Source: " Sports metrology» , 2016

SECTION 2. COMPETITION AND TRAINING ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 2. Analysis of competitive activity -

2.1 International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) statistics

2.2 Corsi statistics

2.3 Fenwick statistics

2.4 PDO statistic

2.5 FenCIose statistics

2.6 Evaluation of the quality of the competitive activity of the player (QoC)

2.7 Evaluation of the quality of competitive activity of partners on the link (QoT)

2.8 Hockey player preference analysis

CHAPTER 3. Analysis of technical and tactical readiness -

3.1 Analysis of the effectiveness of technical and tactical actions

3.2 Analysis of the scope of technical actions performed

3.3 Analysis of the versatility of technical actions

3.4 Assessment of tactical thinking

CHAPTER 4. Accounting for competitive and training loads

4.1 Consideration of the external side of the load

4.2 Consideration of the internal side of the load

SECTION 3. CONTROL OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONAL STATE

6.1 Body composition methods

6.2.3.2 Formulas for estimating body fat mass

6.3.1 Physical foundations method

6.3.2 Integral study methodology

6.3.2.1 Interpretation of test results.

6.3.3 Regional and multi-segment methods for assessing body composition

6.3.4 Method security

6.3.5 Reliability of the method

6.3.6 Performance of elite hockey players

6.4 Comparison of results obtained from bioimpedance analysis and caliperometry

6.5.1 Measurement procedure

6.6 Composition of muscle fibers???

7.1 Classical methods for assessing the condition of an athlete

7.2 Systematic comprehensive monitoring of the state and readiness of an athlete using Omegawave technology

7.2.1 Practical implementation of the concept of readiness in Omegawave technology

7.2.LI Central nervous system readiness

7.2.1.2 Readiness of the cardiac system and autonomic nervous system

7.2.1.3 Availability of power supply systems

7.2.1.4 Neuromuscular readiness

7.2.1.5 Readiness of the sensorimotor system

7.2.1.6 Whole organism readiness

7.2.2. Results..

SECTION 4. Psychodiagnostics and psychological testing In sports

CHAPTER 8. Basics of psychological testing

8.1 Classification of methods

8.2 The study of the structural components of the personality of a hockey player

8.2.1 Study of sports orientation, anxiety and level of claims

8.2.2 Assessment of typological properties and characteristics of temperament

8.2.3 Characteristics of individual aspects of the athlete's personality

8.3 Comprehensive personality assessment

8.3.1 Projective methods

8.3.2 Analysis of the characteristics of the athlete and coach

8.4 The study of the athlete's personality in the system of public relations

8.4.1 Sociometry and team evaluation

8.4.2 Measuring the relationship between coach and athlete

8.4.3 Group personality assessment

Assessment of the general psychological stability and reliability of an athlete 151

8.4.5 Methods for assessing volitional qualities ..... 154

8.5 The study of mental processes ...... 155

8.5.1 Sensation and perception155

8.5.2 Attention.157

8.5.3 Memory..157

8.5.4 Features of thinking158

8.6 Diagnosis of mental conditions159

8.6.1 Assessing emotional states.....159

8.6.2 Assessment of the state of neuropsychic tension ..160

8.6.3 Luther color test161

8.7 The main causes of errors in psychodiagnostic studies ..... 162

Conclusion.....163

Literature.....163

SECTION 5. PHYSICAL FITNESS CONTROL

CHAPTER 9. The feedback problem in training management

in modern professional hockey171

9.1 Characteristics of the interviewed contingent ... 173

9.1.1 Place of work..173

9.1.2 Age..174

9.1.3 Coaching experience175

9.1.4 Current position..176

9.2 Analysis of the results of a questionnaire survey of coaches of professional clubs and National teams..177

9.3 Analysis of methods for assessing the functional fitness of athletes .... 182

9.4 Analysis of test results183

9.5 Conclusions.....186

CHAPTER 10. Functional motor abilities.187

10.1 Mobility.190

10.2 Sustainability.190

10.3 Testing functional motor abilities191

10.3.1 Evaluation criteria191

10.3.2 Interpretation of results.191

10.3.3 Tests for the qualitative assessment of functional motor abilities.192

10.3.4 Protocol of functional motor test results.202

CHAPTER 11

11.1 Metrology of strength abilities207

11.2 Tests for assessing strength abilities....208

11.2.1 Tests for assessing absolute (maximum) muscle strength.209

11.2.1.1 Absolute (maximum) muscle strength tests using dynamometers.209

11.2.1.2 Maximum tests for assessing absolute muscle strength using a barbell and limit weights.214

11.2.1.3 Protocol for assessing absolute muscle strength using a barbell and non-limiting weights218

11.2.2 Tests for assessing speed-strength abilities and power ..... 219

11.2.2.1 Tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power using a barbell.219

11.2.2.2 Speed-strength and power tests using medicine balls.222

11.2.2.3 Speed-strength and power tests using bicycle ergometers229

11.2.2.4 Speed-strength and power tests using other equipment234

11.2.2.5 Jump tests for assessing speed-strength abilities and power ..... 236

11.3 Tests to assess the special strength abilities of field players .... 250

CHAPTER 12

12.1 Metrology of speed abilities ..... 255

12.2 Tests for assessing speed abilities..256

12.2.1 Responsiveness Tests...257

12.2.1.1 Evaluation of a simple reaction......257

12.2.1.2 Evaluation of the selection response from multiple signals258

12.2.1.3 Assessing the speed of response to a specific tactical situation ...... 260

12.2.1.4 Assessing response to a moving object261

12.2.2 Single movement speed tests261

12.2.3 Tests to assess maximum cadence.261

12.2.4 Tests for assessing the speed displayed in holistic motor actions264

12.2.4.1 Starting speed tests265

12.2.4.2 Distance velocity tests..266

12.2.5 Tests for evaluation of braking speed.26“

12.3 Tests to assess the special speed abilities of field players. . 26*

12.3.1 Test protocol skating 27.5/30/36 meters face and back forward to assess the power of the anaerobic-alactate mechanism of energy supply.. 2“3

Tests for assessing the capacity of the anaerobic-alactate mechanism of energy supply..273

HA Tests to assess the special speed abilities of goalkeepers277

12.4.1 Goalkeeper Reaction Tests.277

12.4.2 Tests for evaluating the speed shown in the integral motor actions of goalkeepers..279

CHAPTER 13

13.1 Endurance metrology.283

13.2 Endurance tests285

13.2.1 Direct endurance method...289

13.2.1.1 Maximum tests for score speed endurance and capacity of the anaerobic-alactate mechanism of energy supply. . 290

13.2.1.2 Maximum tests for assessing regional speed-strength endurance.292

13.2.1.3 Maximum tests for assessing speed and speed-strength endurance and power of the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanism of energy supply...295

13.2.1.4 Maximum tests for assessing speed and speed-strength endurance and capacity of the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanism of energy supply...300

13.2.1.5 Maximum tests for evaluating global strength endurance.301

13.2.1.6 Maximum tests for MIC and general (aerobic) endurance.316

13.2.1.7 Maximum tests for the evaluation of TAN and general (aerobic) endurance.320

13.2.1.8 Maximum tests for evaluating heart rate rev and general (aerobic) endurance.323

13.2.1.9 Maximum tests for assessing general (aerobic) endurance. . 329

13.2.2 Indirect endurance test (sub-maximal power tests)330

13.3 Special Endurance Tests for Field Players336

13.4 Special Endurance Tests for Goalkeepers341

CHAPTER 14 Flexibility.343

14.1 Flexibility metrology345

14.1.1 Factors affecting flexibility ..... 345

14.2 Flexibility tests.346

CHAPTER 15

15.1 Metrology of coordination abilities.355

15.1.1 Classification of types of coordination abilities357

15.1.2 Criteria for assessing coordination abilities..358

5.2 Coordination Tests.359

15.2.1 Control of coordination of movements ..... 362

15.2.2 Controlling the ability to maintain body balance (balance)......364

15.2.3 Control of the accuracy of estimation and measurement of movement parameters. . . 367

15.2.4 Control of coordination abilities in their complex manifestation. . 369

15.3 Tests to assess the special coordination abilities and technical readiness of field players.382

15.3.1 Tests to assess skating technique and puck handling. . 382

15.3.1.1 Control of Cross-Step Skating Technique382

15.3.1.2 Controlling the ability to change direction on skates. . 384

15.3.1.3 Control of the technique of performing turns on skates387

15.3.1.4 Control of the technique of transitions from forward skating to backward running and vice versa.388

15.3.1.5 Control of stick and puck handling392

15.3.1.6 Control of special coordination abilities in their complex manifestation

15.3.2 Tests to assess braking technique and ability to quickly change directions

15.3.3 Shooting and Passing Accuracy Tests

15.3.3.1 Checking the accuracy of shots

15.3.3.2 Checking the accuracy of puck passes

15.4 Tests to assess the special coordination abilities and technical readiness of goalkeepers

15.4.1 Control of technique of movement by side steps

15.4.2 Control of T-sliding technique

15.4.3 Control of cross-sliding technique on flaps

15.4.4 Evaluation of puck rebound control technique

15.4.5 Control of special coordination abilities of goalkeepers in their complex manifestation

CHAPTER 16

16.1 Interrelation of speed, strength and speed-strength abilities of hockey players on ice and off ice

16.1.1 Organization of the study

16.1.2 Analysis of the relationship between speed, strength and speed-strength abilities of hockey players on and off the ice

16.2 Correlation between different indicators of coordinating abilities

16.2.1 Organization of the study

16.2.2 Analysis of the relationship between various indicators of coordinating abilities

17.1 Optimal integrated battery of tests of RPP and SPP

17.2 Data analysis

17.2.1 Scheduling preparations based on the specifics of the calendar

17.2.2 Writing a test report

17.2.3 Personalization

17.2.4 Monitoring progress and evaluating performance training program

Introduction to the subject of sports metrology

Sports metrology is the science of measurement physical education and sports, its task is to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements. The subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in sports and physical education, as well as the further use of the data obtained in the training of athletes.

Basics of metrology of complex control

Athlete preparation is a managed process. Feedback is its most important attribute. The basis of its content is a comprehensive control, which gives trainers the opportunity to receive objective information about the work done and the functional shifts that it caused. This allows you to make the necessary adjustments to the training process.

Comprehensive control includes pedagogical, biomedical and psychological sections. An effective preparation process is possible only if complex use all sections of control.

Management of the process of training athletes

Managing the process of training athletes includes five stages:

1. collection of information about the athlete;
2. analysis of the received data;
3. development of a strategy and preparation of training plans and training programs;
4. their implementation;
5. monitoring the effectiveness of the implementation of programs and plans, making timely adjustments.

Hockey specialists receive a large amount of subjective information about the readiness of players in the course of training and competitive activities. Undoubtedly, the coaching staff also needs objective information about individual aspects of preparedness, which can only be obtained under specially created standard conditions.

This problem can be solved by using a testing program consisting of the minimum possible number of tests, allowing you to get the maximum useful and comprehensive information.

Types of control

The main types of pedagogical control are:

• Staged control- assesses the stable state of hockey players and is carried out, as a rule, at the end of a certain stage of preparation;

• current control- monitors the speed and nature of the course of recovery processes, as well as the condition of athletes as a whole based on the results of training training session or their series;

• operational control- gives an express assessment of the player's state at this particular moment: between tasks or at the end of a training session, between going out on the ice during the match, and also during a break between periods.

The main methods of control in hockey are pedagogical observations and testing.

Fundamentals of the theory of measurements

“The measurement of a physical quantity is an operation as a result of which it is determined how many times this quantity is greater (or less) than another quantity taken as a standard” .

Measurement scales

There are four main measurement scales:

Table 1. Characteristics and examples of measurement scales

	Characteristics	Mathematical Methods
Items	The objects are grouped, and the groups are indicated by numbers. The fact that the number of one group is greater or less than another does not say anything about their properties, except that they differ.	Number of cases Tetrachoric and polychoric correlation coefficients	Athlete number Position, etc.
	The numbers assigned to objects reflect the amount of property they own. It is possible to set the ratio "more" or "less"	Rank correlation Rank tests Hypothesis testing of nonparametric statistics	The results of the ranking of athletes in the test
Intervals	There is a unit of measurement by which objects can not only be ordered, but numbers can also be assigned to them so that different differences reflect different differences in the amount of the property being measured. The null point is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a property	All methods of statistics except for determining ratios	Body temperature, articular angles, etc.
Relations	The numbers assigned to objects have all the properties of the interval scale. There is an absolute zero on the scale, which indicates the complete absence of this property in the object. The ratio of numbers assigned to objects after measurements reflect quantitative relations measured property.	All methods of statistics	Body length and mass Force of movements Acceleration, etc.

Accuracy of measurements

In sports, two types of measurements are most often used: direct (the desired value is found from experimental data) and indirect (the desired value is derived based on the dependence of one value on others being measured). For example, in the Cooper test, the distance is measured (direct method), and the IPC is obtained by calculation (indirect method).

According to the laws of metrology, any measurements have an error. The goal is to keep it to a minimum. The objectivity of the assessment depends on the accuracy of the measurement; on this basis, knowledge of the accuracy of measurements is a prerequisite.

Systematic and random measurement errors

According to the theory of errors, they are divided into systematic and random.

The value of the former is always the same if the measurements are carried out by the same method using the same instruments. The following groups of systematic errors are distinguished:

• the cause of their occurrence is known and quite accurately determined. These include a change in the length of the roulette due to changes in air temperature during the long jump;
• the cause is known, but the magnitude is not. These errors depend on the accuracy class of the measuring devices;
• cause and extent unknown. This case can be observed in complex measurements, when it is simply impossible to take into account all possible sources of error;
• errors related to the properties of the measurement object. This may include the level of stability of the athlete, the degree of his fatigue or excitement, etc.

To eliminate the systematic error, the measuring devices are preliminarily checked and compared with the indicators of standards or calibrated (the error and the amount of corrections are determined).

Random errors are those that cannot be predicted in advance. They are identified and taken into account with the help of probability theory and mathematical apparatus.

Absolute and relative measurement errors

The difference, equal to the difference between the indicators of the measuring device and the true value, is the absolute measurement error (expressed in the same units as the measured value):

x \u003d x ist - x meas, (1.1)

where x is the absolute error.

When testing, it often becomes necessary to determine not the absolute, but the relative error:

X rel \u003d x / x rel * 100% (1.2)

Basic test requirements

A test is a test or measurement carried out to determine an athlete's condition or ability. Tests that meet the following requirements may be used as tests:

• the presence of a goal;

• standardized testing procedure and methodology;

• the degree of their reliability and informativeness is determined;

• there is a system for evaluating results;

• the type of control (operational, current or staged) is indicated.

All tests are divided into groups depending on the purpose:

1) indicators measured at rest (body length and weight, heart rate, etc.);

2) standard tests using a non-maximal load (for example, running on a treadmill at 6 m/s for 10 minutes). A distinctive feature of these tests is the lack of motivation to achieve the highest possible result. The result depends on the method of setting the load: for example, if it is set by the magnitude of the shifts in biomedical indicators (for example, running at a heart rate of 160 bpm), then the physical values ​​of the load (distance, time, etc.) are measured and vice versa.

3) maximum tests with a high psychological attitude to achieve the maximum possible result. In this case, the values ​​of various functional systems (MPC, heart rate, etc.) are measured. The motivation factor is the main disadvantage of these tests. It is extremely difficult to motivate a player who has a signed contract in his hands for the maximum result in a control exercise.

Standardization of measurement procedures

Testing can be effective and useful to the coach only if it is used systematically. This makes it possible to analyze the degree of progress of hockey players, evaluate the effectiveness of the training program, and normalize the load depending on the dynamics of the performance of athletes.

f) general endurance (aerobic mechanism of energy supply);

6) rest intervals between attempts and tests must be until the subject is fully restored:

a) between repetitions of exercises that do not require maximum effort - at least 2-3 minutes;

b) between repetitions of exercises with maximum effort - at least 3-5 minutes;

7) motivation to achieve maximum results. Achieving this condition can be quite difficult, especially when it comes to professional athletes. Here, everything largely depends on charisma, leadership qualities.

ISBN 5900871517 The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of the faculties physical culture pedagogical universities and institutions. And the term measurement in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers. In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. Multidimensionality a large number of variables that you need ...

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Page 2

UDC 796

Polevshchikov M.M. Sports metrology. Lecture 3: Measurements in physical culture and sports. / Mari State University. - Yoshkar-Ola: MarGU, 2008. - 34 p.

ISBN 5-900871-51-7

The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of physical culture faculties of pedagogical universities and institutes. The collections contain theoretical material on the basics of metrology, standardization, the content of management and control in the process of physical education and sports is revealed.

The proposed manual will be useful not only for students in the study of the discipline "Sports metrology", but also for university professors, graduate students involved in research work.

Mari State

University, 2008.

MEASUREMENTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Testing is an indirect measurement

Evaluation - unified meter

Sports results and tests

Features of measurements in sports

The subjects of sports metrology, as part of general metrology, are measurements and control in sports. And the term "measurement" in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers.

In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. These tasks relate to the direct study of the pedagogical and biomechanical parameters of sportsmanship, the diagnosis of energy-functional parameters of sports performance, the consideration of anatomical and morphological parameters. physiological development, control of mental states.

The main measurable and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in sports research are: physiological (“internal”), physical (“external”) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and dexterity; functional parameters of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; linear and arc parameters of body dimensions.

Like every living system, an athlete is a complex, non-trivial object of measurement. From the usual, classical objects of measurement, an athlete has a number of differences: variability, multidimensionality, quality, adaptability and mobility. Variability - volatility of variables characterizing the state of the athlete and his activities. All indicators of an athlete are constantly changing: physiological (oxygen consumption, pulse rate, etc.), morpho-anatomical (height, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psycho-physiological and etc. Variability makes necessary multiple measurements and processing of their results by methods of mathematical statistics.

Multidimensionality - a large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the condition and performance of an athlete. Along with the variables characterizing the athlete, the “output variables”, one should also control the “input variables” characterizing the influence external environment on an athlete. The role of input variables can be played by: intensity of physical and emotional stress, oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables - salient feature sports metrology. It is caused not only by organizational difficulties that arise when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also by the fact that with an increase in the number of variables, the complexity of their analysis increases sharply.

Qualitativeness -qualitative character (from Latin qualitas - quality), i.e. lack of precise, quantitative measure. The physical qualities of an athlete, the properties of an individual and a team, the quality of equipment and many other factors of a sports result cannot yet be accurately measured, but nevertheless should be assessed as accurately as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is hindered both in elite sports and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of monitoring the health status and workload of those involved.

Adaptability - the property of a person to adapt (adapt) to environmental conditions. Adaptability underlies learning and gives the athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in normal and difficult conditions (in hot and cold, with emotional stress, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time, adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With repeated examinations, the athlete gets used to the examination procedure (“learns to be examined”) and, as such training, begins to show different results, although his functional state may remain unchanged.

Mobility - a feature of an athlete, based on the fact that in the vast majority of sports, the activity of an athlete is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies conducted with a motionless person, measurements in sports activities are accompanied by additional distortions of the recorded curves and measurement errors.

Testing is an indirect measurement.

Testing replaces the measurement whenever the object under study is not available for direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of an athlete's heart during strenuous muscular work. Therefore, indirect measurement is used: heart rate and other cardiological indicators characterizing cardiac performance are measured. Tests are also used in cases where the phenomenon being studied is not quite specific. For example, it is more correct to talk about testing dexterity, flexibility, etc. than about measuring them. However, flexibility (mobility) at a specific joint and under specific conditions can be measured.

Test (from English test - test, test) in sports practice is called a measurement or test carried out in order to determine the state or abilities of a person.

different measurements and a lot of tests can be done, but not all measurements can be used as tests. A test in sports practice can only be called a measurement or test that meets the followingmetrological requirements:

• the purpose of the test should be defined; standardization (the methodology, procedure and conditions of testing should be the same in all cases of applying the test);
• the reliability and informativeness of the test should be determined;
• the test requires a grading system;
• it is necessary to indicate the type of control (operational, current or staged).

Tests that meet the requirements of reliability and informativeness are calledgood or authentic.

The testing process is called testing , and the numerical value obtained as a result of the measurement or test istest result(or test result). For example, running 100 meters is a test, the procedure for conducting races and timing is testing, running time is the result of the test.

As for the classification of tests, the analysis of foreign and domestic literature shows that there are different approaches to this problem. Depending on the field of application, there are tests: pedagogical, psychological, achievements, individually oriented, intelligence, special abilities, etc. According to the methodology for interpreting test results, tests are classified into normative-oriented and criterion-oriented.

Normative Test(in English norm - referenced test ) allows you to compare the achievements (level of training) of individual subjects with each other. Normative tests are used to obtain reliable and normally distributed scores for comparing test-takers.

score (individual score, test score) - a quantitative indicator of the severity of the measured property in a given subject, obtained using this test.

Criteria Based Test(in English criterion - referenced test ) allows assessing the extent to which the subjects have mastered the necessary task (motor quality, movement technique, etc.).

Tests based on motor tasks are calledpropulsion or motor. Their results can be either motor achievements (distance passing time, number of repetitions, distance traveled, etc.), or physiological and biochemical indicators. Depending on this, as well as on the goals, motor tests are divided into three groups.

Table 1. Varieties of motor tests

Name of the test Task for the athlete Test result Example

Control Show maximum motor run 1500 m,

exercise result achievement running time

Standard Same for all, Physiological or Heart rate recording

At

Functional dosed: a) by value - biochemical parameters - standard work

Samples of non-performed work whether at standard work- 1000 kGm/min

Or those.

B) according to the size of the physiological

Gic shifts. with a standard value of heart rate 160 beats / min

Not physiological

shifts.

Maximum Show maximum Physiological or Determine maximum

Functional result of biochemical display of oxygen

Debt or poppy

Simulation samples

consumption

Oxygen

Tests whose results depend on two or more factors are called heterogeneous , and if predominant from one factor, then - homogeneous tests. More often in sports practice, not one, but several tests are used that have a common ultimate goal. This group of tests is called complex or battery of tests.

The correct definition of the purpose of testing contributes to the correct selection of tests. Measurements of various aspects of the preparedness of athletes should be carried out systematically . This makes it possible to compare the values ​​of indicators at different stages of training and, depending on the dynamics of gains in tests, to normalize the load.

The efficiency of normalization depends on accuracy control results, which, in turn, depends on the standard of conducting tests and measuring results in them. To standardize testing in sports practice, the following requirements should be observed:

1) the mode of the day preceding the test should be built according to the same scheme. It excludes medium and heavy loads, but classes of a restorative nature can be held. This will ensure the equality of the current conditions of the athletes, and the initial level before testing will be the same;

2) warm-up before testing should be standard (in terms of duration, selection of exercises, sequence of their implementation);

3) testing, if possible, should be carried out by the same people who can do it;

4) the test execution scheme does not change and remains constant from testing to testing;

5) the intervals between repetitions of the same test should eliminate the fatigue that arose after the first attempt;

6) the athlete must strive to show the maximum possible result in the test. Such motivation is real if a competitive environment is created during testing. However, this factor works well in monitoring the readiness of children. For adult athletes, a high quality of testing is possible only if the comprehensive control is systematic and the content of the training process is adjusted based on its results.

The description of the methodology for performing any test should take into account all these requirements.

Testing accuracy is evaluated differently than measurement accuracy. When evaluating the measurement accuracy, the measurement result is compared with the result obtained by a more accurate method. When testing, the possibility of comparing the results obtained with more accurate ones is most often not available. And therefore, it is necessary to check not the quality of the results obtained during testing, but the quality of the measuring tool itself - the test. The quality of the test is determined by its informativeness, reliability and objectivity.

Test reliability.

Reliability of testsis the degree of agreement between the results when the same people are tested repeatedly under the same conditions. It is quite clear that the complete coincidence of the results with repeated measurements is practically impossible.

The variation in results with repeated measurements is calledintra-individual or intragroup, or intraclass. The main reasons for such a variation in test results, which distorts the assessment of the true state of the athlete's preparedness, i.e. introduces a certain error or error in this estimate, are the following circumstances:

1) random changes in the state of the subjects during testing (psychological stress, addiction, fatigue, change in motivation to perform the test, change in concentration, instability of the initial posture and other conditions of the measurement procedure during testing);

2) uncontrolled changes in external conditions (temperature, humidity , wind, solar radiation , the presence of unauthorized persons, etc.);

3) instability of metrological characteristicstechnical measuring instruments(TSI), used in testing. Instability can be caused by several reasons due to the imperfection of the applied TSI: measurement error due to changes in the mains voltage, instability of the characteristics of electronic measuring instruments and sensors with changes in temperature, humidity, the presence of electromagnetic interference, etc. It should be noted, that for this reason measurement errors can be significant;

1. changes in the state of the experimenter (operator, trainer, teacher, judge), performing or evaluating test results

And the replacement of one experimenter by another;

1. the imperfection of the test for assessing a given quality or a specific indicator of preparedness.

There are special mathematical formulas to determine the test reliability factor.

Table 2 shows the gradation of test reliability levels.

Tests whose reliability is less than the values ​​indicated in the table are not recommended.

Speaking about the reliability of tests, they distinguish between their stability (reproducibility), consistency, equivalence.

Under stability test understand the reproducibility of the results when it is repeated after a certain time in the same conditions. Retesting is commonly referred to as retest . The stability of the test depends on:

type of test;

The contingent of subjects;

Time interval between test and retest.

To quantify stability, analysis of variance is used, in the same way as in the case of calculating ordinary reliability.

Consistencytest is characterized by the independence of test results from the personal qualities of the person conducting or evaluating the test. If the results of athletes in the test, which is carried out by different specialists (experts, judges), are the same, then this indicates

high degree of test consistency. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods by different specialists.

When created new test, you need to check it for consistency. This is done as follows: a unified test methodology is developed, and then two or more specialists take turns testing the same athletes under standard conditions.

Test equivalence.One and the same motor quality (ability, preparedness side) can be measured using several tests. For example, maximum speed - according to the results of running segments of 10, 20 or 30 m on the move. Strength endurance - according to the number of pull-ups on the bar, push-ups, the number of barbell lifts in the supine position, etc. Such tests are called equivalent .

The equivalence of tests is defined as follows: athletes perform one type of test and then, after a short rest, the second, etc.

If the results of the assessments are the same (for example, the best in pull-ups turn out to be the best in push-ups), then this indicates the equivalence of the tests. The equivalence ratio is determined using correlation or dispersion analysis.

The use of equivalent tests increases the reliability of assessing the controlled properties of athletes' motor skills. Therefore, if you need to conduct an in-depth examination, then it is better to apply several equivalent tests. Such a complex is called homogeneous . In all other cases it is better to use heterogeneous complexes: they consist of non-equivalent tests.

There are no universal homogeneous or heterogeneous complexes. So, for example, for poorly trained people, such a complex as running 100 and 800 meters, jumping and length from a place, pulling up on the crossbar will be homogeneous. For highly qualified athletes, it can be heterogeneous.

To a certain extent, the reliability of tests can be improved by:

More stringent standardization of testing,

An increase in the number of attempts

Increasing the number of evaluators (judges, experts) and increasing the consistency of their opinions,

Increasing the number of equivalent tests,

• better motivation of the examinees,
• metrologically substantiated choice of technical means of measurements, providing the specified accuracy of measurements in the testing process.

Informativeness of tests.

Informativeness of the test- this is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.) for which it is used. Before 1980, the term “informativeness” was replaced by the adequate term “validity” in the literature.

Currently, information content is subdivided, classified into several types. The structure of information types is shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. The structure of the types of information.

So, in particular, if the test is used to determine the state of the athlete at the time of the examination, then one speaks ofdiagnosticinformative. If, on the basis of test results, they want to draw a conclusion about the possible future performance of an athlete, the test must havepredictiveinformative. A test may be diagnostically informative, but not prognostic and vice versa.

The degree of informativeness can be characterized quantitatively - on the basis of experimental data (the so-called empirical informative) and qualitative - based on a meaningful analysis of the situation (meaningful or logicalinformative). In this case, the test is called meaningful or logically informative based on the opinions of expert experts.

factorial informativeness is one of the most frequent models theoretical informative. The informativeness of tests in relation to the latent criterion, which is artificially compiled from their results, is determined on the basis of the indicators of the battery of tests using factor analysis.

Factor information content is associated with the concept of test dimension in the sense that the number of factors also necessarily determines the number of hidden criteria. At the same time, the dimension of tests depends not only on the number of motor abilities being assessed, but also on other properties of the motor test. When this influence can be partially eliminated, then the factor information content remains a mobile model approximation of theoretical or constructive information content, i.e. validity of motor tests for motor abilities.

Simple or complexinformativeness is distinguished by the number of tests for which the criterion is chosen, i.e. for one or two or more tests. The following three types of informativeness are closely related to the questions of the mutual relation of simple and complex informativeness. Pure Informativeness expresses the degree to which the complex informativeness of a battery of tests increases when a given test is included in a battery of tests of a higher order. Paramorphic information content expresses the internal information content of the test within the framework of the forecast of giftedness for a particular activity. It is determined by specialist experts, taking into account the professional assessment of giftedness. It can be defined as the hidden (for specialists "intuitive") informativeness of individual tests.

obvious informativeness is largely related to the content and shows how obvious the content of the tests is for the tested persons. It is related to the motivation of the subjects. informativeinternal or externalarises depending on whether the informativeness of the test is determined on the basis of comparison with the results of other tests or on the basis of a criterion that is external to this battery of tests.

Absolute Informativeness refers to the definition of one criterion in the absolute sense, without involving any other criteria.

differentialinformative characterizes the mutual differences between two or more criteria. For example, when choosing sports talents, there may be a situation where the test person shows abilities in two different sports disciplines. In this case, it is necessary to decide which of these two disciplines he is most capable of.

In accordance with the time interval between the measurement (testing) and the determination of the results of the criterion, two types of informativeness are distinguished -synchronous and diachronic. Diachronic information content, or information content to non-simultaneous criteria, can take two forms. One of them is the case where the criterion would be measured before the test −retrospectiveinformative.

If we talk about assessing the preparedness of athletes, then the most informative indicator is the result in a competitive exercise. However, it depends on a large number of factors, and the same result in a competitive exercise can be shown by people who differ markedly from each other in the structure of preparedness. For example, an athlete with excellent swimming technique and relatively low physical performance and an athlete with average technique but high performance will compete equally well (ceteris paribus).

Informative tests are used to identify the leading factors on which the result in a competitive exercise depends. But how to find out the measure of informativeness of each of them? For example, which of the following tests are informative in assessing the readiness of tennis players: simple reaction time, choice reaction time, jump up from a place, 60-meter run? To answer this question, it is necessary to know the methods for determining information content. There are two of them: logical (meaningful) and empirical.

Boolean Methoddetermination of informativeness of tests. The essence of this method of determining the informativeness lies in the logical (qualitative) comparison of biomechanical, physiological, psychological and other characteristics of the criterion and tests.

Suppose we want to select tests to assess the readiness of highly qualified 400-meter runners. Calculations show that in this exercise, with a result of 45.0, approximately 72% of the energy is supplied by anaerobic mechanisms of energy production and 28% by aerobic ones. Consequently, the most informative tests will be those that allow to reveal the level and structure of the runner's anaerobic capabilities: running in segments of 200–300 m at maximum speed, jumping from foot to foot at a maximum pace at a distance of 100–200 m, repeated running in segments up to 50 m s very short rest intervals. As shown by clinical and biochemical studies, the results of these tasks can be used to judge the power and capacity of anaerobic energy sources and, therefore, they can be used as informative tests.

The simple example given above is of limited value, since in cyclic sports the logical information content can be tested experimentally. Most often, the logical method for determining information content is used in sports where there is no clear quantitative criterion. For example, in sports games, the logical analysis of game fragments allows you to first design a specific test, and then check its informativeness.

empirical methoddetermining the information content of tests in the presence of measured criterion. Previously, the importance of using a single logical analysis for a preliminary assessment of the information content of tests was mentioned. This procedure allows you to weed out obviously uninformative tests, the structure of which does not correspond much to the structure of the main activity of athletes or athletes. The rest of the tests, the informativeness of which is recognized as high, must undergo additional empirical testing. To do this, the test results are compared with the criterion. The criterion is usually used:

1) result in a competitive exercise;

2) the most significant elements of competitive exercises;

3) the results of tests, the information content of which for athletes of this qualification was established earlier;

4) the amount of points scored by the athlete when performing a set of tests;

5) qualification of athletes.

When using the first four criteria general scheme determining the information content of the test is as follows:

1) the quantitative values ​​of the criteria are measured. For this, it is not necessary to hold special competitions. You can, for example, use the results of previous competitions. It is only important that the competition and testing are not separated by a long period of time.

If any element of a competitive exercise is supposed to be used as a criterion, it must be the most informative.

Let's consider the methodology for determining the information content of the indicators of a competitive exercise using the following example.

At the national championship in cross-country skiing at a distance of 15 km on a slope with a steepness of 7 °, the length of steps and running speed were recorded. The obtained values ​​were compared with the place occupied by the athlete in the competition (see table).

Correlation between results in a 15 km cross-country race, stride length and uphill speed

Already a visual assessment of the ranked series indicates that high results in competitions were achieved by athletes with more speed on the rise and with a longer stride length. The calculation of rank correlation coefficients confirms this: between the place in the competition and the length of the step rtt = 0.88; between the place in the competition and the speed on the rise - 0.86. Therefore, both of these indicators are highly informative.

It should be noted that their meanings are also interrelated: r = 0.86.

So, the length of the step and the speed of running on the rise - equivalent tests and to control the competitive activity of skiers, you can use any of them.

2) the next step is to conduct testing and evaluate it

results;

3) the last stage of work is the calculation of the correlation coefficients between the values ​​of the criterion and tests. The highest correlation coefficients obtained in the course of calculations will indicate the high informativeness of the tests.

An empirical method for determining the informativeness of testsin the absence of a single criterion. This situation is most typical for mass physical culture, where there is either no single criterion, or the form of its presentation does not allow using the methods described above to determine the information content of tests. Suppose that we need to make a set of tests to control the physical fitness of students. Taking into account the fact that there are several million students in the country and such control should be massive, certain requirements are imposed on the tests: they must be simple in technique, performed in the simplest conditions and have a simple and objective system of measurements. There are hundreds of such tests, but you need to choose the most informative.

This can be done in the following way: 1) select several dozen tests, the informative content of which seems undeniable; 2) with their help to assess the level of development of physical qualities in a group of students; 3) process the obtained results on a computer, using factor analysis for this.

This method is based on the premise that the results of many tests depend on a relatively small number of reasons, which are named for convenience. factors . For example, the results in the standing long jump, grenade throwing, pull-ups, bench press of the maximum weight, in the 100 and 5000 m run depend on endurance, strength and speed qualities. However, the contribution of these qualities to the result of each of the exercises is not the same. So, the result in a 100-meter run strongly depends on speed-strength qualities and a little on endurance, bench press - on maximum strength, pull-ups - on strength endurance, etc.

In addition, the results of some of these tests are interrelated, since they are based on the manifestation of the same qualities. Factor analysis allows, firstly, to group tests that have a common qualitative basis, and, secondly (and most importantly), to determine their share in this group. Tests with the highest factor weight are considered the most informative.

The best example of using this approach in domestic practice is presented in the work of V. M. Zatsiorsky and N. V. Averkovich (1982). 108 students were examined on 15 tests. With the help of factor analysis, it was possible to identify the three most important factors for this group of subjects: 1) the strength of the muscles of the upper limbs; 2) the strength of the muscles of the lower extremities; 3) the strength of the abdominal muscles and hip flexors. According to the first factor, the test had the greatest weight - push-ups in emphasis, according to the second - a long jump from a place, according to the third - raising straight legs in the hang and transitions to a sitting position from a supine position for one minute. These four tests out of 15 surveyed were the most informative.

The value (degree) of informativeness of the same test varies depending on a number of factors influencing its performance. The main of these factors are shown in the figure.

Rice. 2. The structure of factors affecting the degree

Informativeness of the test.

When evaluating the information content of a particular test, it is necessary to take into account factors that largely affect the value of the coefficient of information content.

Assessment is a unified measure of sports results and tests.

As a rule, any integrated control program involves the use of not one, but several tests. Thus, the complex for monitoring the fitness of athletes includes the following tests: running time on the treadmill, heart rate, maximum oxygen consumption, maximum strength, etc. If one test is used for control, then there is no need to evaluate its results using special methods: and so you can see who is stronger and how much. If there are many tests and they are measured in different units (for example, force in kg or N; time in s; MPC - in ml / kg min; HR - in beats / min, etc.), then compare the achievements by absolute values indicators is not possible. This problem can be solved only if the test results are presented in the form of assessments (points, points, marks, categories, etc.). The final assessment of the qualifications of athletes is influenced by age, health status, environmental and other features of the control conditions. With the receipt of the results of the measurement or testing, the athlete's control test does not end. It is necessary to evaluate the results obtained.

Assessment (or pedagogical assessment)is called a unified measure of success in any task, in a particular case - in the test.

There are educational grades that the teacher gives to students in the course of the educational process, andqualifying,which refers to all other types of assessments (in particular, the results of official competitions, testing, etc.).

The process of determining (deriving, calculating) estimates is called evaluation . It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected, with the help of which it is possible to translate the test results into grades;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted into points (points);

3) the points obtained are compared with the norms, and the final score is displayed. It also characterizes the level of preparedness of an athlete in relation to other members of the group (team, collective).

Action Name Used

Testing

Measurement Measurement scale

test result

Intermediate assessment Grading scale

Glasses

(intermediate estimate)

Final assessment Norms

final grade

Rice. 3. Scheme for evaluating sports results and test results

Not in all cases, the assessment takes place according to such a detailed scheme. Sometimes midterm and final grades are merged.

The tasks that are solved in the course of assessment are diverse. Among them are the main ones:

1) according to the results of evaluation, it is necessary to compare different achievements in competitive exercises. Based on this, it is possible to create scientifically based discharge standards in sports. The consequence of lower standards is an increase in the number of dischargers who are not worthy of this title. Inflated norms become unattainable for many and force people to stop playing sports;

2) comparison of achievements in different types sports allows you to solve the problem of equality and their level norms (the situation is unfair if we assume that in volleyball it is easy to fulfill the norm of the first category, and in athletics it is difficult);

3) it is necessary to classify many tests according to the results that a particular athlete shows in them;

4) it is necessary to establish the training structure of each of the athletes subjected to testing.

You can convert test results into points different ways. In practice, this is often done by ranking, or ordering, a recorded set of measurements.

Example such a ranking is given in the table.

Table. Ranking of test results.

The table shows that the best result is worth 1 point, and each subsequent one is worth a point more. Despite the simplicity and convenience of this approach, its injustice is obvious. If we take a 30-meter run, then the differences between the 1st and 2nd places (0.4 s) and between the 2nd and 3rd (0.1 s) are evaluated equally, at 1 point. Similarly, in the assessment of pull-ups: the difference in one repetition and in seven is evaluated equally.

Evaluation is carried out in order to stimulate the athlete to achieve maximum results. But with the approach described above, athlete A, pulling up 6 times more, will receive the same points as for the increase in one repetition.

In view of all that has been said, the transformation of test results and evaluation should be carried out not by ranking, but by using special scales for this. The law of converting sports results into points is called rating scale. The scale can be specified as a mathematical expression (formula), table or graph. The figure shows four types of such scales found in sports and physical education.

Glasses Glasses

A B

600 600

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Glasses Glasses

C D

600 600

12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0 12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Rice. 4. Types of scales used in evaluating the results of control:

A - proportional scale; B - progressive; B - regressive,

G - S-shaped.

First (A) - proportionalscale. When using it, equal gains in test results are encouraged by equal gains in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from the figure, a decrease in running time by 0.1 s is estimated at 20 points. They will be given to an athlete who ran 100 m in 12.8 s and ran this distance in 12.7 s, and an athlete who improved his result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are accepted in modern pentathlon, speed skating, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, biathlon and other sports.

The second type is progressivescale (B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal gains in results are evaluated differently. The higher the absolute gains, the greater the increase in valuation. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 30 points. Progressive scales are used in swimming, certain types of athletics, and weightlifting.

The third type is regressive scale (B). In this scale, as in the previous one, equal gains in test results are also evaluated differently, but the higher the absolute gains, the smaller the increase in the score. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points ... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points . Scales of this type are accepted in some types of athletics jumps and throws.

The fourth type is sigmoid (or S-shaped)) scale (D). It can be seen that here the gains in the middle zone are valued the most, and the improvement of very low or very high results is weakly encouraged. So, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are awarded, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s - 30 points. In sports, such scales are not used, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, this is how the scale of physical fitness standards for the US population looks like.

Each of these scales has its own advantages and disadvantages. You can eliminate the latter and strengthen the former by correctly applying one or another scale.

Evaluation, as a unified measure of sports results, can be effective if it is fair and usefully applied in practice. And it depends on the criteria on the basis of which the results are evaluated. When choosing criteria, one should keep in mind the following questions: 1) what results should be put at the zero point of the scale? And 2) how to evaluate intermediate and maximum achievements?

It is advisable to use the following criteria:

1. Equality of time intervals required to achieve results corresponding to the same categories in different sports. Naturally, this is possible only if the content and organization of the training process in these sports do not differ sharply.

2. Equality of the volume of loads that must be spent to achieve the same qualification standards in different sports.

3. Equality of world records in different sports.

4. Equal ratios between the number of athletes who have fulfilled the category standards in different sports.

In practice, several scales are used to evaluate test results.

standard scale. It is based on a proportional scale, and it got its name because the scale in it is the standard (root mean square) deviation. The most common T-scale.

When using it, the average result is equal to 50 points, and the whole formula looks like this:

X i -X

Т = 50+10  ——— = 50+10  Z

where T is the score in the test; X i - the result shown;

X is the average result; is the standard deviation.

For example , If the standing long jump average was 224 cm and the standard deviation was 20 cm, then 222 cm scores 49 points and 266 cm scores 71 points (check that these calculations are correct).

In practice, other standard scales are also used.

Table 3 Some standard scales

Name of the scale Basic formula Where and for what it is used

С – scale С=5+2  Z During mass surveys, when

Not much precision required

School grade scale H=3-Z In a number of European countries

Binet scale B =100+16  Z In psychological research

Vaniyah intellect

Examination scale E =500+100  Z In the USA, upon admission to higher

educational institution

Percentile scale. This scale is based on the following operation: each athlete from the group receives for his result (in competitions or in the test) as many points as he outperformed the percentage of athletes. Thus, the score of the winner is 100 points; the score of the last one is 0 points. The percentile scale is most suitable for evaluating results large groups athletes. In such groups, the statistical distribution of the results is normal (or almost normal). This means that only a few of the group show very high and low results, and the majority show average results.

The main advantage of this scale is simplicity, no formulas are needed here, and the only thing that needs to be calculated is how many results of athletes fit into one percentile (or how many percentiles fall on one person).). Percentile is the scale interval. With 100 athletes in one percentile, one result; at 50 - one result fits into two percentiles (i.e. if an athlete beats 30 people, he gets 60 points).

Fig.5. An example of a percentile scale built based on the results of testing students of Moscow universities in long jumps (n=4000, data from E. Ya. Bondarevsky):

on the abscissa - the result in long jumps, on the ordinate - the percentage of students who showed a result equal to or better than this one (for example, 50% of students in the long jump 4 m 30 cm and further)

The ease of processing the results and the clarity of the percentile scale led to their widespread use in practice.

Scales of selected points.When developing tables for sports, it is not always possible to obtain a statistical distribution of test results. Then they proceed as follows: they take some high sports result (for example, a world record or the 10th result in the history of this sport) and equate it to, say, 1000 or 1200 points. Then, based on the results of mass tests, the average achievement of a group of poorly trained individuals is determined and equated to, say, 100 points. After that, if a proportional scale is used, all that remains is to perform arithmetic calculations - after all, two points uniquely define a straight line. A scale constructed in this way is calledscale of selected points.

The next steps for constructing tables for sports - the choice of a scale and the establishment of interclass intervals - have not yet been scientifically substantiated, and a certain subjectivity is allowed here, based on

on the personal opinion of experts. Therefore, many athletes and coaches in almost all sports where scoring tables are used, consider them not quite fair.

Parametric scales.In sports of a cyclical nature and in weightlifting, the results depend on such parameters as the length of the distance and the weight of the athlete. These dependencies are called parametric.

One can find parametric dependencies, which are the locus of equivalent achievement points. Scales built on the basis of these dependencies are called parametric and are among the most accurate.

GTSOLIFK scale. The scales discussed above are used to evaluate the results of a group of athletes, and the purpose of their application is to determine interindividual differences (in points). In the practice of sports, coaches constantly face another problem: the evaluation of the results of periodic testing of the same athlete at different periods of the cycle or stage of preparation. For this purpose, the GTSOLIFK scale is proposed, expressed in the formula:

Best Score – Estimated Score

Score in points =100 x (1-)

Best result – Worst result

The meaning of this approach is that the test result is considered not as an abstract value, but in relation to the best and worst results shown in this test by the athlete. As can be seen from the formula, the best result is always estimated at 100 points, the worst - at 0 points. It is expedient to use this scale to evaluate variable indicators.

Example. The best result in the triple jump from a place is 10 m 26 cm, the worst is 9 m 37 cm. The current result is 10 m flat.

10.26 - 10.0

His score=100 x (1- —————-) = 71 points.

10,26 - 9,37

Evaluation of a set of tests. There are two main options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a set of tests. The first is to derive a generalized assessment, which informatively characterizes the preparedness of an athlete in competitions. This allows you to use it for prediction: a regression equation is calculated, solving which, you can predict the result in the competition based on the sum of points for testing.

However, simply summing up the results of a particular athlete in all tests is not entirely correct, since the tests themselves are not equivalent. For example, of the two tests (response time to a signal and the time to maintain maximum running speed), the second is more important for a sprinter than the first. This importance (weight) of the test can be taken into account in three ways:

1. An expert assessment is given. In this case, experts agree that one of the tests (for example, retention time V ma x ) a coefficient of 2 is assigned. And then the points awarded for this test are first doubled, and then added to the points for the reaction time.

2. The coefficient for each test is set on the basis of factor analysis. It is known that it allows you to select indicators with a greater or lesser factor weight.

3. A quantitative measure of the weight of a test can be the value of the correlation coefficient calculated between its result and achievement in the competition.

In all these cases, the estimates obtained are called "weighted".

The second option for evaluating the results of integrated control is to build " profile » Athlete - a graphical form of presentation of test results. The lines of the graphs clearly reflect the strengths and weak sides fitness of athletes.

Norms are the basis for comparing results.

Norma in sports metrology is called the boundary value of the test result, on the basis of which the classification of athletes is made.

There are official standards: discharge in the EVSK, in the past - in the TRP complex. Unofficial norms are also used: they are established by coaches or specialists in the field of sports training to classify athletes according to some qualities (properties, abilities).

There are three types of norms: a) comparative; b) individual; c) due.

Comparative normsare established after comparing the achievements of people belonging to the same population. The procedure for determining comparative norms is as follows: 1) a set of people is selected (for example, students humanitarian universities Moscow); 2) their achievements in a set of tests are determined; 3) mean values ​​and standard (root mean square) deviations are determined; 4) value X±0.5 is taken as an average norm, and the remaining gradations (low - high, very low - very high) - depending on the coefficient at .For example, the value of the result in the test is over X + 2 considered a “very high” standard.

The implementation of this approach is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Classification

Men by level

Health

(according to K. Cooper)

Individual normsbased on comparison of indicators

the same athlete in different states. These norms are extremely important for the individualization of training in all sports. The need to determine them arose due to significant differences in the structure of athletes' fitness.

The gradation of individual norms is established using the same statistical procedures. For the average norm here, you can take the test indicators corresponding to the average result in a competitive exercise. Individual rates are widely used in monitoring.

due standards are established on the basis of the requirements that the living conditions, profession, and the need to prepare for the defense of the Motherland impose on a person. Therefore, in many cases they are ahead of the actual indicators. In sports practice, due standards are established as follows: 1) informative indicators of an athlete's preparedness are determined;

2) results in a competitive exercise and corresponding achievements in tests are measured; 3) a regression equation of the type y=kx+b is calculated, where x is the proper result in the test, and y is the predicted result in the competitive exercise. Proper results in the test are the proper norm. It must be achieved, and only then it will be possible to show the planned result in the competition.

Comparative, individual and due standards are based on a comparison of the results of one athlete with the results of other athletes, the performance of the same athlete in different periods and different conditions, the available data with due values.

Age norms. In the practice of physical education, age norms are most widely used. A typical example is the norms of a comprehensive program of physical education for students of a general education school, the norms of the TRP complex, etc. Most of these norms were drawn up in the traditional way: test results in various age groups were processed using a standard scale, and norms were determined on this basis.

This approach has one significant drawback: focusing on the passport age of a person does not take into account the significant impact on any indicators of biological age and body size.

Experience shows that among 12-year-old boys there are great differences in body length: 130 - 170 cm (X = 149 ± 9 cm). The higher the height, the longer, as a rule, the length of the legs. Therefore, in running 60 meters with the same frequency of steps, tall children will show less time.

Age norms, taking into account biological age and physique. Indicators of the biological (motor) age of a person are devoid of the shortcomings inherent in the indicators of passport age: their values ​​correspond to the average calendar age of people. Table 5 shows the motor age according to the results in two tests.

Table 5. Motor

Boys age

According to the results

long jump with

Run and throw

Ball (80 g)

In accordance with the data of this table, a boy of any passport age will have a motor age of ten years, jumping in length from a run of 2 m 76 cm and throwing a ball at 29 m. More often, however, it happens that one test (for example , jump) the boy is ahead of his passport age by two or three years, and in another way (throwing) - by one year. In this case, the average for all tests is determined, which comprehensively reflects the motor age of the child.

The definition of norms can also be carried out taking into account the joint effect on the results in tests of passport age, length and body weight. A regression analysis is carried out and an equation is drawn up:

Y \u003d K 1 X 1 + K 2 X 2 + K 3 X 3 + b,

where Y is the proper result in the test; x1 - passport age; X 2 - length and X 3 - body weight.

Based on the solutions of the regression equations, nomograms are compiled, according to which it is easy to determine the proper result.

suitability of standards.Norms are drawn up for a certain group of people and are suitable only for this group. For example, according to Bulgarian experts, the norm in throwing a ball weighing 80 g for ten-year-old children living in Sofia is 28.7 m, in other cities - 30.3 m, in rural areas - 31.60 m. The situation is the same in our country: the norms developed in the Baltics are not suitable for the center of Russia, and even more so for Central Asia. The suitability of norms only for the population for which they are developed is called the relevance of the rules.

Another characteristic of the norms -representativeness. It reflects their suitability for assessing all people from the general population (for example, for assessing the physical condition of all first-graders in the city of Moscow). Only norms obtained on typical material can be representative.

The third characteristic of norms is their modernity . It is known that the results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and it is not recommended to use the norms developed long ago. Some norms established many years ago are now perceived as naive, although at one time they reflected the actual situation that characterizes the average level of a person's physical condition.

Quality measurement.

Quality is a generalized concept that can refer to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical culture and sports.

quality indicators are called indicators that do not have specific units of measurement. There are many such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, diving; entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetry methods are used.

Qualimetry is a branch of metrology that studies the issues of measuring and quantifying quality indicators. Quality measurement- this is the establishment of a correspondence between the characteristics of such indicators and the requirements for them. At the same time, the requirements (“standard of quality”) cannot always be expressed in an unambiguous and unified form for all. A specialist who evaluates the expressiveness of an athlete's movements mentally compares what he sees with what he imagines as expressiveness.

In practice, however, quality is assessed not by one, but by several criteria. At the same time, the highest generalized score does not necessarily correspond to the maximum values ​​for each attribute.

Qualimetry is based on several starting points:

• any quality can be measured; quantitative methods have long been used in sports to assess the beauty and expressiveness of movements, and are currently used to assess all aspects of sportsmanship without exception, the effectiveness of training and competitive activities, the quality of sports equipment, etc.;
• quality depends on a number of properties that form "quality tree.

Example: a tree of the quality of the performance of exercises in figure skating, consisting of three levels - the highest (the quality of the performance of the composition as a whole), the middle (performance technique and artistry) and the lowest (measurable indicators characterizing the quality of the performance of individual elements);

• each property is defined by two numbers:relative indicator K and weight M;
• the sum of the weights of properties at each level is equal to one (or 100%).

The relative indicator characterizes the revealed level of the measured property (as a percentage of its maximum possible level), and the weightiness characterizes the comparative importance of different indicators. For example, the skater received an assessment for the performance technique K c = 5.6 points, and for artistry - a mark K t = 5.4 points. The weights of performance technique and artistry in figure skating are recognized as the same(M c \u003d M t \u003d 1.0). Therefore, the overall score Q = M c K c + M t K t was 11.0 points.

Methodological techniques qualimetry are divided into two groups: heuristic (intuitive) - based on expert assessments and questionnaires - and instrumental or instrumental.

Conducting an examination and questioning is partly a technical job, requiring strict adherence to certain rules, and partly an art that requires intuition and experience.

Method of expert assessments. Expert called an assessment obtained by asking for the opinions of specialists. Expert (from Latin e xpertus - experienced) - a knowledgeable person invited to solve an issue that requires special knowledge. This method allows using a specially selected scale to make the required measurements by subjective assessments of specialist experts. Such estimates are random variables and can be processed by some methods of multivariate statistical analysis.

As a rule, expert evaluation or examination is carried out in the form survey or questionnaire expert groups. Questionnaire called a questionnaire containing questions that must be answered in writing. The technique of examination and questioning is the collection and generalization of the opinions of individuals. The motto of the examination is “Mind is good, but two is better!”. Typical examples of expertise: judging in gymnastics and figure skating, competition for the title of the best in the profession or the best scientific work etc.

Experts are consulted whenever it is impossible or very difficult to make measurements using more accurate methods. Sometimes it is better to get an approximate solution immediately than to look for ways of an exact solution for a long time. But the subjective assessment significantly depends on the individual characteristics of the expert: qualifications, erudition, experience, personal tastes, health status, etc. Therefore, individual opinions are considered as random variables and are processed by statistical methods. Thus, modern expertise is a system of organizational, logical and mathematical-statistical procedures aimed at obtaining information from specialists and analyzing it in order to develop optimal solutions. And the best coach (teacher, leader, etc.) is the one who relies simultaneously on his own experience, and on the data of science, and on the knowledge of other people.

The method of group examination includes: 1) the formulation of tasks; 2) selection and staffing of a group of experts; 3) drawing up an examination plan; 4) conducting a survey of experts; 5) analysis and processing of the received information.

Selection of experts- an important stage of the examination, since reliable data can not be obtained from any specialist. An expert can be a person: 1) having a high level vocational training; 2) capable of critical analysis of the past and present and of predicting the future; 3) psychologically stable, not inclined to conciliation.

There are other important qualities of experts, but the above must be mandatory. So, for example, the professional competence of an expert is determined: a) by the degree of closeness of his assessment to the group average; b) according to the indicators of solving test problems.

For an objective assessment of the competence of experts, special questionnaires can be drawn up, answering the questions of which within a strictly defined time, candidates for experts must demonstrate their knowledge. In addition, it is useful to invite them to complete a self-assessment of their knowledge. Experience shows that people with high self-esteem make fewer mistakes than others.

Another approach to the selection of experts is based on determining the effectiveness of their activities.Absolute EfficiencyThe activity of an expert is determined by the ratio of the number of cases when the expert correctly predicted the further course of events, to the total number of examinations conducted by this specialist. For example, if an expert participated in 10 examinations and 6 times his point of view was confirmed, then the effectiveness of such an expert is 0.6.Relative efficiencyof the expert's activity is the ratio of the absolute effectiveness of his activity to the average absolute efficiency of the group of experts.Objective assessmentsuitability of an expert is determined by the formula:

 M=| M - M east | ,

Where is M ist — true assessment; M - expert's estimate.

It is desirable to have a homogeneous group of experts, but if this fails, then a rank is introduced for each of them. It is obvious that the expert is the more valuable, the higher the performance indicators. To improve the quality of expertise, they try to improve the qualifications of experts through special training, training and familiarization with the most extensive objective information on the problem being analyzed. Judges in many sports can be considered as a kind of experts who evaluate the skill of an athlete (for example, in gymnastics) or the course of a fight (for example, in boxing).

Preparation and conduct of the examination. The preparation of the examination is reduced mainly to the preparation of a plan for its implementation. Its most important sections are the selection of experts, the organization of their work, the formulation of questions, and the processing of results.

There are several ways to conduct an examination. The simplest of them is ranging , which consists in determining the relative importance of the objects of expertise based on their ordering. Usually the most preferred object is assigned the highest (first) rank, the least preferred - the last rank.

After evaluation, the object that received the highest preference from the experts receives the smallest sum of ranks. Recall that in the accepted rating scale, the rank determines only the place of the object relative to other objects that have undergone examination. But the ranking does not allow to estimate how far these objects are from each other. In this regard, the ranking method is used relatively rarely.

The more widely used methoddirect evaluationobjects on a scale, when the expert places each object in a certain estimated interval. The third method of examination:sequential comparison of factors.

Comparison of objects of examination using this method is carried out as follows:

1) first they are ranked in order of importance;

2) the most important object is assigned a score equal to one, and the rest (also in the order of significance) - scores less than one - up to zero;

3) experts decide whether the assessment of the first object will surpass all others in importance. If so, then the "weight" estimate of that object increases even more; if not, then a decision is made to reduce its estimate;

4) this procedure is repeated until all objects are evaluated.

Finally, the fourth method ispair comparison method— based on a pairwise comparison of all factors. In this case, the most significant one is established in each compared pair of objects (it is estimated with a score of 1). The second object of this pair is estimated at 0 points.

Such a method of expert assessments has become widespread in physical culture and sports. questioning . The questionnaire is presented here as a sequential set of questions, the answers to which are used to judge the relative importance of the property in question or the likelihood of any events occurring.

When compiling questionnaires, the greatest attention is paid to a clear and meaningful formulation of questions. By their nature, they are divided into the following types:

1) a question, in answering which it is necessary to choose one of the pre-formulated opinions (in some cases, each of these opinions must be quantified by the expert on a scale of order);

2) the question of what decision the expert would make in a certain situation (and here it is possible to choose several decisions with a quantitative assessment of the preference for each of them);

3) a question that requires estimating the numerical values ​​of some quantity.

The survey can be conducted both in person and in absentia in one or more rounds.

The development of computer technology makes it possible to conduct a survey in the mode of dialogue with a computer. A feature of the dialogue method is the compilation of a mathematical program that provides for the logical construction of questions and the sequence of their playback on the display, depending on the types of answers to them. Standard situations are stored in the memory of the machine, allowing you to control the correctness of entering answers, the correspondence of numerical values ​​to the range of real data. The computer controls the possibility of errors and, if they occur, finds the cause and points to it.

Recently, qualimetric methods (expertise, questioning, etc.) are increasingly used to solve optimization problems (optimization of competitive activity, training process). The modern approach to optimization problems is associated with simulation modeling of competitive and training activities. Unlike other types of modeling, when synthesizing a simulation model, along with mathematically accurate data, qualitative information is used, which is collected by methods of examination, questioning and observation. For example, when modeling the competitive activity of skiers, it is impossible to accurately predict the glide coefficient. Its likely value can be estimated by interviewing ski waxers familiar with climatic conditions and features of the track on which the competition will take place.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CHECKING

1. What parameters are the main measured and controlled in the modern theory and practice of sports?
2. Why is variability one of the characteristics of an athlete as an object of measurement?
3. Why should we strive to reduce the number of measurable variables that control the athlete's condition?
4. What characterizes the quality in sports research?
5. What opportunity does adaptability provide to the athlete?
6. What is called a test?
7. What are the metrological requirements for tests?
8. What tests are called good?
9. What is the difference between normative and criteria based testing?
10. What are the types of motor tests?
11. What is the difference between homogeneous tests and heterogeneous ones?
12. What requirements must be met to standardize testing?

13. What is called the reliability of the test?

14. What introduces an error in the test results?

15. What is meant by test stability?

16. What determines the stability of the test?

1. What is test consistency?

18. What tests are called equivalent?

1. What is meant by the information value of a test?
2. What are the methods for determining the information content of tests?
3. What is the essence of the logical method for determining the informativeness of tests?
4. What is usually used as a criterion in determining the information content of tests?
5. What is done in determining the informativeness of tests when there is no single criterion?
6. What is a pedagogical assessment?
7. What is the method of evaluation?
8. In what ways can test results be converted into points?
9. What is a rating scale?
10. What are the characteristics of a proportional scale?
11. What is the difference between a progressive scale and a regressive scale?
12. When are sigmoid rating scales used?
13. What is the advantage of a percentile scale?
14. What can scales of selected points be used for?
15. For what purposes is the GTSOLIFKa scale used?
16. What are the options for evaluating the results of testing athletes on a set of tests?
17. What is the norm in sports metrology?
18. What are individual norms based on?
19. How are proper standards established in sports practice?
20. How are most age norms compiled?
21. What are the characteristics of the norms?
22. What does qualimetry study?
23. What type of peer review is carried out?
24. What qualities should an expert have?
25. How is an objective assessment of the suitability of an expert determined?

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Sports metrology is the science of measurement in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, as one of the components of practical (applied) metrology. However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology for the following reasons. In physical education and sports, some of the physical quantities (time, mass, length, force), on the problems of unity and accuracy, which metrologists focus on, are also subject to measurement. But most of all, specialists in our industry are interested in pedagogical, psychological, social, biological indicators, which cannot be called physical in their content. General metrology practically does not deal with the methods of their measurements, and therefore it became necessary to develop special measurements, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes. A feature of sports metrology is that the term “measurement” is interpreted in it in the broadest sense, since in sports practice it is not enough to measure only physical quantities. In physical culture and sports, in addition to measurements of length, height, time, mass and other physical quantities, it is necessary to evaluate technical skill, expressiveness and artistry of movements, and similar non-physical quantities. The subject of sports metrology is the complex control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes. Along with the development of fundamental and practical metrology, the formation of legal metrology took place.

Legal metrology is a section of metrology that includes sets of interrelated and interdependent general rules, as well as other issues that need regulation and control by the state, aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments.

Legal metrology serves as a means of state regulation of metrological activities through laws and legislative provisions that are put into practice through the State Metrological Service and metrological services government agencies management and legal entities. The field of legal metrology includes testing and approval of the type of measuring instruments and their verification and calibration, certification of measuring instruments, state metrological control and supervision of measuring instruments.

Metrological rules and norms of legal metrology are harmonized with the recommendations and documents of the relevant international organizations. Thus, legal metrology contributes to the development of international economic and trade relations and promotes mutual understanding in international metrological cooperation.

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11. Makarova, G. A. Sports medicine: textbook / G. A. Makarova. - M.: Soviet sport, 2002. - 564 p.

12. Maksimenko, A. M. Fundamentals of the theory and methods of physical culture: textbook. allowance for students. higher pedagogical educational institutions /M. A. Maksimenko. - M., 2001.- 318 p.

13. Scientific and methodological support of physical education, sports training and health-improving physical culture: a collection of scientific papers / ed. V. N. Medvedeva, A.I. Fedorova, S.B. Sharmanova. - Chelyabinsk: UralGAFK, 2001.

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Sports metrology is the science of measurement in physical education and sport. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, as one of the components of practical (applied) metrology.

The subject of sports metrology are complex control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

It is customary to call the main units, the values ​​\u200b\u200bof which are determined by special samples - standards

The word "value" is often tried to express the size of this particular physical quantity.

All parameters measured in the science of sports are divided into four levels:

- integral, reflecting the total (cumulative) effect of the functional state of various body systems (for example, sportsmanship);

- complex related to one of the functional systems of the athlete's body (for example, physical fitness);

- differential characterizing only one property of the system (for example, power qualities);

- single, revealing one value (value) of a separate property of the system (maximum muscle strength).

A measurement is a set of operations performed with the help of technical means that store a unit of quantity and make it possible to compare the measured value with it.

The definition has become widespread: "Measurement is a cognitive process, which consists in comparing a given quantity with a known value, taken as a unit of comparison, by means of a physical experiment."

The standard gives a more concise definition, but containing the same idea: "Measurement - finding the value of a physical quantity empirically using special technical means."

Measurements based on the use of the human senses (touch, smell, sight, hearing and taste) are called organoleptic .

Measurements performed with the help of special technical means are called instrumental . Among them can be automated and automatic.

According to the method of obtaining the numerical value of the measured value, all measurements are divided into four main types: direct, indirect, cumulative and joint .

Direct measurements- These are measurements in which the desired value of a quantity is found by direct comparison of a physical quantity with its measure. For example, when determining the length of an object with a ruler, the desired value (quantitative expression of the length value) is compared with the measure, i.e. ruler. Direct measurements include temperature measurement with a thermometer, electrical voltage with a voltmeter, etc. Direct measurements are the basis of more complex types of measurements.

Indirect measurements differ from direct ones in that the desired value of a quantity is established based on the results of direct measurements of such quantities that are associated with the desired specific dependence. So, using the known functional relationship, it is possible to calculate the electrical resistance from the results of measurements of the voltage drop and current strength. The values ​​of some quantities are easier and simpler to find by indirect measurements, since direct measurements are sometimes practically impossible to carry out. For example, the density of a solid is usually determined from measurements of volume and mass.

Cumulative measurements called those in which the values ​​of the measured quantities are found according to repeated measurements of one or more quantities of the same name with various combinations of measures or these quantities. The results of cumulative measurements are found by solving a system of equations compiled from the results of several direct measurements.

Joint measurements- these are simultaneous measurements (direct or indirect) of two or more inhomogeneous physical quantities to determine the functional relationship between them. For example, determining the dependence of body length on temperature.

According to the nature of the change in the measured value during the measurement process, there are statistical, dynamic and static measurements .

Statistical measurements associated with the determination of the characteristics of random processes, sound signals, noise levels, etc.

Dynamic measurements are associated with such quantities that undergo certain changes during the measurement process. For example, the efforts developed by an athlete during the support period when running long jumps.

Static measurements take place when the measured value is practically constant (the length of the long jump, the range of the projectile, the weight of the core, etc.).

According to the amount of measurement information, measurements are single and multiple .

Single measurements- this is one measurement of one quantity, i.e. the number of measurements is equal to the number of measured values. Since single measurements are always associated with errors, at least three single measurements should be carried out and the final result should be found as the arithmetic mean.

Multiple measurements characterized by an excess of the number of measurements of the number of measured quantities. Usually the minimum number of measurements in this case is more than three. The advantage of multiple measurements is a significant reduction in influences random factors for measurement error.

In relation to the main units of measurement, they are divided into absolute and relative . Absolute measurements are called those in which direct measurement of one (sometimes several) basic quantity and a physical constant are used. So, in the well-known formula of Einstein E = m * s, mass (m) is the main physical quantity that can be measured in a direct way (by weighing), and the speed of light (s) is a physical constant.

Relative measurements are based on establishing the ratio of the measured quantity to the homogeneous quantity used as a unit. It is clear that the desired value depends on the unit of measure used.

In metrological practice, the basis for measuring a physical quantity is measurement scale - an ordered set of values ​​of a physical quantity

Table 5. Characteristics and examples of measurement scales

Scale		Characteristics	Mathematical Methods	Examples
Items		The objects are grouped, and the groups are indicated by numbers. The fact that the number of one group is greater or less than another does not say anything about them. properties, with the exception of that they are different	Number of cases. Fashion. Tetrachoric and polychoric coefficients correlations	Athlete number, position, etc.
Order		The numbers assigned to objects reflect the amount of property they own. It is possible to set the ratio "more" or "less"	Median. Rank correlation. Rank criteria. Hypothesis testing non-parametric statistics	The results of the ranking of athletes in the test
Intervals		There is a unit of measurement by which objects can not only be ordered, but numbers can also be assigned to them so that equal differences reflect different differences in the amount of the property being measured. The null point is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a property	All methods of statistics, except for determining ratios	Body temperature, articular angles, etc.
Relative	Numbers assigned to objects have all the properties of thermal scale. On the scale there is an absolute zero, which indicates complete lack of this property object. The ratio of numbers, at- own objects after changing rhenium, reflects the quantitative measured ratios properties		All Methods statistics	Length and body mass, movement strength, acceleration etc.

When preparing and conducting high-precision measurements in metrological practice, the influence of:

Object of measurement;

Subject (expert, or experimenter);

Method of measurement;

Measuring;

Measurement conditions.

The subjects of sports metrology as part of general metrology are measurements and control in sports. And the term "measurement" in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers.

The main measurable and controllable parameters in sports medicine, training process and sport research are physiological (“internal”), physical (“external”) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and dexterity; functional parameters of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; linear and arc parameters of body dimensions.

Like any living system, an athlete is a complex, non-trivial object of measurement. From the usual, classical, objects of measurement, the athlete has a number of differences: variability, multidimensionality, quality, adaptability and mobility.

Variability - volatility of variables characterizing the state of the athlete and his activities. All indicators of an athlete are constantly changing: physiological (oxygen consumption, pulse rate, etc.), morphoanatomical (height, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psychophysiological, etc. Variability necessitates multiple measurements and processing of their results by methods of mathematical statistics,

Multidimensionality- a large number of variables that need to be measured simultaneously in order to accurately characterize the state and activity of the athlete. Along with the "output variables" that characterize the athlete, one should also control the "input variables" that characterize the influence of the external environment on the athlete. The role of input variables can be played by the intensity of physical and emotional stress, oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is caused not only by organizational difficulties that arise when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also by the fact that with an increase in the number of variables, the complexity of their analysis increases sharply.

Qualitativeness- qualitative character, i.e. no precise quantitative measure. The physical qualities of an athlete, the properties of an individual and a team, the quality of equipment and many other factors of a sports result cannot yet be accurately measured, but nevertheless should be assessed as accurately as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is hindered both in elite sports and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of monitoring the health status and workload of those involved.

adaptability- the ability of a person to adapt (adapt) to environmental conditions. Adaptability underlies learning and gives the athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in normal and difficult conditions (in hot and cold, with emotional stress, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time, adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With repeated examinations, the athlete gets used to the examination procedure (“learns to be examined”) and, as such training, begins to show different results, although his functional state may remain unchanged.

Mobility- a feature of an athlete, based on the fact that in the vast majority of sports, the activity of an athlete is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies conducted with a motionless person, measurements in sports activities are accompanied by additional distortions of the recorded curves and measurement errors.

Testing - indirect measurement

Testing replaces the measurement whenever the object under study is not available for direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of an athlete's heart during strenuous muscular work. Therefore, indirect measurement is used: heart rate and other cardiological indicators characterizing cardiac performance are measured. Tests are also used in cases where the phenomenon being studied is not quite specific.

test(from the English test - test, test) in sports practice is called a measurement or test carried out in order to determine the state or abilities of a person.

A lot of different measurements and tests can be made, but not all measurements can be used as tests. A test in sports practice can only be called a measurement or test that meets the following metrological requirements:

The purpose of the test must be defined; standardization (the methodology, procedure and conditions of testing should be the same in all cases of applying the test);

The reliability and informativeness of the test should be determined;

The test requires a grading system;

The type of control should be indicated (operational, current or staged).

Reliability of tests is the degree of agreement between the results when the same people are tested repeatedly under the same conditions. It is quite clear that the complete coincidence of the results with repeated measurements is practically impossible.

Test Consistency characterized by the independence of test results from the personal qualities of the person conducting or evaluating the test. If the results of athletes in the test conducted by different specialists (experts, judges) are the same, then this indicates a high degree of consistency of the test. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods by different specialists.

The informativeness of the test is the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.) for which it is used. In the literature before 1980, instead of the term "informativeness", the adequate term "validity" was used.

Assessment - unified meter

sports scores and tests

Assessment (or pedagogical assessment) called a unified measure of success in any task, in a particular case - in the test.

The process of determining (deriving, calculating) estimates is called evaluation. It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected, with the help of which it is possible to translate the test results into grades;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted into points (points);

3) the points obtained are compared with the norms and the final score is displayed. It also characterizes the level of preparedness of an athlete in relation to other members of the group (team, collective).

four types of such scales found in sports and physical education.

First - proportional scale (A). When using it, equal gains in test results are encouraged by equal gains in points. So, in this scale, as can be seen from Fig. 7, a 0.1 second decrease in running time is worth 20 points. They will be given to an athlete who ran 100 m in 12.8 s, and who ran the same distance in 12.7 s, and an athlete who improved his result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are accepted in modern pentathlon, speed skating, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, biathlon and other sports.

The second type - progressive scale(B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal gains in results are evaluated differently. The higher the absolute gains, the greater the prefix in the assessment. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 30 points. Progressive scales are used in swimming, certain types of athletics, and weightlifting.

The third type - regressive scale (B). In this scale, as well as the previous one, equal gains in test results are also discounted differently, but the higher the absolute gain, the smaller the increase in the score. So, for improving the result of running 100 meters from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points ... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points. Scales of this type are accepted in some types of athletics jumps and throws.

The fourth type - sieve (orS-shaped) scale (G). It can be seen that here the gains in the middle zone are valued the most, and the improvement of very low or very high results is weakly encouraged. So, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are awarded, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s - 30 points. In sports, such scales are not used, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, this is how the scale of physical fitness standards for the US population looks like.

Norms - the basis for comparing results

Norma in sports metrology is called the boundary value of the test result, on the basis of which the classification of athletes is made

suitability of standards. Norms are drawn up for a specific group of people and are suitable only for this group.

Another characteristic of the norms - representativeness. It reflects their suitability for assessing all people from the general population (for example, for assessing the physical condition of all first-graders in the city of Moscow). Only norms obtained on typical material can be representative.

The third characteristic of norms is their modernity. It is known that the results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and it is not recommended to use the norms developed long ago. Some norms established many years ago are now perceived as naive, although at one time they reflected the actual situation that characterizes the average level of a person's physical condition.

Quality is a generalized concept that can refer to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical culture and sports.

Qualitative indicators are indicators that do not have specific units of measurement. There are many such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, diving; entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetry methods are used.

Qualimetry is a branch of metrology that studies the issues of measuring and quantifying quality indicators

error called the deviation of the measurement result from the actual (true) value of the measured quantity

For reasons of error divided into instrumental, methodical and subjective. Instrumental (hardware) error- error of the measuring instrument (a component of the error of the measuring instrument) caused by the imperfection of the measuring instrument, its design and technological features, non-ideal implementation of the operating principle and the influence of external conditions. Instrumental errors usually also include interference at the input of measuring instruments caused by its connection to the object. Instrumental error is one of the most tangible components of measurement error. Methodological error- component of the measurement error, due to the imperfection of the applied measurement method and simplifications in the construction of the design of the measuring instrument, including mathematical dependencies. Sometimes measuring instruments affect the object being measured. For example, an exhalation mask makes it difficult to breathe, and an athlete may perform less than they would without a mask. In most cases, these errors "act" regularly, i.e. are classified as systematic. Subjective (personal) error arises due to the individual characteristics (degree of attentiveness, concentration, preparedness) of the operators making measurements. These errors are practically absent when using automatic or automated measuring instruments. In most cases, subjective errors are random, but some may be systematic. Real relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the true value of the measured quantity: Reduced relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the maximum possible value of the measured quantity:

The primary standard is a standard that reproduces a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy possible in a given field of measurement at the current level of scientific and technological achievements. The primary standard can be national (state) and international. A standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit in special conditions and replacing the primary standard under these conditions is called special. Primary or special standards officially approved as initial for the country are called state standards. The national standard is approved as the initial measuring instrument for the country by the national metrology body. In Russia, national (state) standards are approved by the State Standard of the Russian Federation.

A measure is a means of measurement designed to reproduce physical quantities of a given size. This type of measuring instruments includes weights, gauge blocks, etc. In practice, one-valued and multi-valued measures are used, as well as sets and stores of measures.

Measuring devices are measuring instruments that allow you to receive measurement information in a form that is convenient for the user to understand. They are a combination of transducer elements that form a measuring circuit and a reading device.

"Sports metrology"

The subject, tasks and content of "Sports metrology", its place among other academic disciplines.

Sports metrology- is the science of measurement in physical education and sports. It should be considered as a specific application to general metrology, the main task of which, as is well known, is to ensure the accuracy and uniformity of measurements.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes. The word "metrology" in translation from ancient Greek means "the science of measurements" (metron - measure, logos - word, science).

The main task of general metrology is to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements. Sports metrology as a scientific discipline is part of general metrology. Its main tasks include:

1. Development of new means and methods of measurements.

2. Registration of changes in the state of those involved under the influence of various physical loads.

3. Collection of mass data, formation of assessment systems and norms.

4. Processing of the obtained measurement results in order to organize effective control and management of the training process.

However, as an academic discipline, sports metrology goes beyond general metrology. So, in physical education and sports, in addition to ensuring the measurement of physical quantities, such as length, mass, etc., pedagogical, psychological, biological and social indicators are subject to measurement, which cannot be called physical in their content. General metrology does not deal with the methodology of their measurements and, therefore, special measurements have been developed, the results of which comprehensively characterize the preparedness of athletes and athletes.

The use of mathematical statistics methods in sports metrology made it possible to get a more accurate idea of ​​the measured objects, compare them and evaluate the measurement results.

In the practice of physical education and sports, measurements are taken in the process of systematic control (fr. checking something), during which various indicators of competitive and training activities are recorded, as well as the condition of athletes. Such control is called complex.

This makes it possible to establish causal relationships between loads and results in competitions. And after comparison and analysis, develop a program and plan for the training of athletes.

Thus, the subject of sports metrology is a comprehensive control in physical education and sports and the use of its results in planning the training of athletes and athletes.

Systematic monitoring of athletes makes it possible to determine the measure of their stability and take into account possible measurement errors.

2.Scales and units of measurement. SI system.

Name scale

Actually measurements corresponding to the definition of this action are not made in the scale of names. Here we are talking about grouping objects that are identical in a certain way, and assigning them designations. It is no coincidence that another name for this scale is nominal (from the Latin word nome - name).

The designations assigned to objects are numbers. For example, track and field athletes-long jumpers in this scale can be designated by number 1, high jumpers - 2, triple jumpers - 3, pole vaulters - 4.

With nominal measurements, the introduced symbolism means that object 1 only differs from objects 2, 3, or 4. However, how much it differs and in what exactly, cannot be measured on this scale.

order scale

If some objects have a certain quality, then ordinal measurements allow us to answer the question about the differences in this quality. For example, the 100m race is

determination of the level of development of speed-strength qualities. The athlete who won the race, the level of these qualities at the moment is higher than that of the second one. The second, in turn, is higher than the third, and so on.

But most often the order scale is used where qualitative measurements in the accepted system of units are impossible.

When using this scale, you can add and subtract ranks or perform any other mathematical operations on them.

Interval scale

The measurements in this scale are not only ordered by rank, but also separated by certain intervals. The interval scale has units of measurement (degree, second, etc.). The measured object here is assigned a number equal to the number of units it contains.

Here you can use any methods of statistics, except for the definition of relationships. This is due to the fact that the zero point of this scale is chosen arbitrarily.

Relationship scale

In the scale of ratios, the zero point is not arbitrary, and therefore, at some point in time, the quality being measured can be equal to zero. In this regard, when evaluating the results of measurements in this scale, it is possible to determine “how many times” one object is larger than another.

In this scale, one of the units of measurement is taken as a standard, and the measured value contains as many of these units as it is many times larger than the standard. The results of measurements in this scale can be processed by any methods of mathematical statistics.

Basic SI units

Value Unit Name Designation

Russian international

Length L Meter m m

Weight M Kilogram kg kg

Time T Second s S

The strength of el. current Amp A A

Temperature Kelvin K K

Quantity of substance Mole mole mol

Light intensity Candella cd cd

3. Measurement accuracy. Errors and their varieties and methods of elimination.

No measurement can be made absolutely accurate. The measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is the smaller, the more accurate the measurement method and the measuring device.

Basic error is the error in a measurement method or measuring instrument that occurs under normal conditions of use.

Additional error- this is the error of the measuring device, caused by the deviation of its operating conditions from normal.

The value D A \u003d A-A0, equal to the difference between the reading of the measuring device (A) and the true value of the measured value (A0), is called the absolute measurement error. It is measured in the same units as the measurand itself.

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the value of the measured quantity:

A systematic error is called, the value of which does not change from measurement to measurement. Because of this feature, the systematic error can often be predicted in advance or, in extreme cases, detected and eliminated at the end of the measurement process.

Taring (from German tarieren) is the verification of the readings of measuring instruments by comparison with the readings of exemplary values ​​​​of measures (standards *) in the entire range of possible values ​​​​of the measured value.

Calibration is the definition of errors or correction for a set of measures (for example, a set of dynamometers). Both during taring and calibration, instead of the athlete, a source of a reference signal of a known value is connected to the input of the measuring system.

Randomization (from the English random - random) is the transformation of a systematic error into a random one. This technique is aimed at eliminating unknown systematic errors. According to the randomization method, the measurement of the studied quantity is performed several times. In this case, the measurements are organized in such a way that the constant factor influencing their result acts differently in each case. For example, in the study of physical performance, it can be recommended to measure it repeatedly, each time changing the method of setting the load. At the end of all measurements, their results are averaged according to the rules of mathematical statistics.

Random errors arise under the influence of various factors that cannot be predicted in advance or accurately taken into account.

4. Fundamentals of the theory of probability. Random event, random variable, probability.

Probability theory- Probability theory can be defined as a branch of mathematics that studies the patterns inherent in mass random phenomena.

Conditional Probability- conditional probability PA(B) of event B is the probability of event B found under the assumption that event A has already occurred.

elementary event- events U1, U2, ..., Un, forming a complete group of pairwise incompatible and equally possible events, will be called elementary events.

random event - an event is called random if it can objectively occur or not occur in a given test.

Event - the result (outcome) of a test is called an event.

Any random event has some degree of possibility, which in principle can be measured numerically. In order to compare events according to the degree of their possibility, it is necessary to associate with each of them some number, which is the greater, the greater the possibility of the event. We will call this number the probability of the event.

Characterizing the probabilities of events by numbers, you need to establish some kind of unit of measurement. As such a unit, it is natural to take the probability of a certain event, i.e. an event which, as a result of experience, must inevitably occur.

The probability of an event is a numerical expression of the possibility of its occurrence.

In some of the simplest cases, the probabilities of events can be easily determined directly from the test conditions.

Random value- this is a quantity that, as a result of experience, takes one of the many values, and the appearance of one or another value of this quantity before its measurement cannot be accurately predicted.

5. General and sample populations. Sample size. disordered and ranked sampling.

In selective observation, the concepts of "general population" are used - the studied population of units to be studied according to the characteristics of interest to the researcher, and "sample population" - some part of it randomly selected from the general population. This sample is subject to the requirement of representativeness, i.e. when studying only a part of the general population, the findings can be applied to the entire population.

The characteristics of the general and sample populations can be the average values ​​of the studied characteristics, their variances and standard deviations, mode and median, etc. Researchers may also be interested in the distribution of units according to the characteristics studied in the general and sample populations. In this case, the frequencies are called general and sample frequencies, respectively.

The system of selection rules and ways of characterizing the units of the population under study is the content of the sampling method, the essence of which is to obtain primary data when observing the sample, followed by generalization, analysis and their distribution to the entire population in order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon under study.

The representativeness of the sample is ensured by the observance of the principle of random selection of objects in the population in the sample. If the population is qualitatively homogeneous, then the principle of randomness is implemented by a simple random selection of sample objects. Simple random selection is such a sampling procedure that provides for each unit of the population the same probability of being selected for observation for any sample of a given size. Thus, the purpose of the sampling method is to draw a conclusion about the meaning of the characteristics of the general population based on information from a random sample from this population.

Sample size - in an audit - the number of units selected by the auditor from the audited population. Sample called disordered if the order of the elements in it is not significant.

6. Basic statistical characteristics of the position of the center of the series.

Indicators of the location of the distribution center. These include power mean in the form of arithmetic mean and structuralthe averages are the mode and the median.

arithmetic mean for a discrete distribution series is calculated by the formula:

Unlike the arithmetic mean, calculated on the basis of all variants, the mode and median characterize the value of a feature in a statistical unit that occupies a certain position in the variation series.

Median ( Me) -the value of a feature of a statistical unit that is in the middle of the ranked series and divides the population into two parts equal in number.

Fashion (Mo) - the most common feature value in the population. Mode is widely used in statistical practice for studying consumer demand, price registration, etc.

For discrete variational series Mo and Me are selected in accordance with the definitions: mode - as the value of the feature with the highest frequency : the position of the median for an odd population size is determined by its number, where N is the volume of the statistical population. For an even length of the series, the median is equal to the average of the two options in the middle of the series.

The median is used as the most reliable indicator typical values ​​of a heterogeneous population, since it is insensitive to extreme values ​​of the trait, which may differ significantly from the main array of its values. In addition, the median finds practical application due to a special mathematical property: Consider the definition of mode and median in the following example: there is a number of distribution of work sites by skill level.

7. Basic statistical characteristics of dispersion (variations).

The homogeneity of statistical populations is characterized by the magnitude of the variation (scattering) of the attribute, i.e. mismatch of its values ​​for different statistical units. To measure variation in statistics, absolute and relative indicators are used.

To absolute indicators of variation relate:

Range of variation R is the simplest indicator of variation:

This indicator is the difference between the maximum and minimum values ​​of features and characterizes the spread of the population elements. The range captures only the extreme values ​​of the trait in the aggregate, does not take into account the frequency of its intermediate values, and also does not reflect the deviations of all variants of the trait values.

The scope is often used in practice, for example, the difference between max and min pension, salary in various industries, etc.

Average linear deviationd is a more rigorous characteristic of the variation of a trait, taking into account the differences in all units of the studied population. Average linear deviation represents arithmetic mean of absolute values deviations of individual options from their arithmetic mean. This indicator is calculated using the simple and weighted arithmetic mean formulas:

In practical calculations, the average linear deviation is used to assess the rhythm of production, the uniformity of supplies. Since the modules have poor mathematical properties, in practice other indicators of the average deviation from the mean are often used - variance and standard deviation.

Standard deviation is the root mean square of the deviations of the individual values ​​of the attribute from their arithmetic mean:

8. Reliability of differences in statistical indicators.

AT statistics the quantity is called statistically significant, if the probability of its occurrence by chance is small, that is, null hypothesis may be rejected. A difference is said to be "statistically significant" if there are data that would be unlikely to occur if the difference were assumed not to exist; this expression does not mean that this difference should be large, important, or significant in general sense this word.

9. Graphic representation of variation series. Polygon and distribution histogram.

Graphs are a visual form of displaying distribution series. To display the series, line graphs and planar diagrams are used, built in a rectangular coordinate system.

Various charts are used for graphical representation of distribution attribute series: bar, line, pie, curly, sector, etc.

For discrete variational series, the graph is a distribution polygon.

A distribution polygon is a broken line connecting points with coordinates or where is the discrete value of the feature, is the frequency, is the frequency. A polygon is used for a graphic representation of a discrete variational series, and this graph is a kind of statistical broken lines. Variants of a feature are plotted along the abscissa axis in a rectangular coordinate system, and the frequencies of each variant are plotted along the ordinate axis. At the intersection of the abscissa and the ordinate, the points corresponding to this distribution series are fixed. Connecting these points with straight lines, we get a broken line, which is a polygon, or an empirical distribution curve. To close the polygon, the extreme vertices are connected to points on the abscissa axis that are one division apart on the accepted scale, or to the midpoints of the previous (before the initial) and subsequent (behind the last) intervals.

To display interval variation series, histograms are used, which are stepped figures consisting of rectangles whose bases are equal to the width of the interval, and the height is equal to the frequency (frequency) of an equal-interval series or the distribution density of an unequal interval. ) variation series. At the same time, the intervals of the series are plotted on the abscissa axis. Rectangles are built on these segments, the height of which along the ordinate axis in the accepted scale corresponds to the frequencies. At equal intervals along the abscissa, rectangles are laid, closed with each other, with equal bases and ordinates proportional to the weights. This stepped polygon is called a histogram. Its construction is similar to the construction of bar charts. The histogram can be converted into a distribution polygon, for which the midpoints of the upper sides of the rectangles are connected by straight line segments. The two extreme points of the rectangles are closed along the abscissa in the middle of the intervals, similar to the closing of the polygon. In case of inequality of intervals, the graph is built not by frequencies or frequencies, but by distribution density (the ratio of frequencies or frequencies to the interval value), and then the heights of the graph rectangles will correspond to the values ​​of this density.

When constructing graphs of distribution series, the ratio of scales along the abscissa axis and the ordinate axis is of great importance. In this case, it is necessary to be guided by the "golden section rule", according to which the height of the graph should be approximately two times less than its base.

10. Normal distribution law (essence, value). Normal distribution curve and its properties. http://igriki.narod.ru/index.files/16001.GIF

A continuous random variable X is called normally distributed if its distribution density is equal to

where m is the mathematical expectation of a random variable;

σ2 - variance of a random variable, a characteristic of the dispersion of the values ​​of a random variable around the mathematical expectation.

The condition for the emergence of a normal distribution is the formation of a sign as the sum of a large number of mutually independent terms, none of which is characterized by an exceptionally large dispersion compared to other ones.

The normal distribution is limiting, other distributions approach it.

The mathematical expectation of a random variable X. is distributed according to the normal law, equal to

mx = m, and the variance Dx = σ2.

The probability of hitting a random variable X, distributed according to the normal law, in the interval (α, β) is expressed by the formula

where is a tabulated function

11. The rule of three sigma and its practical application.

When considering the normal distribution, an important special case is highlighted, known as the three-sigma rule.

Those. the probability that a random variable deviates from its mathematical expectation by an amount greater than three times the standard deviation is practically zero.

This rule is called the three sigma rule.

In practice, it is believed that if for any random variable the rule of three sigma is satisfied, then this random variable has a normal distribution.

12. Types of statistical relationship.

A qualitative analysis of the phenomenon under study makes it possible to single out the main cause-and-effect relationships of this phenomenon, to establish factorial and effective signs.

Relationships studied in statistics can be classified according to a number of criteria:

1) By the nature of the dependence: functional (hard), correlation (probabilistic) Functional relationships are relationships in which each value of the factor attribute corresponds to a single value of the effective attribute.

In the case of correlations, different values ​​of the resultant attribute may correspond to a separate value of a factor attribute.

Such relationships are manifested with a large number of observations, through a change in the average value of the resulting trait under the influence of factor traits.

2) According to the analytical expression: rectilinear, curvilinear.

3) In direction: direct, reverse.

4) According to the number of factor signs that influence the resultant sign: single-factor, multi-factor.

Tasks of statistical study of relationships:

Establishing the presence of a direction of communication;

Quantitative measurement of the influence of factors;

Measurement of tightness of communication;

Assessment of the reliability of the obtained data.

13. Main tasks of correlation analysis.

1. Measuring the degree of connectivity of two or more variables. Our general knowledge of objectively existing causal relationships must be supplemented by scientifically based knowledge of quantitative measure of dependence between variables. This paragraph means verification already known links.

2. Finding unknown causal relationships. Correlation analysis does not directly reveal causal relationships between variables, but establishes the strength of these relationships and their significance. The causal nature is clarified with the help of logical reasoning, revealing the mechanism of connections.

3. Selection of factors that significantly affect the trait. The most important factors are those that correlate most strongly with the traits being studied.

14. Correlation field. Relationship forms.

An auxiliary tool for analyzing sample data. If the values ​​of two features xl. . . xn and yl. . . yn, then when compiling the K. p., points with coordinates (xl, yl) (xn ... yn) are applied to the plane. The location of the points allows you to make a preliminary conclusion about the nature and form of dependence.

To describe the causal relationship between phenomena and processes, the division of statistical features is used, reflecting separate aspects of interrelated phenomena, on the factor and result.Factors are signs that cause a change in other related signs., being the causes and conditions of such changes. The characteristics that change under the influence of factor factors are effective..

The forms of manifestation of existing relationships are very diverse. The most common types are functional and statistical relationships.

functionalcall such a relationship in which a certain value of a factor attribute corresponds to one and only one value of the effective. Such a connection is possible with provided that the behavior of one sign (effective) is affected by only the second sign (factorial) and no others. Such connections are abstractions; in real life they are rare, but are widely used in the exact sciences and in First of all, in mathematics. For example: the dependence of the area of ​​a circle on radius: S=π∙ r 2

The functional relationship is manifested in all cases of observation and for each specific unit of the studied population. In mass phenomena appear statistical relationships in which a strictly defined value of a factor attribute is associated with a set of values ​​of the effective. Such links take place if a resultant sign is affected by several factorial, and one or more determining (accounted for) factors.

A strict distinction between functional and statistical relationships can be obtained from their mathematical formulation.

The functional connection can be represented by the equation:
due to uncontrollable factors or measurement errors.

An example of a statistical relationship is the dependence of the cost of a unit of production on the level of labor productivity: the higher the productivity of labor, the lower the cost. But in addition to labor productivity, other factors also influence the unit cost of production: the cost of raw materials, materials, fuel, general production and general business expenses, etc. Therefore, it cannot be argued that a change in labor productivity by 5% (increase) will lead to a similar cost reduction. The opposite picture can also be observed if other factors influence the cost to a greater extent, for example, prices for raw materials and materials will rise sharply.