional needs - the development of trade, transport networks, production etc. economy functionalists considered more important than politics , a the institutional form was to be determined by the functional content .

Federalists stood in opposite positions : the form(federal superstate) more important than content , politics more important than the economy . At the same time there were these approaches and common features : their goal was to secure peace , and the very existence of the nation-state was presented rather as an obstacle to this path ; the nation-state and territorial attachment were perceived as a relic of the Westphalian system of the world, the very structure of which provoked wars and conflicts.

A significant factor in the interwar period was global economic crisis, that starts with a crash on the New York Stock Exchange in October 1929 This crisis, which is called Great Depression led to an unprecedented economic recession in the developed countries of the West, dropping industrial production to the level of the beginning of the 20th century. Most countries emerge from the crisis only by 1933. The Soviet Union, which by that time had closed from outside world, did not suffer from the economic crisis, and the famine of 1932-1933. was the result of internal causes - the processes of collectivization and industrialization.

If there is no consensus among economists about the causes of the Great Depression, then the consequences can be distinguished quite clearly. The first significant effect of the recession- This breakdown of market mechanisms, the collapse of the gold standard system, which was restored after the First World War only by 1925. States reacted to the downturn in the economy by introducing protectionist measures, which led to a decrease in international trade .

Existing economic theories could not offer a way out of the crisis. In 1936 the British economist John Maynard Keynes publishes a work General theory employment, interest and money”, which had a huge impact on the development of economic thought, in particular, laid the foundation for such a direction as macroeconomics . According to Keynes, The Great Depression showed , what self-regulation of the market does not allow to get out of the crisis, respectively, the responsibility for regulating the economy should be assumed by the state. The state must provide full time population at the expense of public works paid from the budget or state orders. Reducing unemployment and rising incomes, as well as the provision of cheap government loans, will lead to increased demand and economic recovery .

Keynes's ideas were actively used by states both to overcome the Great Depression and to overcome the economic consequences of World War II. In the 1970s there was a departure from ideals state regulation economic processes , but financial crisis of the late 2000s made Keynesianism relevant again .

The sharp increase in unemployment and impoverishment of the population during the Great Depression led to the emergence of radical sentiments in society and the growth in popularity of communist and Nazi ideologies : For example, in 1933 in the German elections , where the increase in unemployment was the most significant among Western countries, wins the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany, led by Adolf Hitler.

In general, after the First World War, according to the periodization of S. Huntington, there is the first "rollback" in the spread of democracy(1922-1942), when some of the newly democratized states returned to undemocratic rule. The beginning of the first "rollback" is considered to be Mussolini came to power in Italy in 1922. In many states the military come to power through coups, which then establish a dictatorship : such a scenario has been implemented in Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Estonia, Portugal, Brazil, Argentina, Spain, Greece , pro-fascist regimes are established in Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. At the beginning 1930s in Japan the military is attempting coups, which, although not successful, have allowed the military to gain significant influence on government decision-making. The change of regimes was accompanied by the rise of fascism, Nazism and other militaristic ideologies. .

After graduationWorld War Iwars several states still become democratic - those who gained independence Ireland and Iceland, in the early 1930s - Spain and Chile. However, there were more countries that made a turn to authoritarianism in the interwar period, mainly these were countries where democracy was established relatively recently and did not have time to consolidate, i.e. get stronger.

Despite the fact that the First World War, directly or indirectly, led to significant changes in many areas, European political thinking has never been able to adapt to new realities : the processes of growing interdependence between regional subsystems were not reflected in the Eurocentric structure of the multipolar balance of power created after 1919, which tried to recreate the stability of the "Concert of Europe". Non-participation in the League of Nations of the United States and the exclusion of the Soviet Union from it could not but reduce the effectiveness of this organization. Output future aggressors ( Japan, Germany, Italy) from the League of Nations turned it from a worldwide organization of collective security into a kind of military-political alliances of previous eras, but with less stringent obligations.

Due to the fact that the League of Nations, as a system of collective security, could not prevent the unleashing World War II(1939—1945), the approach to the analysis of international relations that dominated the interwar period was later called " idealism ». The term was introduced in 1939 British historian Edward H. kapp,who was the representative of the theoretically opposite approach. This approach was calledreal-mom. Realists, of course, slightly simplifying the approaches of their opponents, criticized the idealists for their utopian approach to international relations , the desire to establish, thanks to the activities of the League of Nations, almost eternal peace between states. These theoretical discussions have come to be known as the "first big controversy" which was far from the last in the development of international relations as a scientific discipline.

After many regional and two world wars realists did not believe in the desire of states to resolve disputes by peaceful means, nor in the ability of international organizations such as the League of Nations to help maintain peace . Realists perceived the entire history of mankind as a series of wars, followed by only brief respites to prepare for the next conflicts. If the pre-links of conflicts are different each time , then causes always the same realists believe, because human nature is unchanging and it is she who determines the laws by which society and the state live . Therefore, the philosophical and political theories of Ancient Greece or Ancient Chinaare still relevant. To prove this, the realists began to look for the intellectual basis of their approach in the history of political thought from Antiquity to the Renaissance and Enlightenment. , in the so-called "classical tradition".

The first representative of the "classical tradition" realists considered to have lived in the 5th century. BC. ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who in his History of the Peloponnesian War”, Analyzing the causes of wars, noted that human nature inevitably leads to violence, and the law operates only when the forces of opponents are equal, as a result, the main argument in any conflict is the force that is needed to defend the interests of the state and ensure its security .

One of the founders of the realist theoretical trend is the German-American researcher of international relations Hans Morgenthau (1904-1980), who in 1948 published the classic work " Political relations between nations: the struggle for power and peace", where outlined six basic principles of political realism .

1. Politics and society as a whole are subordinate objective laws which are due to the immutable nature of man.
2. The key concept of realism is interest, defined in terms of authority . International politics is a struggle for power. Political realism proceeds from the fact that foreign policy must be rational in terms of moral principles and practical goals. However, realists recognize that irrationality and chance can also influence foreign policy.
3. The state must always defend its national interests . Interest as a desire for power is an objective category, unchanged in all eras. However, the political and cultural environment can influence the specific content of this concept: power as the control of one person over another has a different embodiment in different eras.
4. The individual and the state have different approaches to morality : an individual can sacrifice himself to universal moral principles, the state does not have such a right, because it is responsible for the survival of the nation.
5. If we proceed from the fact that all states pursue national interests defined in terms of power, then it turns out that it is necessary to judge all states equally, without elevating the moral principles of one state over the principles of others. This approach allows us to pursue a policy that protects the interests of our own state, while respecting the interests of other states.
6. The political sphere must be analyzed separately from economics, law, morality , because when studying each of these aspects, a different approach is needed: for example, for an economist, interest is defined in terms of wealth, for a lawyer, interest is the compliance of actions with the rule of law.

Generally realists consider only sovereign states as the main participant in international relations , whose behavior in the international arena can be depicted as a collision of billiard balls. States are analyzed as unitary (holistic) actors , i.e. the state is perceived as a homogeneous organism, and not a set of institutions.

Only great powers can have a significant impact on international relations, the rest are forced to adapt to their policies . In the absence of a supranational supreme power, international relations are anarchic, as a result, the principle of “help yourself” operates for states. The goal of any state is to ensure its security, including at the expense of the security of other states . Since the interest of any state lies in the acquisition of power, the interests of the players in the international arena come into conflict, which can only be resolved by force. Realistic approach accurately reflected the behavior of the great powers after the Second World War, so it was he who became the dominant paradigm in international relations until the end of the Cold War.

Literature

Nikitina Yu.A. International relations and world politics: Introduction to the specialty: Proc. allowance for university students. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Aspect Press Publishing House, 2014. - P. 60-74.