Russian lexical system in its modern form did not appear immediately. The process of forming the vocabulary is long and complex, closely related to the history of the development of the Russian people. Historical lexicology names two main ways of development of the lexical system: 1) the emergence of primordial words, i.e. existing for a long time, constantly, from time immemorial and 2) borrowing words from other languages.

On a chronological basis, the following groups of original Russian words are distinguished, united by their origin, or genesis (gr. genesis - origin): Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic (or Old Russian) and Russian proper.

Indo-European words are called that, after the collapse of the Indo-European ethnic community (the end of the Neolithic era), were inherited by the ancient languages ​​\u200b\u200bof this language family, including the common Slavic language. So common to many indos European languages there will be some kinship terms: mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, foodstuffs: sheep, bull, wolf, meat, bone etc.

Common Slavic(or Proto-Slavic) are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes that occupied the vast territory of Eastern, Central Europe and the Balkans by the beginning of our era. As a single means of communication, it was used until about the 7th century. n. e., i.e. until the time when, in connection with the settlement of the Slavs (it began earlier, but reached its greatest intensity by the 6th-7th centuries), the linguistic community also broke up. It is natural to assume that during the period of the spread of a single common Slavic language, there were already some territorially isolated dialect differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of separate Slavic languages. language groups: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in each of these groups, words that appeared during the period of common Slavic unity stand out. For example, common Slavic names are those associated with flora: oak, linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, bird cherry, forest, forest, tree, leaf, branch, twig, bark, bough, root; titles cultivated plants: millet, barley, oats, wheat, peas, poppy; names of labor processes and tools: fabric, forge, whip, hoe, shuttle; names of the dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, shelter; names of domestic and forest birds: chicken, goose, nightingale, starling; food names: kvass, kissel, cheese, lard etc.

East Slavic(or Old Russian) words are called that, starting from the VIII century. already arose only in the language of the Eastern Slavs (the ancestors of modern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), united by the 9th century. large feudal state - Kievan Rus. Historical lexicology still has little information about the specifics of the ancient East Slavic vocabulary. However, there is no doubt that there are words known only to three Eastern Slavic languages. Such words include, for example, the names of various properties, qualities, actions: dove, good, rumble; kinship terms, household names: stepdaughter, uncle, lace, churchyard; names of birds, animals: finch, squirrel; count units: forty, ninety; a series of words with a common tense meaning: today suddenly and etc.

Proper Russian all words are called (with the exception of borrowed ones) that appeared in the language already when it was first formed as a language Great Russian people(since the 14th century), and then as the national Russian language (since the 17th century). Actually Russian will be, for example, the names of actions: to coo, to thin out, to crush, to scold, to grumble; names of household items, food: wallpaper, irradiation, cover, cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; names of abstract concepts: result, deceit, bluff, experience and many others. etc. (see: Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1971).

Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, trade, military, political relations with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually loanwords, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - to assimilate, to liken) by the borrowing language, were among the words of common use and were no longer perceived as foreign. In different eras, words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original language (Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper). Currently, words like sugar, beets, bath and others are considered Russian, although they were borrowed from Greek. Words such as school (from the Latin language through Polish), pencil (from the Turkic languages), costume (from the French language) and many others have become completely Russified. etc. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The Russian language retained its complete independence and only enriched itself with borrowed words.

Depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) related borrowings (from the Slavic family of languages) and 2) foreign borrowings (from other languages). language system). The first type includes borrowings from the related Old Slavonic language (sometimes in the linguistic literature it is called Old Bulgarian). To the second - borrowings from Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, Germanic, etc.).

By the time of penetration, the borrowed vocabulary is also heterogeneous: some words in it belong to the period of the Indo-European linguistic community, others to the common Slavic linguistic unity, others replenished the language of the Eastern Slavs in the Old Russian period of its existence, and, finally, a lot of words entered the proper Russian vocabulary.

At the same time, Russian words were included in other languages.

Of related language borrowings, a significant group of words stands out in particular Old Church Slavonic origin. However, a significant role in the enrichment of the Russian language was also played by words that came from other Slavic languages ​​- Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, etc.

They became widespread in Russia after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the West and East Slavic languages, as well as many borrowings from Greek. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (which is why it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). AT different countries it took on the features of local languages ​​and was used in this form outside of the actual liturgical texts. In the monuments of Old Russian writing (especially in the chronicles), cases of mixing of Old Slavonic and Russian languages ​​are not uncommon. This testified that Old Slavonicisms were not alien borrowings and were firmly established in the Russian language as closely related.

For example, church terms came from the Old Slavonic language to Russian: priest, cross, rod, sacrifice and etc.; many words denoting abstract concepts: power, grace, consent, universe, calamity, virtue and etc.

Old Slavonicisms borrowed by the Russian language are not all the same: some of them are Old Slavonic variants of words that still existed in the common Slavic language (glad, enemy, etc.); others are proper Old Church Slavonic ( cheeks, mouth, percy, truth and etc.); moreover, the existing native Russian words, synonymous with them, are completely different in their phonetic structure ( cheeks, lips, breasts, true and etc.). Finally, the so-called semantic Old Slavonicisms stand out, i.e. words according to the time of their appearance are common Slavic, however, they received a special meaning in the Old Slavonic language and with this meaning became part of the Russian vocabulary (sin, Lord, etc.).

Old Slavonicisms, in comparison with Russian variants, have sound (phonetic), morphological and semantic distinctive features.

The main sound ones include: 1) disagreement, cf.: gates - gates, captivity - full; 2) initial ra, la, cf.: equal, boat - equal, boat; 3) combination zhd, consonant u, cf.: walking - I walk, lighting - a candle; 4) e at the beginning of a word and before a hard consonant, cf.: unit - one, finger - thimble and etc.

Morphological features are, for example, individual word-building elements: 1) prefixes voz- (repay, return), over- (excessive) and etc..; 2) suffixes -stvi (e) (prosperity), -h (s) (trapping), -zn (life), -usch-, -yushch-, -ashch-, -yashch- (knowledgeable, melting, lying, burning); 3) characteristic first parts compound words: god-, good-, evil-, sin-, soul-, good- etc. (God-fearing, virtuous, malevolence, fall into sin, soul-beneficial, blessing).

Old Church Slavonic words also have some semantic-stylistic signs. So, compared with the Russian variants, Old Slavonicisms, originally used mainly in liturgical books, retained a more abstract meaning, for example: to carry away (cf. Russian. drag), drag out (cf. Russian. drag), country (cf. Russian side). Therefore, Old Slavonicisms often retain a tinge of bookishness, stylistic elation.

Along with the words of the Slavic languages ​​into Russian vocabulary in different stages its development also included non-Slavic borrowings, such as Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.

Borrowings from Greek began to penetrate into the original vocabulary in the period of common Slavic unity. Such borrowings include, for example, the words chamber, dish, cross, bread(baked), bed, cauldron, etc. Borrowings were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later (the so-called East Slavic). These include words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, metropolitan, kliros, lampada, icon, archpriest, sexton; scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar; household terms: tub, bath, lantern, bed, notebook; names of plants and animals: cypress, cedar, beet, crocodile and others. Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: chorea, anapaest, comedy, mantle, verse, idea, logic, physics, analogy and etc.

Some Greek words entered Russian through other languages ​​(for example, French).

Borrowings from Latin played a significant role in enriching the Russian language, especially in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology.

Most of the Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, holidays, director, dictation, exam etc. (The role of special educational institutions.) Many words of Latin origin make up the group of the international fund of terms, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition and etc.

The words from Turkic languages penetrated into the Russian language by force different circumstances: as a result of early trading and cultural ties as a result of military clashes. Early (general Slavic) borrowings include individual words from the languages ​​​​of the Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs, etc., for example: feather grass, jerboa, pearls, idol, hall, beads and etc.

Among the Turkic borrowings, most of the words are from the Tatar language, which is explained by historical conditions (the long-term Tatar-Mongolian yoke). Especially many words remained from military, commercial and everyday speech: caravan, holster, barrow, quiver, astrakhan fur, bludgeon, treasury, money, altyn, bazaar, carpet, raisins, watermelon, basin, iron, hearth, epancha, bloomers, sash, sheepskin coat, arshin, groceries, noodles, stocking, shoe, chest, bathrobe, fog, mess and many others. others

Turkic borrowings include almost all the names of the breed or color of horses: argamak (a breed of tall Turkmen horses), roan, buckskin, bay, karak, brown, brown.

Scandinavian loanwords(Swedish, Norwegian, for example) there are relatively few in Russian. Most of they belong to ancient period. The appearance of these words is due to early trade relations. However, not only words of trade vocabulary penetrated, but also maritime terms, everyday words. So there were own names Igor, Oleg, Rurik, individual words like herring, chest, pud, hook, anchor, sneak, plush, whip, mast and etc.

Borrowings from Western European languages form one of the numerous (after the Old Slavonic) groups. significant role in the XVII-XVIII centuries. (in connection with the reforms of Peter I) played words from Germanic languages ​​(German, English, Dutch), as well as from Romance languages ​​(for example, French, Italian, Spanish).

German includes a number of words of trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science, etc.: bill, stamp; corporal, camp, headquarters; tie, boots, workbench, chisel, jointer; spinach; easel, bandmaster, landscape, resort. Some nautical terms are Dutch: boat, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet and etc.

From English to the 19th century. also included some nautical terms: midshipman, bot, brig, but significantly more development-related words public life, technology, sports, etc. entered the 20th century, for example: boycott, leader, rally; tunnel, trolley bus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; beefsteak, cake, pudding and others. English words (often in the American version) became especially widespread in the 90s of the XX century. in connection with the economic, social and political transformations in Russian society. Borrowings of the late XX century. touched different spheres of life: technical ( computer, display, file, byte), sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter), financial and commercial ( barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing), art ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller), socio-political ( briefing, rating, impeachment, lobby) and etc.

French includes individual borrowings of the 18th-19th centuries, such as everyday words: bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights; broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet, as well as words from military vocabulary, art, etc.: ámaêá, artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade; actor, playbill, play, director and under.

From other Western European borrowings stands out musical terminology Italian origin: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, buffoonery, sonata, carnival, cavatina; some household words were also included: vermicelli, pasta(came through French), gondola, etc. A small number of words came from Spanish: serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, then: caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.

Few borrowings are from Finnish: walrus, dumplings, snowstorm; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm.

In addition to individual words, the Russian language borrowed some word-building elements. For example, attachments a-, anti-, archi- from Greek: apolitical, anti-artistic; suffixes -ist, -ism, -er, -ir (at) from Western European languages: essayist, Bolshevism, boyfriend, militarize etc.

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words were subjected to phonetic, morphological and semantic changes.

For example, double vowels ee, ai in Russian are most often transmitted as aw and ev: eucalyptus (gr. eukalyptos), car (German: Automobil), etc.

Morphological changes primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes in grammatical gender. So, foreign-language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from French décoration), extravaganza (from French féerie). Foreign suffixes that are not common in Russian are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from Gr. harmonikos), generation (from Lat. generatio), march (from German marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), parliament (German das Parlament - neuter), skittle (German der Kegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine) , font (German die Schrift - feminine).

Often in the Russian language, the original meaning of words is also subject to change: German. der Maler - painter received a new meaning - "painter", i.e. worker painting buildings, interiors, etc.; fr. hasard (excitement) - case received the meaning of "passion, passion, ardor"; French adventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to lat. adventura - chance, used in the meaning of "doubtful event, business", etc.

However, not all borrowed words are reformulated. Rare instances of penetration foreign words in its original form, for example: genesis (gr. genesis - genus, origin), duel (fr. duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (lat. palma), etc.

In addition to the actual borrowings, the so-called calque is possible (fr. calque - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

There are tracing papers: a) derivational, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise through a literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, tracing papers from Latin and Greek are: interjection (lat. Inter + jectio), adverb (lat. ad + verbium), spelling (gr. Orthos + graph), etc .; b) semantic, in which the value is borrowed. For example, touch (fr. toucher) in the meaning of "cause sympathy", a nail (fr. le clou) in combination highlight of the program etc.

Derivational calques are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic calques - from French words.

In addition to complete lexical (word-forming and semantic) cripples, Russian also has semi-calculations, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also native Russian ones. According to the word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Semicalcs include, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They replenished the terminological systems, were also used as exoticisms (gr. exōtikos - foreign) in the description national characteristics to create local color. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes. The appropriateness of their inclusion in Russian texts of different styles should be carefully considered each time, since the abuse of foreign vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts designed for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve their goal.

Russian words have been included in different languages ​​of the world since ancient times. Most of them entered the languages ​​of the peoples inhabiting our country.

Russian words were actively mastered by the neighboring peoples of Northern Europe - Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish. Old Icelandic sagas, in particular, tell about long-standing friendly and kindred interethnic ties.

Starting from the XVI century. Russian words are borrowed by Western European peoples.

So, since 1528 (the beginning of regular trade relations), in addition to the long-known Russian word sable (sable), English has included words from various spheres of Russian life: the names of official ruling persons, documents, institutions; names of banknotes, measures of weight and length; household names; names of individual animals, birds, fish, etc. In the XIX-XX centuries. included words reflecting the socio-political life of Russia, for example Decembrist, nihilist, pogrom. A significant number of words were borrowed after the October Socialist Revolution. The names of the Soviet socio-political, economic, scientific, cultural life were mastered. For example: commissar, council, Bolshevik, Leninism, Komsomol member, collective farm, subbotnik; satellite, lunar, lunar rover and many others. others

Almost all the words associated with the concepts noted above have also entered the French language.

Many Russian words have been mastered by the vocabulary of Bulgarian, Polish, Slovak and other Slavic languages. For example, the Slovak literary language for the period from the end of the 18th century. to the present day, according to N.A. Kondrashova, in different time about 1500 Russian words were borrowed. Among them: a) names of socio-political, historical and cultural life: power, state, power, country, capital and etc.; freethinker, oppression, rebellion; primer, chronicle, fairy tale, dictionary, syllable, proverb; as well as michurinets, Komsomolets, pioneer, five-year plan, council, subbotnik, satellite and many others. others; b) household names, abstract: pancakes, caviar, kvass, samovar; air, altitude, nature; protection, charm, decor, charm, transparency and etc.

Many Russian words entered the Bulgarian language, for example: labor day (in Bulgarian labor den), potato harvester, beet harvester and others. Many Russian words have been mastered by Czech, Romanian, and Hungarian.

For a long time, Russian words have penetrated into the languages ​​of the Eastern peoples. So, Japanese assimilated words - appetizer, samovar, pie; sea ​​lion(commercial seal), steppe, tundra, etc. From the Russian language of the Soviet era - asset, leninism, collective farm, soviets, satellite, comrade and many others. others

Russian words are borrowed by many peoples inhabiting Africa.

The Russian language, like any other, has its own lexical system, which has been formed over not just centuries, but even millennia. The composition of the vocabulary has a different origin. Allocate in it and Grammar vocabulary and the origin of words are studied at school, as well as at the philological faculties.

Basic concepts

The Russian language has a rich lexical system, the formation of which began in the Neolithic era and continues today. Some words disappear from the active vocabulary of the language, become archaisms, others, on the contrary, penetrate our speech, become an integral part of it.

In terms of origin, vocabulary is divided into borrowed and native Russian. Originally Russian vocabulary makes up about 90% of the total lexical composition. The rest is borrowed. In addition, every year our dictionary is updated with new words and concepts that arise as a result of scientific and technological progress.

Original Russian vocabulary

The main layer is primordially Russian vocabulary. In this group, the following subgroups are distinguished, correlated with the stages of development of not only the language, but also the people themselves:

1. Indo-European vocabulary.
2. Common Slavic.
3. Old Russian.
4. Actually Russian.

The words that emerged during these periods form the basis, the backbone of our vocabulary. That is what should be considered first.

Indo-European period

In terms of origin, the original Russian vocabulary dates back to the Neolithic period. The period is characterized by the presence of one, common proto-language - Indo-European, which functioned around the 2nd millennium BC. The words of this group include the names of animals, concepts for designating kinship, food products. For example: mother, daughter, ox, bull, meat other. All of them have consonant counterparts in other languages. For example, the word mother has a similar sound in English ( mother), and in German ( mutter).

Common Slavic stage

Common Slavic vocabulary arose around the 6th century AD. It was inherited from various tribes that lived in the Balkans, Central and Eastern Europe.

The vocabulary of this period refers to lexical-semantic groups that are used to designate the names of body parts, animals, natural phenomena, time periods, plants and flowers, names of parts of buildings, tools. The most striking examples of vocabulary preserved from this period: oak, linden, spruce forest, tree, leaf, millet, barley, bark, hoe, house, canopy, shelter, chicken, goose, kvass, kissel. The layer of this vocabulary is inherent mainly in the Slavic peoples.

Old Russian period

Old Russian (or East Slavic) vocabulary penetrated into our vocabulary during the period of the settlement of the Slavs on the territory of modern Europe, approximately in the XI-IX centuries. This also includes the period of formation of the formation of the state Kievan Rus, i.e. IX-XIV centuries. There are words like good, dove, uncle, lace, finch, squirrel, forty, ninety, today.

These words are also characterized by the presence of prefixes in-, you-, before-, vz-. For example: platoon, knock out, finish off, catch up.

You can find vocabulary formed in this period only in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

The period of formation of the Russian nationality

From the XIV century, a new grammatical vocabulary began to appear in the Russian language. These words appear after the collapse of the Old Slavic language into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. Proper Russian words include such as grumble, wallpaper, cabbage rolls, experience.

This includes all nouns formed with suffixes -shchik, -ovshchik, -stvostvo, -sh(a). For example: fire extinguisher, party membership, nationality, checkered. This also includes adverbs peasant style, autumn style, Verbs shudder, crash, worry.

Knowing these features, you can easily calculate the words formed at this stage of development.

This period is the last in the formation of the main layer of proper Russian lexemes.

Borrowed vocabulary

Since ancient times, the Russian people have developed not only trade and cultural ties, but also political and military ones. All this led to language borrowings. Getting into Russian, the word in the lexical system of the language changed under its influence and became part of its vocabulary. Borrowed words have significantly enriched the Russian language and brought a lot of new things into it.

Some words were borrowed completely, some were modified - they received native Russian suffixes or prefixes, which ultimately led to the formation of a new one that already had Russian origin word. For example, the word "computer" entered our lexicon without changes, but the word "atomic scientist" is already considered to be native Russian, since it was formed from the borrowed word "atom" according to the original Russian word-formation model.

There are borrowings from Slavic, as well as Turkic, Latin, Greek, Germano-Romance languages, which include English and German, Italian, Spanish, Dutch.

Old Church Slavonicisms

After the adoption of Christianity by Russia at the end of the 10th century, many words came into the Russian language. This was due to the appearance in Russia of Church Slavonic books. Old Slavonic, or Old Bulgarian, was used by a number of Slavic states as a literary written language, which was used to translate Greek church books.

Church denoting abstract concepts came from it into the Russian language. These include priest, cross, power, disaster, consent and many others. Initially, these words were used only in written, book speech, but over time they penetrated into oral speech.

The vocabulary of the Church Slavonic language in terms of origin has the following distinctive features:

1. The so-called disagreement is at the root of words. For example: gate or captivity. In this case, the options will be full-voiced gate and full.
2. Combination railway in the roots of words. A prime example is the word walking.
3. The presence of a consonant in words sch, for example in the word lighting.
4. Vowel e at the beginning of a word and before a hard consonant: unit.
5. syllables la-, ra- and at the beginning of a word. For example: rook, equal.
6. Presence of prefixes voz-, through-. For example: repay, excessive.
7. Suffixes -stvi-, -usch-, -yushch-, -asch-, -yashch-: knowledgeable, burning, melting.
Parts of the first words of God-good, evil-, sin-, soul-, good-: God-fearing, malevolence, blessing.

These words are still used in Russian today. At the same time, few people suspect that in fact the named lexemes are not native Russian and have foreign roots. Especially often they can be found in biblical texts, works of the classics of Russian literature.

Polish lexemes

Considering the question of what kind of vocabulary is from the point of view of origin, one cannot but recall the borrowings from the Polish language, which began in XVII-XVIII centuries. From the West Slavic language, words such as belongings, painting, rabbit, periwinkle, jam. It is worth noting that they replenished the stock of not only Russian, but also Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

Greek loanwords

A significant layer of borrowed vocabulary is Greek. It began to penetrate into our language even in the period of pan-Slavic unity. The oldest lexical "gifts" include words such as ward, bed, boiler.

In the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries, were borrowed following words: anathema, angel, mathematics, lampada, history, philosophy, notebook, sauna, lantern. In a later period, words related to words from the field of art and science were borrowed: comedy, anapaest, logic, analogy and many other concepts that are firmly entrenched in the terminological apparatus of most modern sciences.

It should be noted that due to the influence of Greece and Byzantium, the vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language has been significantly enriched. However, the influence of these countries was felt not only by such a science as philology, but also by mathematics, physics, chemistry, and art.

Latin language

In the period from the 16th to the 8th centuries, Latin words entered the Russian language, enriching the lexical fund in the field of scientific, technical, socio-political terminology. They enter mainly through the Ukrainian and Polish languages. The development of education and science, as well as the historical and cultural ties of these countries, contributed especially strongly to this.

From the Latin language came to us such already familiar concepts as holidays, office, director, audience, school, process, public, revolution and others.

Turkic language

Since ancient times, our paths have crossed with the Tatars and Turks. Words such as pearls, beads, caravan, money, bazaar, watermelon, bathrobe, fog, bloomers, names of horse colors: roan, bay, buckskin.

Mostly borrowing came from the Tatar language. Associated with trade, cultural or military ties that have existed between our peoples for several centuries.

Scandinavian languages

There are very few borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​- Swedish, Norwegian. Penetrated in the early period because of the trade relations that existed between our peoples in the pre-Christian period.

The brightest words that penetrated the Russian lexical system: names Igor and Oleg, product names - herring, pud, hook, mast, sneak.

Western European languages

The origin of vocabulary and its development are also closely related to a number of European languages. After the reforms of Peter I, in the 17th-18th centuries, lexemes from Western European languages ​​entered the Russian language.

From German, a number of words came into our language to denote military, commercial and everyday vocabulary, science and art: bill, headquarters, corporal, tie, easel, resort, landscape.

Dutch "shared" with Russian nautical terms: shipyard, harbor, pilot, fleet, sailor. Maritime terms also came from in English: midshipman, brig.

Entered from English into our lexical system and words such as boycott, tunnel, football, sport, finish, cupcake, pudding.

The 20th century also includes words from the technical and sports, financial, commercial fields, and art. New words that replenished our lexical system at that time: computer, file, byte, overtime, broker, leasing, talk show, thriller, briefing, impeachment.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries, words from the French language also penetrate into the Russian language - bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, broth, cutlet, toilet, battalion, garrison, actor, play, director.

Musical terms, terms from the sphere of art, came to Russian from Italian and Spanish: aria, tenor, libretto, sonata, carnival, gondola, serenade, guitar.

All of them are still actively functioning in our lexical system, and we can learn from dictionaries about where and how they came from.

Neologisms

At the present stage, the lexical system of the Russian language is replenished with new words. They enter the language through the emergence of fresh concepts and phenomena. When an object or thing arises, new words appear to designate them. They do not immediately enter the active vocabulary.

For some time, the word is considered a neologism, then it becomes commonly used and is firmly included in the language. Previously, neologism words were pioneer, Komsomol member, cosmonaut, Khrushchev And so on. Now no one will suspect neologisms in them.

Dictionaries

In order to check which vocabulary in terms of origin is used in a particular case, one can refer to etymological dictionaries. They describe in detail the origin of the word, its initial etymology. You can use school and short edited by N. Shansky, "Russian Etymological Dictionary" by A. E. Anikin or "Etymological Dictionary" by P. A. Krylov and others.

Learn the meaning of foreign words that came to us from foreign languages, you can use the wonderful "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by Ozhegov.

Studying at school

Vocabulary in terms of origin and usage is usually studied in school course Russian language in the section "Lexicology and Phraseology". The closest attention to this topic is paid in the 5th-6th grades, as well as the 10th. Schoolchildren learn the origin of words and phraseological units, their meaning, learn to distinguish them, work with various dictionaries.

In some cases, teachers may conduct entire electives, extracurricular activities devoted to the study of the origin of words.

What materials can be used when studying the topic "Vocabulary from the point of view of origin"? Table with classification and examples, texts in different languages ​​containing words borrowed by Russian, dictionaries.

Studying at the university

Vocabulary is studied in particular detail from the point of view of origin at the university, at the Faculty of Philology. This topic is given several classes in the course "Lexicology and Phraseology of the Modern Russian Language". On the practical exercises students analyze various texts, finding native Russian and borrowed words in them, classify them, work with dictionaries. The stylistic possibilities of borrowed, obsolete words are also determined.

At lectures and seminars, the classification of vocabulary by origin, use and functioning in the modern Russian language is considered in detail. This approach allows students to be interested, to most deeply master the proposed knowledge on the topic under study.

findings

Any word in the lexical system of a language has its own history and origin. Some words have long been functioning in our language, since the period when a single, Indo-European language functioned, others came to us at different time intervals from Slavic or European languages, and others arose during the development of modern information technologies.

Understanding the history of the emergence of certain words will help us not only understand their deep meaning, but also trace the development of the culture of our country in a particular period.

Russian language

VOCABULARY

9. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin

Two ways of forming vocabulary in the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed for many centuries. There are two ways to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language:

1) Borrowing from other languages.
The Russian people have long entered into political, commercial, scientific and cultural relations with other peoples, thanks to which the Russian language was enriched with words from other languages. The development of economy and culture, technological progress and active political life the world community contributed to this process in many ways. On the this moment the vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains about 10% of borrowed words;

2) Use of own resources.
The main source of vocabulary replenishment has always been its own resources. In other words, most words were created on the basis of Russian roots and affixes. There are currently about 90% of such words in the Russian language.

Original Russian words.

From a historical point of view, the formation of native Russian vocabulary took place in several stages:

1) many words were inherited by the Russian language from the Indo-European language, thanks to which we now use kinship terms in speech ( mother father ), animal names ( wolf ), names of natural phenomena ( coast, moon, sea );

2) a little bit later a large number of words were inherited from the Proto-Slavic language (until the 6th century AD). This vocabulary covers different areas of life: the names of body parts ( hand leg ), time of day and year ( morning, winter ), numerals ( three four ) and etc.;

3) some words appeared during the existence of the common Slavic language, as well as at the stages of East Slavic unity (VI - XIV - XV centuries). At this time words such as good, simple person ;

4) a significant part of the words arose after the formation of the Great Russian language (XIV - XV centuries). These words are characteristic of the Russian language and are known among other Slavic peoples only as Russian borrowings. These include almost all nouns formed with suffixes -shchik, -ovshchik, -stvostvo , prefixal, verbal nouns (run, clamp), nouns formed from adjectives with a suffix -awn (nationality), participle adverbs (excitingly).

Borrowed words.

Words are called borrowed if they were taken from other languages. For the Russian language, the sources of borrowing were:

1) Slavic (Ukrainian, Polish, Czech) languages. For example: from Ukrainian language we have a few words. Among them are such as borscht, bagel, kids . From Polish, the Russian language adopted everyday vocabulary, for example: flat, draw, cheat sheet . There are single borrowings from the Czech language, for example: refugee, robot ;

2) non-Slavic (Latin, Greek, German, French, English, etc.) languages. A large proportion of words in our vocabulary is occupied by Latinisms, which penetrated into the Russian language after the adoption of Christianity ( accent, hyphen, intonation, punctuation ). Greek words actively penetrated into the vocabulary also after the adoption of Christianity through liturgical books ( altar, anathema, satan, patriarch ). In addition, we owe the Greek language everyday vocabulary ( bed, ship, doll, sail ). During the reforms of Peter I in the 18th century, German ( soldier, officer, jigsaw, infirmary, bandage, scar ) and Dutch ( boat, yacht, sailor, cabin boy, hatch, gateway ) the words. In the 19th century, the Russian language rapidly borrowed French words covering various areas of life (everyday words: corset, suit, coat ; art terms: play, actor, sketch ; military terms: garrison, partisan, attack ). We owe the Italian language such words as pasta, newspaper, aria, soprano, bass, libretto . A few words came to us from Spanish, for example: serenade, caramel, marshmallow .

It should be noted that borrowing is by no means a simple “transplantation” of someone else's word into another language. During this process, the word is being adapted to the phonetic structure, morphological and graphic systems of the borrowing language, it is, as it were, undergoing a transformation. For example, a Russian word may not match in graphics and pronunciation with a word in the source language (impoў rt - iў import , sport- sport ). Or the Russian word may have a difference with the word in the source language in morphology, for example: the word silage came to us from the Spanish language. Spanish final consonant with is an indicator plural, and in Russian the word silage has only one form. And some borrowed words do not change at all in cases and numbers, for example: coat, depot, radio, cocoa . In addition, when borrowing, a process of narrowing the meanings of a word usually occurs, for example: in French, the word powder meant and powder" , and " powder" , and " dust" , and " sand" , and in Russian it retained only the meaning “ cosmetic product” .

Characteristics of Russian vocabulary in terms of origin. Foreign words in modern Russian speech. Mastering borrowed words. Exoticisms. Barbarisms. Motivated and unmotivated borrowings.

Vocabulary in terms of origin

1. Originally Russian are words that have arisen in the Russian language at any stage of its development.

Native Russian vocabulary forms the main array of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which determines its national specificity. The original Russian words include 1) Indo-Europeanisms; 2) common Slavic words, 3) words of East Slavic origin, 4) proper Russian words.

2. Indo-Europeanisms are the most ancient words that have survived from the era of Indo-European unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to many European and some Asian languages. The Indo-European language is also called the proto-language. For example, the words mother, son, daughter, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc. go back to the parent language.

Common Slavic vocabulary - these are words inherited by the Russian language from the common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language, which became the basis of all Slavic languages., Words of common Slavic origin are most commonly used in speech (field, sky, earth, river, wind, rain, maple, linden, elk, snake , already, mosquito, fly, friend, face, lip, throat, heart, knife, sickle, needle, grain, oil, flour, bell, cage; black, white, thin, sharp, evil, wise, young, deaf, sour ; throw, nod, boil, put; one, two, ten; you, he, who, what; where, then, there; without, about, at, for; but, yes, and, whether, etc.)

East Slavic vocabulary- these are words inherited by the Russian language from the East Slavic (Old Russian) language, which is common language all Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). A significant part of the words of East Slavic origin is known in Ukrainian and Belarusian, but is absent in West Slavic and South Slavic languages, for example: bullfinch (Russian), stgur (Ukrainian), snyagur (Belarusian) - wintering (Serbian). Words of East Slavic origin include, for example, the words dog, squirrel, boot, ruble, cook, carpenter, village, nag, palm, boil, etc.

Proper Russian vocabulary- these are the words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of its independent existence, when the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​began to develop in parallel. The entire previous lexical and derivational material became the basis of Russian words proper. Properly Russian in origin include, for example, the words visor, sorcerer, spinning wheel, child, timid, etc.

3. Signs of Old Slavism:

1. Phonetic

a) non-vowel combinations ra, la, re, le correlative with Russian full-vowel oro, olo, ere (gate - gate).

b) initial combinations ra, la correlative with Russian ro, lo (rook - boat)

c) consonant u, alternating with t, with Russian h (lighting - shining - candle)

d) initial e with Russian o (single - one)

e) e under stress before hard consonants in Russian e (cross - godfather)

f) a combination of railway in the root with Russian f (clothes - clothes)

2. Word-building

a) prefixes pre-, through- with Russian re-, through- (to transgress - to cross)

b) prefixes from- with Russian you- (pour out - pour out)

c) suffixes of abstract nouns – action, -e, -zn, -ynya, -tva, -dream (life, prayer)

d) parts of compound words with good, good, sacrifice, evil

3. Morphological

a) suffixes superlatives-eysh, -aysh

b) participial suffixes -ashch (yashch), -usch (yushch) with Russians -ach (yach), -uch (yuch) (burning - hot)

In one word there may be several signs that make it possible to attribute it to Old Slavonicism.

Sometimes the presence of an Old Church Slavonic element does not mean that a later borrowing was made from Old Church Slavonic (pre-Olympic).

The fate of the Old Slavs:

1) Old Slavonicisms completely replaced the original Russian words (captivity - full)

2) Old Slavonicisms are used along with native Russian words (ignorant - ignorant). In such pairs, Old Slavic words denote abstract concepts or have a touch of solemnity, bookishness, have different compatibility and differ lexically (hot - burning).

Old Church Slavonicisms can be:

1. Stylistically neutral (artist, time, clothes, power)

2. Bookish, having a touch of solemnity (shudder, dry out)

3. Obsolete (young, breg, hand).

Old Slavonicisms are used in the YaHL for stylistic purposes to convey solemnity, a parodic reduction in style, a comic effect, to create a temporary color and archaic style.

4. With direct contact of peoples, borrowing took place orally (Scandinavian, Finnish and Turkic). Latinisms were borrowed in writing, Greekisms were borrowed orally and in writing.

1. Scandinavian - Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish - the earliest borrowings (herring, brand, whip, blizzard, Igor, Oleg).

2. Turkic - (11-17 centuries) sash, shoe, brocade, shed.

3. Greek - penetrated into the Russian language even before the adoption of Christianity, when Russia traded with Greece, with the adoption of Christianity (end of the 10th century) they were borrowed through liturgical books (altar, pulpit, doll, cucumber, ship). The Greek language was enriched with scientific terminology, Greek terms were borrowed from other languages ​​or created according to Greek patterns (alphabet, apostrophe, grammar).

4. Latinisms - a large number in the terminological vocabulary (accent, hyphen, predicate). Latinisms penetrated through the Greek-Byzantine, Polish and Ukrainian (15-17 centuries) media. From the 18th century great influence on the Russian language (author, student, dean, coin, constitution).

5. Germanic languages

a) German - the beginning of the penetration refers to ancient times(Gothic), most active since the beginning of the 18th century. (Peter 1), these include military terms (soldier, officer), craft terms (jigsaw, workbench), names of animals and plants, objects, medical terms (tie, tunic, potato, paramedic, huntsman)

b) Dutch - in the era of Peter 1, mainly the terms of maritime affairs (raid, pennant, yacht, frigate, office)

c) English - in the 16th century, borrowings of the terms of maritime affairs. Since the 19th century terms technical, sports, socio-political, agricultural (wagon. Rails, steak, sports, tennis, club, leader)

6. Romance languages

a) French - penetrate from the 17th-19th centuries. and cover various areas of life (leotard, corset, partisan, dugout, fleet, parliament, play, plot)

b) Italian - mostly art history terms (aria, solo, impresario, piano, barricade, pasta, paper, newspaper)

c) Spanish - guitar, serenade, caramel

5. Signs of borrowing:

1) Turkisms are characterized by synharmonism

2) French - final stressed vowels (coat), combinations ue, wa in the middle of a word (silhouette), final -age (massage).

3) German - combinations of pieces, xt (pate, watch)

4) English - a combination of j (jazz, budget)

5) Latinisms - final -mind, -us, -ura, -tion, -ent (plenum, president, degree)

The lexical system of the modern Russian language did not arise immediately. The process of its formation was very long and complicated.

New words are constantly appearing in the Russian language, but there are many of them whose history goes back to the distant past. These ancient words are part of the modern dictionary as a group of native vocabulary of the Russian language.

The following genetic groups of words of the original vocabulary of the Russian language (original Russian vocabulary) are distinguished:

1) Indo-European vocabulary ( Indo-Europeans´zms ) - words that have been preserved in modern Russian from the era of the Indo-European community (2nd millennium BC) and which, as a rule, have correspondences in other Indo-European languages:

Kin terms ( mother, father, son, daughter);

Animals ( sheep, mouse, wolf, pig);

2) Common Slavic vocabulary ( Common Slavs´zmy ) - words whose existence dates back to the era of the common Slavic language (before the 6th century). These include:

Names of parts human body (eye, heart, beard);

Animal names ( rooster, nightingale, horse, doe);

Names of natural phenomena and periods of time ( spring, evening, winter);

Plant names ( tree, branch, oak, linden);

Color names ( white, black, blond);

Names of settlements, buildings, tools, etc. ( house, canopy, floor, shelter);

Names of sensations warm, sour, stale);

3) East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary ( Eastern Slavs´zmy, ancient Rus´zmy ) - words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of the settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe(VI-IX centuries), as well as during the formation of the Old Russian language (IX-XIV centuries);

4) Actually Russian vocabulary ( Rus'zmy ) - words that appeared in the language of the Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries) and the national Russian language (from mid-seventeenth in. Until now).

Along with the original vocabulary in the Russian language, there are groups of words borrowed from other languages ​​at different times.

Borrowing called the transition of elements of one language to another as a result of language contacts, the interaction of languages. Borrowed words are mastered by the borrowing language, adapting to its features. In the course of this adaptation, they are assimilated to such an extent that their foreign origin may not be felt at all and is discovered only by etymologists. For example: gang, hearth, shoe, Cossack(Turk.) . Unlike fully assimilated (learned) words, foreign words retain traces of foreign origin in the form of peculiar sound, spelling and grammatical features. Often, foreign words denote little-used, special, as well as concepts peculiar to foreign countries and peoples. For example: kimono- Japanese men's and women's dress in the form of a bathrobe, guava- fruit plant from tropical America.

Borrowed vocabulary

Slavic borrowings are usually divided into Old Slavonicisms and Slavonicisms.

Old Church Slavonic borrowings ( old Slavs´zmy ) became widespread in Russia after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the West and East Slavic languages, the Greek language. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (which is why it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). From the Old Slavonic language came to Russian, for example, church terms ( priest, cross, rod, sacrifice etc.), many words denoting abstract concepts ( power, grace, consent, disaster, virtue and etc.).

The Russian language has Slavs´zmy - words borrowed at different times from Slavic languages: Belarusian ( Belarus´zmy ), Ukrainian ( Ukrainianism ), Polish ( Polonies ) and others. For example: borsch(ukr.), dumplings(ukr.), vareniki(ukr.), sweater(Polish), place(Polish), monogram(Polish), bekesha(Hungarian), farm(Hungarian).

Since ancient times, through language contacts on everyday, economic, political, cultural grounds, borrowed elements from unrelated languages ​​also entered the Russian language.

There are several classifications of foreign borrowings.

Depending on the degree of mastery of foreign words, their structure and features of functioning, borrowed words, exoticisms and barbarisms are distinguished.

Borrowed words - words that are completely (graphically, phonetically (orthoepic), semantically, word-formation, morphologically, syntactically) assimilated in the successor language.

Depending on the structure, three groups of borrowed words are distinguished:

1) words that structurally coincide with foreign language samples. For example: junior(fr. junior), anaconda(Spanish) anaconda), darts(English) darts);

2) words morphologically formed by affixes of the successor language. For example: wedge-to-a(fr. tankette), kibit-k-a(tat. kibit);

3) words in which part of a foreign word is replaced by a Russian element. For example: shorts (short-s; Russian ending plural -s replaces English plural - s).

Exoticisms - words that are national names household items, rituals, customs of a particular people, country. These words are unique and have no synonyms in the successor language. For example: cab- one-horse carriage in England; geisha- in Japan: a woman trained in music, dancing, the ability to conduct small talk and invited to the role of a hospitable hostess at receptions, banquets, etc.; dehka'nin- on Wednesday. Asia and Iran: Peasant.

Barbarians (foreign inclusions) - words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment, not mastered or poorly mastered by the successor language and transmitted in the successor language by means of the source language. For example: NB (nota bene) - "pay attention", happy end- "a happy ending".

A special group is internationalism - words presented in various, and not the closest related languages ​​( association, bureaucracy etc.)

According to the source language, foreign borrowings are divided into various groups:

Borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​make up a small part in the Russian language. These include mainly maritime terms and trade vocabulary. For example: scrub(dutch. draaien), wake(dutch. kielwater), receipt(dutch. kvitantie);

Borrowings from Greek ( Greekism ) began to penetrate into the original vocabulary even in the period of common Slavic unity. Borrowings from the field of religion, science, and everyday life were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later. Later borrowings are mainly related to the field of art and science. For example: apathy(gr. apatheia), apocrypha(gr. apokryphos), helium(gr. helios), dolphin(gr. delphis (delphinos)), cypress(gr. kyparissos);

Borrowings from Turkic languages ​​( Turks´zmy ) penetrated into the Russian language as a result of the development of trade and cultural ties, as a result of military clashes. The main part of the Turkisms are words that came from the Tatar language (this is due to historical conditions - Tatar-Mongol yoke). For example: ambal(Arab. hammal), gazelle(Kazakh. ž ijran), horseman(Turk. jigit), ass(Turk. äšä k), caravan(tat.), mound(tat.), box(tat.);

Borrowings from Latin ( Latinisms ) mainly replenished the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. For example: vote(lat. vōtum), hegemon(gr. hēgemōn), quint(lat. quinta);

Borrowings from English ( anglicisms ) belong to the XIX-XX centuries. A significant part of the words associated with the development of social life, technology, sports, etc., entered the Russian language in the 20th century. For example: volleyball(English) volleyball), dandy(English) dandy), boat(English) cutter);

Borrowings from French ( gallicisms ) XVIII-XIX centuries. This is household vocabulary. For example: accessory(fr. accessoir), gallop(fr. gallop), decorator(fr. de´ corateur);

Borrowings from Germanic languages ​​( germanism ) are represented by a number of words of trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science. For example: equipment(German Apparatur), guardhouse(German Hauptwache), generals(German Generalitat);

Borrowings from the Italian language are represented mainly by musical terms. For example: allegro(it. allegro), adagio(it. adagio), soprano(it. soprano), coach(it. careta);

Borrowings from other languages. For example: karma(Sanskrit karma), chum salmon(Nanaisk. keta), kefir(Oset. k'æru), kimono(jap. kimono), Mayan(language of American Indians), lane(Finnish mainas), fiesta(Spanish) fiesta), castanets(Spanish) castanetas).

Borrowed words also include calques.

Tracing - the process of creating words from native material according to foreign language samples.

Word-forming ka'lki - words that have arisen as a result of the translation of foreign words according to morphological parts with the preservation of the word-formation structure of the borrowed word. In this case, only the word-formation structure of the word is borrowed. For example: french solid-ite´ in Russian is morphematically replaced by the word density; self service(English) - self-service; sky scraper(English) - skyscraper, selbst-kosten(German) - cost price etc.

Semantic phrases - words that have an additional meaning under the influence of the corresponding foreign language sample. For example: under the influence figurative meaning French word clou (nail) - “the main lure of a theatrical performance, program” - expressions appear in Russian highlight of the season, highlight of the concert; influenced by the figurative meaning of the German word Plathform (platform) - “a program, a set of principles political party» in Russian the expression appears economic platform and the like.

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