Cognition is the process of reflecting the world in the minds of people, moving from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete and inaccurate knowledge to more complete and accurate.

Cognition is one of the most important human activities. At all times, people have sought to know the world around them, society and themselves. Initially, human knowledge was very imperfect, it was embodied in various practical skills and mythological ideas. However, with the advent of philosophy, and then the first sciences - mathematics, physics, biology, socio-political doctrines, progress in human knowledge began, the fruits of which more and more significantly influenced the development of human civilization.

KNOWLEDGE - the result of cognition of reality confirmed by practice, the result of the cognitive process that led to the acquisition of truth. Knowledge characterizes a relatively true reflection of reality in human thinking. It demonstrates the possession of experience and understanding, allows you to master the world around you. In a general sense, knowledge is opposed to ignorance, ignorance. Within the cognitive process, knowledge, on the one hand, is opposed to an opinion that cannot claim to be the full truth and expresses only a subjective conviction.

On the other hand, knowledge is opposed to faith, which also claims to be the full truth, but relies on other grounds, on the certainty that this is the case. The most essential question of knowledge is how true it is, that is, whether it can really be a real guide in the practical activities of people.

Knowledge claims to be an adequate reflection of reality. It reproduces natural connections and relations of the real world, tends to reject misconceptions and false, unverified information.

Knowledge is based on scientific facts. "The facts, taken from the side of their reliability, determine what is knowledge and what is science" (Thomas Hobbes).

A powerful craving for knowledge is a purely human need. Any living being on earth accepts the world as it is. Only a person tries to understand how this world works, what laws govern it, what determines its dynamics. Why does a person need it? It is not easy to answer this question. Sometimes they say; knowledge helps a person to survive. But this is not entirely true, because it is knowledge that can lead humanity to destruction... It is no coincidence that Ecclesiastes teaches us: much knowledge multiplies sorrow...

However, already ancient man discovered in himself a powerful desire to penetrate the secrets of the universe, to understand its secrets, to feel the laws of the universe. This striving penetrated deeper and deeper into a person, more and more captured him. Human nature is reflected in this irresistible desire for knowledge. It would seem that why should an individual, personally me, know whether there is life on other planets, how history unfolds, whether it is possible to find the smallest unit of matter, what is the mystery of living thinking substance. However, having tasted the fruits of knowledge, a person can no longer refuse them. On the contrary, he is ready to go to the stake for the sake of truth. "Those who have innate knowledge rank above all. They are followed by those who acquire knowledge through learning. Next are those who start learning when they encounter difficulties. Those who, when they encounter difficulties, do not learn, are ranked lower. all" (Confucius).

Three different sciences are engaged in the study of knowledge: the theory of knowledge (or epistemology), the psychology of knowledge, and logic. And this is not surprising: knowledge is a very complex subject, and in various sciences not all the content of this subject is studied, but only one or another side of it.

The theory of knowledge is the theory of truth. It examines knowledge from the side of truth. It explores the relationship between knowledge by the subject of knowledge, i.e. between the object of knowledge and the being about which knowledge is expressed. "The real form in which truth exists can only be its scientific system." (Georg Hegel). It studies the question of whether truth is relative or absolute and considers such properties of truth as, for example, universal validity and its necessity. It is an exploration of the meaning of knowledge. In other words, the range of interests of the theory of knowledge can be defined as follows: it studies the objective (logical) side of knowledge.

The theory of knowledge, in order to construct a theory of truth, must conduct a preparatory study consisting in the analysis of the composition of knowledge, and since all knowledge is realized in consciousness, it also has to deal with the analysis of the composition of consciousness in general and develop some kind of doctrine about the structure of consciousness.

Exist various ways and methods by which the truth of knowledge is verified. They are called criteria of truth.

The main such criteria are the experimental verification of knowledge, the possibility of its application in practice and its logical consistency.

Experimental verification of knowledge is characteristic, first of all, for science. The assessment of the truth of knowledge can also be carried out with the help of practice. For example, on the basis of certain knowledge, people can create some technical device, carry out certain economic reforms, or treat people. If this technical device will function successfully, the reforms will give the expected results, and the sick will be healed, then this will be an important indicator of the truth of knowledge.

First, the acquired knowledge should not be confused and internally contradictory.

Second, it must logically agree with well-tested and valid theories. For example, if someone puts forward a theory of heredity that is fundamentally incompatible with modern genetics, then it can be assumed that it is unlikely to be true.

It should be noted that modern theory knowledge believes that there are no universal and unambiguous criteria of truth. Experiment cannot be completely accurate, practice changes and develops, and logical consistency is related to relationships within knowledge, and not to the relationship of knowledge and reality.

Therefore, even the knowledge that passes the test according to the specified criteria cannot be considered absolutely true and established once and for all.

The form of cognition is a way of cognizing the surrounding reality, which has a conceptual, sensory-figurative or symbolic basis. Thus, they distinguish between scientific knowledge based on rationality and logic, and non-scientific knowledge based on sensory-figurative or symbolic perception of the world.

Scientific knowledge of such an object as society includes social knowledge (a sociological approach to the process of cognition) and humanitarian knowledge (a universal approach).

However, in the modern world, not all phenomena are known to the end. There is a lot of unexplainable from the point of view of science. And where science is powerless, unscientific knowledge comes to the rescue:

proper non-scientific knowledge - disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not described by laws and is in conflict with the scientific picture of the world;

pre-scientific - a prototype, a prerequisite for the emergence of scientific knowledge;

parascientific - incompatible with existing scientific knowledge;

pseudoscientific - consciously exploiting conjectures and prejudices;

anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of ​​reality.

Scientific research is a special form of the process of cognition, such a systematic and purposeful study of objects, in which the means and methods of science are used and which ends with the formation of knowledge about the objects under study.

Another form of cognition is spontaneous-empirical cognition. Spontaneous-empirical knowledge is primary. It has always existed and still exists today. This is such knowledge, in which the acquisition of knowledge is not separated from the social and practical activities of people. The sources of knowledge are various practical actions with objects. From their own experience, people learn the properties of these objects, learn best ways actions with them - their processing, use. In this way, in ancient times, people learned the properties of useful cereals and the rules for their cultivation. Nor did they expect the advent of scientific medicine. In the memory of the people there are many healthy recipes and knowledge about the healing properties of plants, and much of this knowledge is not outdated to this day. "Life and knowledge are consubstantial and inseparable in their highest standards" (Vladimir Solovyov). Spontaneous empirical knowledge retains its significance even in the era of the scientific and technological revolution. This is not some second-rate, but full-fledged knowledge, proven by centuries of experience.

In the process of cognition, various cognitive abilities of a person are used. People learn a lot in the course of their ordinary life and practical activity, but they also created a special form of cognitive activity - science, the main goal of which is to achieve reliable and objective true knowledge. Science is not a warehouse of ready-made and exhaustive truths, but the process of achieving them, a movement from limited, approximate knowledge to more and more general, deep, and precise knowledge. This process is limitless.

Science is a systematic knowledge of reality, based on the observation and study of facts and seeking to establish the laws of the studied things and phenomena. The purpose of science is to obtain true knowledge about the world. Most in a general way science is defined as a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

Science is the understanding of the world in which we live. This comprehension is fixed in the form of knowledge as a mental (conceptual, conceptual, intellectual) modeling of reality. "Science is nothing but a reflection of reality" (Francis Bacon).

The immediate goals of science are the description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that constitute the subject of its study on the basis of the laws it discovers.

The system of sciences can be conditionally divided into natural, humanitarian, social and technical sciences. Accordingly, the objects of study of science are nature, non-material aspects of human activity, society and material aspects of human activity and society.

The highest form of scientific knowledge is scientific theory.

A scientific theory is a logically interconnected system of knowledge that reflects essential, regular and general connections in a particular subject area.

There are many theories that have changed people's ideas about the world. These are, for example, the theory of Copernicus, Newton's theory of universal gravitation, Darwin's theory of evolution, Einstein's theory of relativity. Such theories form a scientific picture of the world, which plays an important role in the worldview of people.

Each subsequent scientific theory in comparison with the previous one is more complete and deeper knowledge. The former theory is interpreted as part of the new theory as a relative truth and thus as a special case of a more complete and accurate theory (for example, the classical mechanics of I. Newton and the theory of relativity of A. Einstein). Such a relationship between theories in their historical development has received in science the name of the correspondence principle.

But in order to build theories, scientists rely on experience, experiment, factual data about the surrounding reality. Science is built from facts like a house from bricks.

Thus, a scientific fact is a fragment of objective reality or an event, the simplest element of a scientific theory. "The facts, taken from the side of their reliability, determine what is knowledge and what is science" (Thomas Hobbes).

Where it is not always possible to obtain scientific facts (for example, in astronomy, history), estimates are used - scientific assumptions and hypotheses that are close to reality and claim to be true.

Part of the scientific theory, built on scientific facts, is an area of ​​true knowledge, on the basis of which axioms, theorems are built and the main phenomena of this science are explained. The assessment part of scientific theory is the problem area of ​​this science, within which scientific research is usually conducted. The goal of scientific research is to turn assessments into scientific facts, i.e. striving for the truth of knowledge.

The specificity of scientific knowledge, in contrast to spontaneous empirical knowledge, lies primarily in the fact that cognitive activity in science is carried out not by everyone, but by specially trained groups of people - scientists. The form of its implementation and development is scientific research.

Science, in contrast to the spontaneous-empirical process of cognition, studies not only those subjects with which people deal in their direct practice, but also those that are revealed in the course of the development of science itself. Often their study precedes practical use. "A systematic whole of knowledge can, by the mere fact that it is systematic, be called science, and if the unification of knowledge in this system is a connection of foundations and consequences, even rational science" (Immanuel Kant). So, for example, the practical application of the energy of the atom was preceded by a rather long period of study of the structure of the atom as an object of science.

In science, they begin to specifically study the very results of cognitive activity - scientific knowledge. Criteria are being developed according to which scientific knowledge can be separated from spontaneous empirical knowledge, from opinions, from speculative, speculative reasoning, etc.

Scientific knowledge is recorded not only in natural language, as it always happens in spontaneous empirical knowledge. Often used (for example, in mathematics, chemistry) specially created symbolic and logical means.

The discursiveness of scientific knowledge is based on a forced sequence of concepts and judgments, given by the logical structure of knowledge (causal structure), forms a feeling of subjective conviction in the possession of truth. Therefore, acts of scientific knowledge are accompanied by the confidence of the subject in the reliability of its content. That is why knowledge is understood as a form of subjective right to truth. Under the conditions of science, this right turns into the obligation of the subject to recognize a logically justified, discursively proven, organized, systematically connected truth.

In the history of science are created and developed special means knowledge, methods of scientific research, while spontaneous empirical knowledge does not have such means. The means of scientific knowledge include, for example, modeling, the use of idealized models, the creation of theories, hypotheses, and experimentation.

Finally, the cardinal difference between scientific knowledge and spontaneous empirical knowledge lies in the fact that scientific research is systematic and purposeful. It is aimed at solving problems that are consciously formulated as a goal.

Scientific knowledge differs from other forms of knowledge (everyday knowledge, philosophical knowledge, etc.) in that science carefully checks the results of knowledge in observation and experiment.

Empirical knowledge, if it is included in the system of science, loses its elemental character. “I have no doubt at all that real science can and does cognize the necessary relations or laws of phenomena, but the only question is: does it remain in this cognition on an exclusively empirical basis ... does it not include other cognitive elements, besides to which his abstract empiricism wants to limit? (Vladimir Solovyov).

The most important empirical methods are observation, measurement and experiment.

Observation in science differs from simple contemplation of things and phenomena. Scientists always set a specific goal and task for observation. They strive for impartiality and objectivity of observation, accurately record its results. In some sciences, complex instruments (microscopes, telescopes, etc.) have been developed that make it possible to observe phenomena that are inaccessible to the naked eye.

Measurement is a method by which the quantitative characteristics of the objects under study are established. Precise measurement plays a big role in physics, chemistry and other natural sciences, but also in modern social sciences, especially in economics and sociology, measurements of various economic indicators and social facts are widespread.

An experiment is an “artificial” situation designed by a scientist, in which presumptive knowledge (hypothesis) is confirmed or refuted by experience. Experiments often use precise measurement methods and sophisticated instruments to test knowledge as accurately as possible. AT scientific experiment very sophisticated equipment is often used.

Empirical methods, firstly, make it possible to establish facts, and secondly, to test the truth of hypotheses and theories by correlating them with the results of observations and the facts established in the experiment.

Take, for example, the science of society. Empirical research methods play an important role in modern sociology. Sociology must be based on concrete data about social facts and processes. Scientists obtain these data using various empirical methods - observations, opinion polls, the study of public opinion, statistical data, experiments on the interaction of people in social groups ah etc. In this way, sociology collects numerous facts that form the basis of theoretical hypotheses and conclusions.

Scientists don't stop at observation and fact-finding. They seek to find laws that link numerous facts. To establish these laws, theoretical research methods are applied. Theoretical research is connected with the improvement and development of the conceptual apparatus of science and is aimed at a comprehensive knowledge of objective reality through this apparatus in its essential connections and patterns.

These are methods of analysis and generalization of empirical facts, methods of putting forward hypotheses, methods of rational reasoning, which allow deriving some knowledge from others.

The most famous classical theoretical methods are induction and deduction.

The inductive method is a method of deriving patterns based on the generalization of many individual facts. For example, a sociologist, on the basis of a generalization of empirical facts, can discover some stable, repetitive forms of people's social behavior. These will be the primary social patterns. The inductive method is a movement from the particular to the general, from facts to law.

The deductive method is a movement from the general to the particular. If we have some general law, then we can deduce more specific consequences from it. Deduction, for example, is widely used in mathematics in proving theorems from general axioms.

It is important to emphasize that the methods of science are interconnected. Without the establishment of empirical facts, it is impossible to build a theory; without theories, scientists would have only a huge number of unrelated facts. Therefore, in scientific knowledge, various theoretical and empirical methods are used in their inseparable connection.

Science is built on objective and material evidence. Analytical consciousness absorbs many-sided life experience and is always open for clarifications. We can talk about scientific knowledge only when it is generally valid. The obligatory nature of the result is a concrete sign of science. Science is also universal in spirit. There is no area that could fence itself off from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research - natural phenomena, actions or statements of people, their creations and destinies.

The modern development of science leads to further transformations of the entire system of human life. Science exists not only to reflect reality, but also so that the results of this reflection can be used by people.

Particularly impressive is its impact on the development of technology and the latest technologies, the impact of scientific and technological progress on people's lives.

Science creates a new environment for human existence. Science is influenced by a certain form of culture in which it is formed. The style of scientific thinking is developed on the basis of not only social, but also philosophical ideas that generalize the development of both science and all human practice.

Foresight is one of the most important functions of science. At one time, W. Ostwald brilliantly spoke on this issue: “... A penetrating understanding of science: science is the art of foresight. Its whole value lies in the extent to which and with what certainty it can predict future events. Any knowledge that says nothing about the future is dead, and such knowledge should be denied the honorary title of science.” Skachkov Yu.V. Polyfunctionality of science. “Questions of Philosophy”, 1995, No. 11

All human practice is actually based on foresight. Involving in any type of activity, a person presupposes (foresees) getting some quite definite results. Human activity is basically organized and purposeful, and in such an organization of his actions, a person relies on knowledge. It is knowledge that allows him to expand the area of ​​his existence, without which his life cannot continue. Knowledge makes it possible to foresee the course of events, since it is invariably included in the structure of the methods of action themselves. Methods characterize any type of human activity, and they are based on the development of special tools, means of activity. Both the development of tools of activity and their “applications” are based on knowledge, which makes it possible to successfully foresee the results of this activity.

tracing social parameter science as an activity, we see the diversity of its “sections”. This activity is inscribed in a specific historical socio-cultural context. It is subject to the norms developed by the community of scientists. (In particular, one who enters this community is called upon to produce new knowledge, and a “prohibition on repetition” invariably gravitates over him.) Another level represents involvement in a school or direction, in a social circle, entering which an individual becomes a man of science.

Science, as a living system, is the production of not only ideas, but also the people who create them. Within the system itself, an invisible, continuous work is going on to build minds capable of solving its brewing problems. The school, as a unity of research, communication and teaching creativity, is one of the main forms of scientific and social associations, moreover, the oldest form characteristic of cognition at all levels of its evolution. In contrast to organizations such as scientific - research institutions, the school in science is informal, i.e. association without legal status. Its organization is not planned in advance and is not regulated by regulations.

There are also such associations of scientists as "invisible colleges". This term denotes a network of personal contacts between scientists that has no clear boundaries and procedures for the mutual exchange of information (for example, the so-called preprints, i.e. information about research results that have not yet been published).

"Invisible College" refers to the secondary - extensive - period of growth of scientific knowledge. It brings together scientists focused on solving a set of interrelated problems after a research program has been formed in the bowels of a small compact group. The “college” has a productive “core”, which is overgrown with many authors who reproduce in their publications, preprints, informal oral contacts, etc. really innovative ideas of this “core”, the shell around the core can grow arbitrarily, leading to the reproduction of knowledge that has already entered the fund of science.

The sociopsychological factors of scientific creativity include the opponent circle of the scientist. The concept of it was introduced in order to analyze the scientist's communications from the point of view of the dependence of the dynamics of his work on confrontational relations with colleagues. From the etymology of the term "opponent" it is clear that it means "the one who objects", who acts as a contestant of someone's opinion. It will be about the relationship of scientists who object, refute or challenge someone's ideas, hypotheses, conclusions. Each researcher has “his” opponent circle. It can be initiated by a scientist when he challenges colleagues. But it is created by these colleagues themselves, who do not accept the ideas of the scientist, perceive them as a threat to their views (and thus their position in science) and therefore defend them in the form of opposition.

Since confrontation and opposition take place in the zone controlled by the scientific community, which is judging its members, the scientist is forced not only to take into account the opinion and position of opponents in order to clarify for himself the degree of reliability of his data that has come under fire of criticism, but also to respond to opponents. Controversy, even if hidden, becomes a catalyst for the work of thought.

Meanwhile, just as behind every product scientific work there are invisible processes taking place in the creative laboratory of a scientist, they usually include the construction of hypotheses, the activity of the imagination, the power of abstraction, etc., opponents invisibly participate in the production of this product, with whom he conducts a hidden polemic. It is obvious that hidden controversy acquires the greatest intensity in those cases when an idea is put forward that claims to radically change the established body of knowledge. And this is not surprising. The community must have a kind of "protective mechanism" that would prevent the "omnivorous", the immediate assimilation of any opinion. Hence the natural resistance of society, which has to be experienced by anyone who claims to be recognized for his achievements of an innovative nature.

Recognizing the social nature of scientific creativity, it should be borne in mind that along with the macroscopic aspect (which covers both social norms and principles of organization of the world of science, and a complex set of relations between this world and society), there is a microsocial one. It is represented, in particular, in the opponent's circle. But in it, as in other microsocial phenomena, the personal principle of creativity is also expressed. At the level of the emergence of new knowledge - whether we are talking about a discovery, a fact, a theory, or a research direction in which various groups and schools work - we find ourselves face to face with the creative individuality of a scientist.

Scientific information about things merges with information about the opinions of others about these things. AT broad sense and getting information about things, and getting information about the opinions of others about these things can be called information activities. It is as old as science itself. In order to successfully fulfill his main social role (which is the production of new knowledge), the scientist must be informed about what was known before him. Otherwise, he may find himself in the position of a discoverer of already established truths.

Literature

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. Textbook. - M.: Prospekt, 1999.

2. Karlov N.V. About fundamental and applied in science and education. // "Questions of Philosophy", 1995, No. 12

3. Pechenkin A.A. Substantiation of scientific theory. Classic and modern. - M., Nauka, 1991

4. Popper K. Logic and growth of scientific knowledge. - M.: Nauka, 1993.

5. Skachkov Yu.V. Polyfunctionality of science. “Questions of Philosophy”, 1995, No. 11

6. Philosophy of science: History and methodology. - M., Publishing Center "Academy", 2001.

7. Philosophical encyclopedia. v.1-5. - M., 1993.

Detailed decision paragraph § 11 on social science workbook for 8th grade students, authors Kotova O.A., Liskova T.E.

1. What are the three meanings currently meant by the word "science"? Write them out.

Science is a field of human activity aimed at developing and systematizing objective knowledge about reality. The basis of this activity is the collection of facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new knowledge or generalizations that not only describe the observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow you to build cause-and-effect relationships with the ultimate goal of forecasting. Those theories and hypotheses that are confirmed by facts or experiments are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society.

Science in a broad sense includes all the conditions and components of the relevant activity: the division and cooperation of scientific labor; scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment; research methods; conceptual and categorical apparatus; scientific information system; the entire amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.

Science - as a process of cognition, research of matter and phenomena. Science is like a public institution, including an army of scientists and research complexes.

Science is like lessons learned from events.

2. What is characteristic of scientific knowledge?

1) objectivity

2) rationalistic validity

3) ordering

4) verifiability

3. Fill in the gaps in the diagram, complete the tasks and answer the questions. What does the term system mean?

System - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

1. natural science example: science news.

2. technoscience, example: mathematical and computer modeling

3. social science, an example of sociology, history, etc.

4. human science, example: biology.

Natural science is a body of knowledge about natural objects, phenomena and processes. Natural science arose before the formation of separate natural sciences. It actively developed in the XVII-XIX centuries. Scientists engaged in natural science or the accumulation of primary knowledge about nature were called naturalists.

Social science is a complex of disciplines, the object of study of which are various aspects of society. As an academic subject, it includes the foundations of the social sciences (philosophy, sociology, social psychology, jurisprudence, economics, political science, etc.) and focuses on the special knowledge necessary for effective solution the most typical problems in the social, economic, political, spiritual spheres of life.

Anthropology is a set of scientific disciplines dealing with the study of man, his origin, development, existence in the natural (natural) and cultural (artificial) environments. Anthropology studies the physical differences between people, historically formed in the course of their development in various natural and geographical environments.

Explain why scientific knowledge is a system.

One of the important distinctive qualities of scientific knowledge is its systematization. It is one of the criteria of scientific character.

But knowledge can be systematized not only in science. A cookbook, a telephone directory, a travel atlas, etc., etc. - everywhere knowledge is classified and systematized. Scientific systematization is specific. It is characterized by the desire for completeness, consistency, clear grounds for systematization. Scientific knowledge as a system has a certain structure, the elements of which are facts, laws, theories, pictures of the world. Separate scientific disciplines are interconnected and interdependent.

The desire for validity, evidence of knowledge is an important criterion of scientific character.

Justification of knowledge, bringing it into a single system has always been characteristic of science. The very emergence of science is sometimes associated with the desire for evidence-based knowledge. Apply different ways substantiation of scientific knowledge. To substantiate empirical knowledge, multiple checks are used, an appeal to statistical data, etc. When substantiating theoretical concepts, their consistency, compliance with empirical data, and the ability to describe and predict phenomena are checked.

In science, original, "crazy" ideas are valued. But the orientation towards innovations is combined in it with the desire to eliminate from the results of scientific activity everything subjective, associated with the specifics of the scientist himself. This is one of the differences between science and art. If the artist had not created his creation, then it simply would not exist. But if a scientist, even a great one, had not created a theory, then it would still have been created, because it is a necessary stage in the development of science, it is intersubjective.

Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the laws of nature, society, and thinking. Scientific knowledge forms the basis of the scientific picture of the world and reflects the laws of its development.

4. What role does the media play in the development of science?

The mass media popularize the development of science by posting this or that information that does not contain any information of a secret nature. It should be remembered that the mass media are designed for the layman, and convey information in a simplified, accessible form and nothing more. Reason for receiving funding and various grants for further research.

In the past, there were a huge number of popular science magazines, a rare newspaper did without an article on scientific topics. Programs about science enjoyed great popularity on television and radio. Scientists were welcome guests of any book, the main goodies. this attitude contributed to the creation of a romantic halo around science and awakened in young people the desire to become real scientists, to discover new secrets of nature.

Now scientific journals are published in small print runs, special channels are assigned to science on television, far from the most popular among viewers, on the Internet they talk only about pseudo-sensations, which often turn out to be a duck.

Name some modern popular science magazines.

Popular science magazine "Around the World"; Science Magazine"Popular Mechanics"; Popular science magazine "Discovery"; National Geographic.

What popular science TV channels, TV shows do you know?

TV SHOW: What? Where? When?; The smartest; Mythbusters; Brainstorm

TV CHANNELS: My Planet; Science 2.0; Story; Viasat History; Viasat Explorer; Discovery Channel; National Geographic.

5. Read the text and do the tasks.

Since 1991, the Ig Nobel Prize has been awarded in America, most often translated into Russian as the Anti-Nobel Prize or the Ig Nobel Prize. In most cases, these awards draw attention to scientific papers that contain elements of the funny. For example, the award-winning conclusion that black holes are suitable for the location of hell, the work on whether food that fell to the floor and lay there for less than five seconds would be infected.

real every year Nobel laureates- in fake glasses, with false noses, in fez and similar attributes - they come to present their awards to Ig Nobel laureates. The laureates' speech time is limited to 60 seconds. Those who talk longer are stopped by a girl who exclaims: "Please stop, I'm bored!" Ig Nobel laureates are presented with a prize, which can be made, for example, in the form of a foil medal or in the form of clattering jaws on a stand, as well as a certificate certifying the receipt of the prize and signed by three Nobel Prize winners.

The ceremony traditionally ends with the words: "If you did not win this award - and especially if you did - we wish you good luck next year!"

(According to the materials of the Internet encyclopedia)

1) What do you think is the true meaning of this award?

Shnobel Prizes are a parody of the prestigious international award - the Nobel Prize. Ten Shnobel Prizes are awarded at the beginning of October, that is, at the time when the winners of the real Nobel Prize are named, “for achievements that make you laugh first, and then think.”

And yet no one is trying to say that the research presented by the Ig Nobel Prize has no meaning or value. The organizers don't try to say: "Look what weirdos", they say: "Even the strangest or mundane research is important for science." For example, in 2006, a study won a prize: a group of scientists found that the malarial mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae were equally attracted to the smell of human feet and Limburg cheese. Thanks to this research, special traps were created that helped fight the malaria epidemic in Africa.

Firstly, people are accustomed to look at science superficially - and demand simple and understandable results from it. If something looks serious and brings visible benefit or meaning, then it is treated with respect: for example, the Large Hadron Collider, which is rather difficult to understand, seems to be something significant - after all, with its help, physicists understand the structure of the world. The levitation of a frog with the help of magnets is nonsense. What would be the use here? The scientific process is layered and complex, and even seemingly stupid research can be important. Moreover, science does not have to be practical.

Secondly, the authors of the Ig Nobel Prize remind that trivial research can lead to breakthroughs in human understanding of the world. Even to chicken eggs should be treated carefully. For example, the mathematician Blaise Pascal developed the theory of probability in the 17th century while doing an extremely mundane thing: he was trying to predict the probability of winning a game of chance with dice. Physicist Richard Feynman watched a plate rotate in the university cafeteria, and eventually began to study the rotation of the electron and received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1965. There is nothing banal or ridiculous in nature, and any research can be valuable - even if you just attach a dinosaur tail to a chicken.

2) Suggest why serious scientists, Nobel laureates, take part in the awarding of the prize.

Scientists who receive the Ig Nobel Prize are quite respected in the scientific community. There are several examples when a scientist received both the Nobel Prize and the Shnobel Prize. For example, Andrei Game: in 2010 he received the Nobel Prize for experiments with graphene, and in 2000 - the Shnobel Prize for making a frog float in the air using magnets. The same scientists received the Nobel Prize and the Ig Nobel Prize three times at the same time.

The organizers of the Ig Nobel Prize raise an important question: "How to decide what is important and what is not, what deserves attention and what does not - in science and in everything else?" In fact, they reveal several important things about our relationship with science.

6. Explain the meaning of the statements.

1) “Science is a systematic expansion of the field of human ignorance” (R. Gutovsky, a modern Polish writer).

How more people learns, the less he knows. Imagine that you have just discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis; we already kind of know that it exists, but we don’t know how it all happens.

2) “Science is often confused with knowledge. This is a gross misunderstanding. Science is not only knowledge, but also consciousness, that is, the ability to use our knowledge properly ”(V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 - 1911), Russian historian).

Knowledge is simply the possession of information. And science is the ability to use this information (as a tool) for certain purposes.

To know is to have knowledge; science is the ability to use it. People have always known what they have internal organs, but only biology, as a science, gives an idea of ​​what it is, how it works and how to treat it.

7. What is the essence of the problem of social responsibility of scientists?

Scientists have a great responsibility in the development new technology, technology of the future. Society develops thanks to them.

Scientists may not know what the practical consequences of this or that discovery will be, but they know too well that “knowledge is power”, and not always good, and therefore they must strive to foresee what this or that will bring to humanity and society. another discovery.

Unlike professional, the social responsibility of scientists is realized in the relationship between science and society. Therefore, it can be characterized as an external (sometimes called social) ethics of science.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the real life of scientists, the problems of internal and external ethics of science, professional and social responsibility of scientists are closely intertwined.

It is known that fundamental scientific discoveries are unpredictable, and the range of their potential applications is extremely wide. By virtue of this alone, we have no right to say that ethical problems are the property of only certain areas of science, that their emergence is something exceptional and transient, something external and accidental for the development of science.

At the same time, it would be wrong to see them as a consequence of the original, but only now revealed "sinfulness" of science in relation to humanity.

The fact that they are becoming an integral and highly visible part of modern scientific activity is, among other things, one of the evidence of the development of science itself as social institution, its ever-increasing and increasingly multifaceted role in the life of society.

Valuable and ethical foundations have always been necessary for scientific activity. However, while the results of this activity only sporadically influenced the life of society, one could be content with the idea that knowledge in general is good, and therefore the pursuit of science in itself, with the aim of increasing knowledge, is an ethically justified activity.

Science expresses the objective laws of phenomena in abstract concepts and schemes, which must be strictly true.

Other signs of scientific knowledge: rationale and practical testing of knowledge; specialist. scientific terminology (artificial language); specialist. devices and equipment; specific research methods; critical review of the foundations of scientific research; the presence of a system of value orientations and goals (the search for objective truth as highest value Sciences); conceptual and systemic nature of knowledge; reproducibility of scientific phenomena under certain conditions.

Structure and dynamics of scientific knowledge. Science includes: a) scientists with their knowledge, qualifications and experience, division of labor; b) scientific institutions and equipment; c) a system of scientific information (a body of knowledge).

There are humanities, natural and technical sciences. There are three layers in the structure of science: 1) general knowledge (philosophy and mathematics); 2) private scientific knowledge; 3) interdisciplinary integrative nature (general systems theory and theoretical cybernetics since the middle of the 20th century). From the point of view of the characteristics of knowledge, there are: a) empirical knowledge; b) theoretical knowledge; c) worldview, philosophical foundations and conclusions.

The foundations of each science are: a) the ideals and norms of research; b) scientific picture of the world; c) philosophical principles.

The forms of realization and functioning of the ideals and norms of research express the values ​​and goals of science and include: a) evidence and validity of knowledge; b) explanation and description; c) construction and organization of knowledge.

The scientific picture of the world ensures the systematization of knowledge within the framework of the relevant science, functions as a research program that purposefully sets the tasks of scientific research and the choice of means for solving them.

Philosophical principles are involved in the construction of new theories, guiding the restructuring of the normative structures of science and pictures of reality. Classical stage - the ideal of knowledge is the construction of an absolutely true picture of nature. non-classical stage - an understanding of the relative truth of the picture of nature develops. post-non-classical stage - the vision of science in the context of social conditions and consequences, the inclusion of axiological (value) facts in the explanation and description of complex systemic objects (environmental processes, genetic engineering).

In interaction with science, philosophy:

a) stands above science as its landmark;

b) is included in science as its integral component;

c) is in the foundation of science as its system-forming beginning.

Science and philosophy are interconnected, but at the same time they are different. "Philosophy cognizes being from man and through man ... while science cognizes being, as it were, outside of man." Philosophy is more of an art than a science. Philosophy is one of the spheres of culture where the criteria of science do not fully apply. Skepticism in relation to philosophy as a science is expressed in the opinion that philosophy is supposedly engaged only in a speculative analysis of concepts about the properties of objects, and not facts about nature (ancient philosophers, Hegel), that this is not a system of knowledge, but only mental activity.

However, philosophy has a number of features of scientific knowledge: consistency, fixation in concepts, categories and laws, logical argumentation, evidence, objective truth. Philosophy has chosen dialectics as its method.

Philosophy has a certain redundancy of content in relation to the demands of science of each era. For example, the ideas of atomism in ancient philosophy, etc.

The most important synthetic theories of natural science are distinguished by a pronounced philosophical character. For example, understanding the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the law of entropy, the theory of relativity, quantum theory.

"Philosophical prejudices" can interfere with scientists, harm science and lead to dogmatism.

The development of knowledge occurs gradually and also in the form of scientific revolutions. First large revolution in science(XV-XVII) destroyed the geocentric system and approved the classical (mechanistic) picture of the world outlook (Copernicus, Galileo, Newton).

Second scientific revolution associated with the evolutionary teachings of Darwin, cell theory, the law of conservation and transformation of energy, systems chemical elements Mendeleev (XIX century). Creation of non-classical natural science.

Third revolution in science occurred at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Einstein's theory of relativity, Rutherford's experiments with alpha particles, the works of N. Bohr and others showed that the world is complex and that human consciousness is included in the perception of reality. The world is full of dynamics.

The scientific picture of the world changed under the influence of non-Aristotelian logic and non-Euclidean geometry (XIX century), the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics (n. XX century), general theory systems and theoretical cybernetics (since the middle of the 20th century).

Methodology of scientific knowledge. Methodology - system fundamental principles, which determine the method of approach to the analysis and evaluation of phenomena, the nature and direction of cognitive and practical activities. The principles of objectivity, determinism, universal connection, development, concrete historical approach, etc. follow from the principles of materialism, dialectics, subjective attitude to reality, practice. F. Bacon (experiment, inductive method), R. Descartes made a significant contribution to the development of the research method (rational method), Hegel (dialectics), Marxist philosophy, representatives of scientistic and anthropological trends in philosophy.

In accordance with the structure of science, the following levels are distinguished: a) philosophical methodology, which considers the general principles of cognition and the categorical structure of science; b) general scientific methodology (theoretical cybernetics, systems approach); c) specific scientific methodology; d) research methods and techniques, i.e. a set of procedures that provide reliable empirical data and their primary processing.

Philosophical methods include dialectical and metaphysical. The theoretical basis of all forms of scientific knowledge is materialistic dialectics, acting as logic and theory of knowledge.

The dialectical method includes the principles of historicism, comprehensiveness, objectivity, concreteness, determinism, etc. The questions of the method are not limited to the framework of science and philosophy, but go into the realm of practice.

The modern dialectical-materialistic methodology of science considers in interconnection: a) the object of scientific research; b) the subject of analysis; c) the task of the study; d) stages of activity.

Among the methodological trends of the twentieth century. distinguish the theory of scientific paradigms and syntagmas. Paradigm(from Greek - example, sample - a theory (or a model for setting problems), adopted as a model for solving research problems. Successfully solves typical scientific problems in areas isolated from each other. Syntagma(from Greek - something connected) - a knowledge system that combines heterogeneous subsystems to solve a certain complex challenging tasks(for example, artificial intelligence, social management, modern ecology).

Methods of empirical and theoretical research . To the main empirical research methods refers to observation, measurement, experiment. Observation- purposeful perception of objects and phenomena in their natural form directly and with the help of devices. Measurement- establishment of one value with the help of another, taken as a standard, as well as a description of this procedure. Experiment- studying the subject in specially selected conditions and observing it.

To general logical methods scientific knowledge includes interconnected analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, abstraction and generalization. Analysis- the division of an object into its separate parts. Synthesis- combining parts of the subject into a single entity (system). Induction- the movement of thought from the individual to the general. Deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the individual. Analogy- based on the similarity of objects in some features, they conclude about their similarity in other features. Modeling- by means of one system (natural or artificial) they reproduce another, more complex system, which is the object of study.

abstraction- some distraction from directly perceived reality (abstraction). Generalization– establishment of general properties and features of objects (philosophical categories).

Methods of theoretical research: thought experiment, idealization(a logical reconstruction of reality, in a theoretically ideal object, the essence is separated from the phenomenon and appears in its pure form, for example, a material point is a body devoid of dimensions, the mass of which is concentrated in a point), explanation, axiomatic method(from the axioms and postulates, all other statements are deduced in a logical way based on the accepted rules of inference and definitions), ascending from the abstract to the concrete(from properties, individual aspects to holistic knowledge, for example, K. Marx: from a commodity as an initial abstraction characterizing the essence of capitalist production, ascended to richer and more meaningful abstractions (money, capital, profitable value, wage etc.), recreating a comprehensive picture of the capitalist economy as a whole), unity of historical and logical(a description of the real process of the emergence and development of an object, carried out with maximum completeness; fixing the objective logic of the development of events, abstracting from their random specific historical features. Logical is a reflection of the historical process in a form freed from chance).

The result of an empirical study is observational data, empirical facts and dependencies.

The result of a theoretical study is an idea, a problem, a hypothesis, a theory (concept), a scientific picture of the world.

Idea- a concept denoting the meaning, meaning, essence of a thing. Problem It grows out of the needs of human practical activity in the course of striving for new knowledge. The problem is the unity of the unknown and the known, ignorance and knowledge. Hypothesis- knowledge, which is based on an assumption, not yet proven theoretical reasoning. Theory- justified and proven hypothesis (should be consistent and subject to experimental experimental verifiability). Gives a scientific picture of the world.

Ethics of science. The most important norms scientific ethics are: denial of plagiarism; falsification of experimental data; disinterested search and upholding of the truth; the result should be new knowledge, logically, experimentally substantiated.

A scientific worker, in addition to professionalism, methodological equipment, d / m thinking, must develop certain socio-psychological qualities. Among these qualities, one of the most important is creative intuition.

The problem of the relationship between truth and good develops into the problem of the connection between freedom and responsibility in the activities of scientists, into the problem of a comprehensive and long-term consideration of the ambiguous consequences of the development of science.

Subject: THE PROBLEM OF MAN IN PHILOSOPHY

1. Man as a subject of philosophy. Anthroposociogenesis and its complex nature.
2. The problem of the nature and essence of man. The unity of the natural and the social in man.
3. Spirituality and the problem of the meaning of life.

interest in the human problem philosophical anthropology) is caused by the expansion and deepening of knowledge about the world. The ancient philosophical image of man is cosmocentric. For example, Confucius.

Plato saw man as "a bipedal, wingless creature with flat claws, receptive to knowledge based on reasoning." Here the physical and spiritual signs of a person are highlighted. Aristotle believed that man is a social animal, endowed with reason, perfecting itself in a just state. Aristotle gave a typology of the various "levels" of the soul, highlighting the plant, animal and rational souls. The plant is responsible for the functions of nutrition, growth and reproduction. In the animal soul, sensation and the faculty of desire are added to these functions. The rational soul, which only man possesses, is endowed, in addition to the listed functions, with the highest of the abilities - reasoning and thinking. In man, only the mind is immortal: after the death of the body, it merges with the universal mind.

In addition to the idea of ​​improving the individual through his inclusion in the state (social whole), the idea of ​​a happy and virtuous life was carried out by freeing a person from the power of the outside world, from the socio-political sphere (for example, in the ethics of Epicurus).

In medieval philosophy, man was considered as the image and likeness of God, as a moment of movement towards God. On the other hand, the view was maintained that man is a rational animal (duality: he owns God's gift - free will, but the flesh and earthly life of a person are sinful).

The Renaissance proclaimed the idea of ​​greatness, freedom, dignity, the power of the human mind. Humanism was discovered and defended by A. Dante, F. Petrarch, Leonardo da Vinci, T. More, E. Rotterdam, N. Machiavelli, D. Bruno, F. Bacon, F. Skorina and others.

In modern times, attention was paid to the inner world of man. For example, subjectivity, expressed in the formula of R. Descartes “I think, therefore I am”, has become the criterion of everything that exists and the most reliable reality. The beginning of the "activity paradigm" was laid, within the framework of which a person was aware of himself.

Philosophers of modern times tried to uncover the natural foundations of man. T. Hobbes argued that the physical and spiritual abilities, the basic qualities of people can be realized in a state built on the basis of a social contract. B. Pascal anticipated the idea of ​​the originality of human cognition in comparison with nature. D. Locke attached an important role to the formation of the harmony of the physical and spiritual principles of the personality (“In a healthy body healthy mind"). French materialists of the 18th century. also tried to overcome the opposition of body and spirit.

Representatives of classical German philosophy sought to overcome the mechanistic interpretation in the understanding of man. Hegel believed that a person realizes his spiritual essence, overcoming naturalness, through inclusion in the diversity of social life relations (family, property, state, law, etc.). However, practical activity was understood abstractly, as the activity of thinking, will, spirit. Kant developed a dualistic view of man as existing in the "world of nature" and the "world of freedom". According to L. Feuerbach, the essence of a person is largely determined by his body, and the person himself has a mind, heart and will capable of love. Man, including nature as his basis, is the universal and highest subject of philosophy. In this approach, along with advantages, there are also disadvantages: there is no historical view of a person, it is not explained why different people have such a different content of their spiritual life.

Russian thinkers A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky noted that a person is not only exposed to the outside world, but also changes it.

Russian philosophy of the XIX century. considered a person in the concepts of "philosophy of totality" and "philosophy of individuality". The first direction was represented by the Slavophiles, who believed that a truly moral subject, combining personal and collective principles, is possible only within the framework of the peasant community as an ideal "moral world". The Westerners were guided by the Western European civilization, the personal principle, they criticized Orthodoxy. F.M. Dostoevsky divided history into three stages: patriarchy (natural collectivity), civilization (morbid individualization) and Christianity as a synthesis of the previous ones.

K. Marx and F. Engels developed the general materialistic idea of ​​human determination by objective natural and social reality. This concept is supplemented by the idea of ​​human activity, activity, which developed within the framework of idealism. At the same time, Marx discovered the tendency for the role of the subjective factor to increase in history. VI Lenin, developing these positions, formulated the ideology of revolutionary activism.

Representatives of anthropological philosophy, especially existentialism, chose existence as the main topic of their reflections, spiritual world person. Existentialists believe that humanism is under threat due to the technization of society and man, the danger nuclear war, a Marxist doctrine that absolutizes the universality of labor and technology.

In the context of accelerating social progress, religious philosophy is being updated in the direction of the “anthropological turn”.

Modern foreign theorists are concerned about the meaning of life and value orientations of a person, ways of his self-realization.

In general, modern socio-philosophical thought names a number of regularities in the development of the essential forces of a person:

their continuous complication;

advance development of abilities as an indicator of a qualitative change in personality;

increase in the degree of freedom of human development;

· the growth of solidity of historical action.

The formation of man anthropogenesis) and the formation of society ( sociogenesis) together amount to anthroposociogenesis, which lasted 3-3.5 million years. In accordance with the evolutionary labor theory, it is believed that man descended from apes.

The behavior of human ancestors (hominids) is characterized by: a) instinctive behavior; b) the decisive role of genetic heredity; c) herd way of life; d) biophysiological division of functions.

According to the hypothesis, the overcoming of the shortcomings of the biological mode of behavior of human ancestors and the greatly deteriorating conditions of their habitat prompted the emergence of a fundamentally new, social mode of existence of the prehuman and its transformation into a person. For the leap into the social mode of existence, the ancestors of man had the necessary biological prerequisites: the brain; upright posture; a developed hand capable of performing labor operations; larynx capable of making articulate sounds; a look that allows you to see in three dimensions and navigate in space; development of complex patterns of behavior and adaptation to different conditions environment; prolonged parental custody of children, resulting in better biological maturation and learning; relative stability of sexual desire, affecting the quality of offspring. The pre-human turned out to be prepared to take a stick or a stone in his hands, thus lengthen his limbs, strengthen his natural abilities by artificial means. From adaptation to nature, he moved on to its transformation, labor. "Labor created man himself."

The beginning of the manufacture of tools is a historical milestone in the development of man and society. There is evidence that the manufacture of the simplest tools began 1-1.5 million years earlier than speech and thinking appeared. Initially, the decisive role in production and everyday life was played by skills, abilities, not the mind. This makes it possible to assert that a person in his development goes through the stages of a skillful, upright and rational person.

Already in the 60s. 19th century Haeckel, Huxley and Focht formulated one of the difficulties of the labor theory of the origin of man - the "missing link", a morphologically defined form between ape-like ancestors and modern man. And in the 90s. 20th century geneticists, examining DNA molecules from the remains of a hundred-thousand-year-old Neanderthal found in the vicinity of Düsseldorf, came to the conclusion that Neanderthals were not the predecessors of modern humans, but were an extinct side line of evolutionary development.

A number of researchers who are skeptical of the labor theory of human origins pay special attention to spiritual factor the appearance of man. According to Teilhard de Chardin, the "paradox of man" is that the transition took place not through morphological changes, but inside, through the development of consciousness, psyche, mind, only veiled by morphology.

Many insects, birds, and mammals had more radical innovations than human ancestors: complex nests, beaver dams, geometric angles, urbanoid anthills, etc. This means that man's advantage was not that he began to use tools, but that that he was originally a self-cultivating animal that mainly used its mind.

In a number of cases, animals carry out instrumental activities that contain "manual intelligence" or "practical thinking" (A.N. Lentiev). In the subject-practical activity of a person, the physical and spiritual abilities of a person are embodied, thinking, speech, self-consciousness and various abilities develop. In the physical and mental development of a person, the labor factor is crucial:

a) an increase in the number of connections and their complication (a person - a tool of labor - an object of labor - nature);

b) the result of labor is separated in time from the direct labor act;

c) in the process of labor, a person learned the external connections and internal properties of things, developed his analytical and synthetic abilities;

d) along with the formation of the hand, the human brain increased and became more complex;

e) in the process of labor, the instinctive basis of behavior was weakened, the will, intellect, and human needs were formed.

In the process of labor, a sociocultural association of people and language is formed as a means of organizing joint actions, storing and transferring knowledge, and communicating.

Thus, work, thinking and speech formed man.

Depending on the material and labor factor, the American scientist L. Morgan (1818-1888) singled out three historical epochs in human history - wildness(use of fire, hunting, invention of the bow), barbarism(pottery, domestication of animals and cultivation of useful plants, smelting iron ore) and civilization(the invention of letter writing, the creation of firearms).

K. Marx and F. Engels based the classification of history on the economic basis in all its depth, considering the development of the means of production and their influence on the nature of social relations (social division of labor: cattle breeding from agriculture; money; mental from physical).

Labor is the most important system-forming concept, not only political and economic, but also socio-cultural.

One of the factors of anthroposociogenesis is moral. Moral and social norms arose as an expression of value behavior (prohibitions on incest, on killing a relative, the requirement to maintain the life of any of the members of the genus, later - the human race as a whole and animals). Punitive measures (ostracism).

An important role in the formation of man and society was played by the production of people by people themselves ( demographic factor).

The continuation of the human race as a biosocial process is in organic unity with the sphere of production of means of life and the environment. The main features of the quality of population are health, psycho-physiological comfort of life, dynamic style of behavior in unity with stability.

In the course of anthroposociogenesis, a person acts as a product and at the same time a creator of circumstances. From this follows a number of approaches to man.

Object Genesis Approach reveals the factors of human formation: a) the macro environment (cosmic, ecological, demographic, socio-economic, political conditions of life); b) microenvironment (family, work collective); c) social communities of people, interpersonal communication; d) public and political organizations, parties; e) system of education and upbringing; f) mass media and cultural institutions.

K. Marx in "Theses on Feuerbach" defined a person as the totality of all social relations. However, a person is correlated not only with society, but also with the Universe, with the whole History, with another person as an individual being of the Cosmos.

Z. Freud emphasized the role of the unconscious, argued that culture is derived from the unconscious drives of a person.

Subjective-functional approach reveals the involvement of a person in the main spheres of activity, communication and knowledge and characterizes him as a productive, socio-political and spiritual force of society.

Biologization(naturalistic) concepts of man absolutize the role of natural principles in man. Sociological theories represent a person only as a mold from the social relations surrounding him.

The natural-social in man is embodied in the unity of body and soul. Human actions are regulated not only by bodily needs, but also by social ones - society, history, spiritual and moral motives, etc.

Man is included in two worlds - nature and society. The biological in man is the starting point, although not sufficient, for explaining history and man himself. It is presented in the form of inclinations and abilities, inclinations. The social in a person is expressed in the fact that he embodies all the wealth of social development, is the product of a system of education and upbringing. The dynamism and viability of society largely depends on the maximum realization by individuals of their inclinations. Genetic and social differences act as a factor in human progress.

Compared to the social, the biological is more conservative. The human body does not always have time to adapt to negative and rapid changes in the environment (environmental catastrophe).

In general, it is necessary to improve social conditions and human biological capabilities simultaneously, ensuring their optimal interaction.

Spirituality there is a commitment to kindness, love, mercy, compassion and tolerance, conscience, beauty, freedom and honor, fidelity to ideals, the desire to reveal the secrets of being and the meaning of life.

Human spirituality is manifested: 1) in the uniqueness of human individuality; 2) in participation in universality, in the integrity of nature and culture.

The loss of the meaning of life has always been regarded as one of the greatest tragedies, as the loss of the main point of support. In the mythology of the ancient Greeks, the gods punished Syphys for criminal acts with senseless labor - they made it an eternal duty to roll a heavy stone up the mountain, which, reaching the top, rolled down. And the daughters of King Danae, who on their wedding night stabbed their sleeping husbands with daggers, are forced to fill a vessel with no bottom with water.

The focus of culture has always been on the tasks of a reasonable arrangement of public life, maintaining a correspondence between society and nature, harmonizing inner peace person. In search of harmony, people prefer either external (material prosperity, fame, success) or internal harmony (spirit). Obviously, the meaning of life lies not in the opposition of internal and external harmony, but in their complementarity. The meaning of life for a person is in the comprehensive development of one's abilities, making a personal contribution to the progress of society and culture through improving one's own status (material and spiritual).

Man realizes the inevitability of his death. Death is the eternal theme of culture, "the inspiring genius of philosophy" (Socrates). The meaning of death is to create conditions for the enrichment of life, the inevitability of death makes life meaningful and responsible (existentialism, Russian religious philosophy).

Modern interest in the problem of death is due to: a) the situation of a global civilizational crisis, which can lead to self-destruction of mankind; b) a change in the value attitude to life and death in connection with the general situation on Earth (depreciation of life due to poverty, lack of medical care, rampant terrorism, etc.).

Actively discussed in the literature is the issue of the right to die, especially when it comes to euthanasia (“easy” death to end suffering in incurable diseases).

In some modern ideas, the idea of ​​the formation of an incorruptible spiritual substance is renewed on a new basis. This idea relies on: First of all, on the law of conservation and transformation of energy (complete destruction of psychic energy is impossible); Secondly, on the idea of ​​the infinity of matter in space and time; third, the possession of reason makes a person a creature of cosmic scale, inexhaustible depth. Death does not mean complete disappearance with the destruction of the body, but implies the release of an intellectual-emotional clot in the form of a biofield structure to more high level being.

Types of relative immortality: a) in the genes of offspring; b) body mummification; c) dissolution of the body and spirit of the deceased in the Universe, their entry into the eternal cycle of matter; d) the result of human life creativity.

Another idea is about the immortal soul (Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Kant, Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, V.S. Solovyov, N.F. Fedorov, etc.).

People under certain conditions can acquire biological immortality as a result of "cloning". Its essence lies in the destruction of the barrier between "mortal" cells and "immortal" eggs. During cloning, it was possible to introduce the genetic information of the "immortal" egg into the nucleus of a mortal cell. Each surviving cell of the deceased can then “resurrect” if the code of another fertilized egg is implanted into its nucleus (maybe the ancient Egyptians did not embalm their dead in vain?). Here we are talking only about biological immortality. And man is not reduced to biology. This idea may lead to an attempt to control human behavior (zombie).

The realization of the meaning of life is possible in the case of a comprehensive, harmonious and holistic development of a person. The realization of the meaning of life and the inherent value of man is to the greatest extent possible in world history. The individual level of a person depends on the general historical and civilizational (formational) development and at the same time is relatively independent. Therefore, in realizing the meaning of life, it is inferior to the dynamics of the cultural-historical process, but in its individual implementations, especially among outstanding personalities, it is ahead of its time. higher meaning human life lies in the self-development of a person through a dialogue of his uniqueness and universality, freedom and responsibility for the formation of the world to the level of the noosphere.

Subject: INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

1. The problem of personality in the history of philosophy.

2. Individual, individuality, personality.

3. Historical types of relationships between man and society.

4. Alienation as a phenomenon of human existence.

5. The role of the people and personality in history.

In antiquity, the role of a person was assessed as a citizen of the policy. In general, the approach to man was speculative. Medieval philosophy tore off the spiritual nature of man from the bodily, subordinated the personality to the divine will, drew attention to the inner life, discovered self-consciousness as a special subjective reality, and contributed to the formation of the concept of "I".

17th century (nascent capitalism) formed such personality traits as initiative, activity, and the uniqueness of each individual. In the 17th century there were theories of a citizen of the world1 as an exponent of universal human values, civil society and the rule of law.

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the following basic concepts of personality existed: 1) focused on the centralization and regulation of all spheres of life, belittled the personality (Morelli, Babeuf, etc.). 2) the humanistic concept - exalted the personality.

K. Marx and F. Engels noted that the essence of a person is revealed in the society in which a person functions. By changing the conditions of his existence, participating in transformations, a person becomes the creator of history, revealing the facets of personality in this process.

3) Representatives of the biologizing-individualistic concept explain personality solely by the action of heredity, they argue that natural selection acts not only in nature, but also in society. Representatives of the structuralist approach, recognizing the social conditionality of the individual, reduce society to the impersonal structures of society and the human spirit. Many foreign philosophers have overcome the narrow-structuralist view of the personality, linking the personality with the functioning of the social character (E.Fromm), with the process of socialization (J.Habermas).

One-sided is the position that opposes society and the individual, masses of people and a unique personality (for example, in Teilhard de Chardin). Modern philosophy approaches the question of the role of the people and the individual in history in a comprehensive and concrete manner. For example, L.N. Gumilyov, in his discussions about ethnicity, wrote about passionaries (purposeful individuals who are able to lead others, infecting them with their enthusiasm), harmonious personalities and subpassionaries (passive masses of the population). At various stages of the development of an ethnos, the ratio of these groups of people changes.

Individual- a human unit, a representative of the human race and a historically defined society or group.

Individuality- a system of inherited and acquired social properties inherent in a particular person, characterizing his uniqueness, exclusivity. The most important sign of individuality is universalism, the ability to master many activities. For example, prominent figures of the Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci - painter, mathematician, mechanic and engineer; N. Machiavelli - statesman, historian, poet, military writer).

Comprehensiveness of personality development refers not only to the Renaissance. Physicist, mathematician, mechanic and astronomer Newton performed alchemical experiments and commented on the Bible. Physicist Jung deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs. Mathematician Helmholtz - author fundamental works on the physiology of hearing and vision. A Nobel Peace Prize winner, Dr. Schweitzer had doctorates in philosophy, theology, music, and law. Composer Borodin had a doctorate in medicine.

The opposite of individuality is integrativity(plurality in a person), which manifests itself in: 1) facelessness, uniformity, regulation of life; 2) the synthesis of individuality, universality, which facilitates familiarization with the achievements of world culture.

Personality is a person as a "refraction" of the social (and spiritual) in the individual. Socialization of a person includes: 1) the relationship "I-I"; 2) "I-you"; 3) "I-we"; 4) "I-humanity"; 5) "I am nature"; 6) "I am second nature"; 7) "I am the universe." Based on the communication of the “I” with various environments, various reflections and feelings are formed, certain norms of behavior and activities of people are formed.

The most important forms of socialization are: customs, traditions, norms, language, through which education, training and human activities are carried out. Personality is manifested through properties: the ability to work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, orientation and originality, character and temperament.

The higher mammals are characterized play behavior. It has also passed into human behavior (inherent in children, peoples at a primitive stage of development). The game has become a form of free self-expression of a person, not associated with the achievement of any utilitarian goal that brings joy and pleasure.

A game- an abbreviated and generalized expression of social relations. The culture of mankind is a free and fair game (J. Huizinga), a person must choose: “to be nothing or play” (J.-P. Sartre). Game is one of the most important phenomena of human existence.

Word "personality"(person) originally denoted in European languages play theatrical mask, then the actor himself and his role. Further social role(father, doctor, artist, educator, etc.) - a set of functions, patterns of behavior and actions performed by a person with a certain social status. Assumes responsibility.

There are various variations in human behavior.

The first option is weather vane-adaptive. A person thinks and acts unprincipled, voluntarily submitting to circumstances, social fashion, his own inclination, power and ideology. When circumstances and power change, the opportunist is potentially ready to change his views and serve the new doctrine.

The second option is conservative-traditionalist. Its bearer has insufficient creative potential and is not able to flexibly respond to changing circumstances, being held captive by the old dogmas.

The third option is personal-independent behavior. The autonomy of consciousness and behavior is respectful if it does not turn into stubbornness.

The fourth option is sustainable and flexible behavior. Stability is expressed through beliefs, the worldview "core", flexibility - in the ability to respond to new things, clarify positions on certain issues.

In each historical epoch, a set of conditions is formed that determine the social type of a person and the nature of his relationship with society:

1) "fusion" of the individual and society (collective);

2) antagonistic relations between them;

3) unity between man and society, free individuality, based "on the universal development of individuals and on the transformation of their collective, social productivity into their public property"2 (Marx).

When the individual and society merge, a person is included in a strictly regulated localized system of social relations (clan, community), in reality and in his mind he did not stand out from the team and was directly dependent on it.

The formation of personality occurs on the basis of the development and complication of labor activity, the division of labor, the formation of private property and, accordingly, private interests.

In the course of the development of private property, the merger of the individual and society was replaced by antagonistic relations between them, which resulted in the emergence of various forms of exploitation of workers based on non-economic coercion: slavery, serfdom, the collection of tribute from conquered peoples, etc.

With the advent of mature capitalist commodity production, individualism develops. The relations of people basically become the relations of commodity producers and commodity consumers, i.e. material relations. A new type of sociality appears - material dependence and personal independence. The possibility of appropriating the wealth of material and spiritual culture accumulated by mankind opens up before the individual. But the realization of this possibility is hampered by relations of exploitation and various forms of alienation.

On the basis of public property, a new type of personality is being formed. Opportunities are opening up for combining personal and public interests, the individual and the team. However, the command-bureaucratic system of socialism in the USSR to a greater extent developed elements of personal and material dependence, rather than free individuality.

Public ownership of the means of production is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the full development of a new type of sociality. It also requires a high level of productivity of social labor, an increase in free time, the democratization of public life, and the development of creative initiative.

In every historical epoch there are both dominant and survival forms of sociality.

In addition to social highlight socio-psychological personality types. Even Hippocrates divided people into choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. At the beginning of the twentieth century. C. G. Jung discovered 16 types of psyche, which he divided into 4 groups-quadras. Each of them has its own rules of conduct, system of values. To first quadra include individuals who successfully generate ideas, create various successful or utopian projects (I. Newton, A. Einstein, K. Marx, F. Engels). Co. second quadra include individuals with a tendency to implement projects in life (V.I. Lenin), they are characterized by a huge capacity for work, will, determination and perseverance, flexibility and realism, the ability to act in extreme situations. Representatives third quadra they critically rethink primary ideas, reveal their vices (M.S. Gorbachev, B.N. Yeltsin). Fourth quadra- creators.

One more classification of social personality types can be given.

Personalities-doers(artisans, workers, engineers, teachers, doctors, managers, etc.). The main thing for them is action, changing the world and other people, including themselves.

Thinkers(wise men, prophets, chroniclers, eminent scientists) come into the world in order to look and meditate.

People of feelings and emotions(representatives of literature and art), whose brilliant insights sometimes outstrip scientific forecasts and divinations of the sages.

Humanists and ascetics they are distinguished by a heightened sense of the state of mind of other people, love for their neighbor as for oneself, they are in a hurry to do good.

The phenomenon of alienation characterizes the situation when, firstly, contradictory communication develops between the “I” and the “non-I”, i.e. created by man opposes him; secondly, when any phenomena and relations in the distorted consciousness of people turn into something other than what they are in themselves. Alienation is the process and result of separation of the function of a thing (system) from its basis, leading to a distortion of its essence.

Separate fragments of the idea of ​​alienation are found in ancient philosophy. For example, in Plato, T. Hobbes, J.-J. Rousseau, C.A. Saint-Simon, I. Fichte, G. Hegel, L. Feuerbach (in German classical philosophy, alienation is singled out as an independent object of study), K. Marx. The basis for any alienation of a person, according to Marx, is economic alienation, or alienated (forced, forced) labor, which was considered in a system of a number of relations:

a) alienation of society and man from nature; b) alienation from the work product and the results of its work; c) alienation from the work process and the content of labor; d) alienation from the working content of the personality and or its generic essence; e) alienation in society of a person from another person. Marx draws attention to the contradictory nature of labor, which brings both satisfaction and suffering, which depends not only on the content of labor, but above all on the state of social relations in which it is carried out. In "Capital" Marx subjected to a detailed analysis of the social condition, where people exist as functions, and things dominate the creator. In a world of alienation, a person is oriented to "have" and not "to be."

Dealienation is considered by Marx according to the same parameters as the process of alienation: a) harmonization of relations between society (man) and nature; b) appropriation of the object of labor and its result; c) appropriation or release of the activity itself; d) by the appropriation by a person of labor of a common “generic essence”; e) to harmonize human-to-human relations.

Harmonization with external nature is carried out in activities in which a person realizes his goals not according to the laws of utilitarian utility, the exploitation of nature, but according to the “laws of beauty”. The inner nature of man himself is also transformed: instead of satisfying animal needs, a man appears with various, ever more complex needs. According to Marx, the main thing is the abolition of private property as a genuine removal of alienation.

F. Engels - alienation is not only economic, but also social, political, spiritual, etc. V.I. Lenin - alienation can be overcome by the efforts of the subjective factor of history and the state on the path of a significant increase in productive forces, changes in the quality of production relations.

A number of provisions on the nature of alienation were expressed in the philosophy of the twentieth century. Z. Freud (culture and society are forces alien and hostile to the individual), K. Jaspers (the main source of alienation is technology), M. Heidegger (alienation is a form of human existence in the impersonal world of everyday life), A. Camus (man is a stranger, “ strangers" in the world), E. Fromm (alienation is associated with the transformation of a person into a "thing", with an escape from freedom).

In the philosophical thought of the twentieth century. alienation is mainly viewed through the prism of the processes of dehumanization of society, leading to the "dehumanization" of the individual as a result of the crisis of technogenic civilization, the loss of the meaning of life and the value system of man and society, the dominance of the ideals of rationalism, the cult of science and technology.

Alienation is objective. Technological alienation - the poor development of the tools of labor puts on a person, due to his physical overstrain, the entire burden of production (a person as an appendage of any means of labor or any production function).

economic alienation (production and consumption are broken off).

Political alienation (man and state). Alienation in spiritual life (rejection from history with the loss of historical memory).

Overcoming negative forms of alienation is rooted in social progress, gaining technological, economic, socio-political and spiritual freedom; conditions for the realization of one's individuality against the general background of collectivity, the disclosure of the creative qualities of a person, his universal development, integrity. But absolutely alienation cannot be eliminated, it is a normal characteristic of a person, it testifies to his abilities for self-expression and self-giving. In general, alienation is dual: it promotes the self-manifestation of a person and at the same time depersonalizes him.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "population" and "people".

Population - it is a set (mass) of people living in certain spatio-temporal coordinates. People- a set of groups of working people who create material wealth and spiritual values, solve progressive historical tasks in a given era and ensure the satisfaction of the personal and social needs of the population. The most important features of the people are the commonality of cultural traditions, history, language, territory, and social character. The essence of the people is to be a socio-historical subject, which is expressed in social activity the people who make up the people. The existence of a civil society is a condition for the existence of a people.

The categories "people" and "personality" are correlated. Some thinkers break this correlation by absolutizing the meaning of one and neglecting the other. In Soviet philosophy, for example, the role of the people in history was often exaggerated. Representatives of the theory of the elite (twentieth century) see in the people only a destructive, negative force.

A people is a collection of individuals. In the relationship "people-personality" the dialectical principle "and-and" operates. The growth of the role of the people (through the activities of classes, social groups, collectives, parties) leads to an increase in the importance of the individual in all historical deeds.

In general, any personality has a contradictory effect on the historical process and culture: at some stages of life it speeds up the course of history, while at others it slows it down. For example, I.V. Stalin, N.S. Khrushchev, L.I. Brezhnev.

Outstanding personalities play the role of innovators and organizers. These personalities cannot change history on a world-historical scale, violate its general objective logic, but they influence the form of the movement of history as spokesmen for the needs and tasks of their era, in some way they influence. The American scientist Michael Hart in the book “The 100 Most Influential Personalities in History, Arranged in Order” (see “Arguments and Facts”, 1995, No. 9), the list begins with Mohammed, then the scientists and inventors Newton (2), Gutenberg, Einstein, Pasteur, Galileo, Darwin. Among the figures of literature, art and music are Shakespeare, Homer, Michelangelo, Picasso, Beethoven and Bach. Among philosophers, it starts with Marx. Of the natives of the CIS space, three figures were named - Lenin (15), Stalin (63) and Peter the Great (91).

Subject: MAN IN THE WORLD OF CULTURE, CIVILIZATION AND

There are many definitions, each of which reflects certain aspects of such a complex concept as science. Let's give some definitions.

The science is a form of human knowledge, an integral part of the spiritual culture of society.

The science is a system of concepts about phenomena and laws of reality.

The science is a system of all knowledge tested by practice, which is a common product of the development of society.

The science- this is the final experience of mankind in a concentrated form, elements of the spiritual culture of all mankind, many historical epochs and classes, as well as a way of foresight and active comprehension through a theoretical analysis of the phenomena of objective reality for the subsequent use of the results obtained in practice.

The science- this is a special sphere of purposeful human activity, which includes scientists with their knowledge and abilities, scientific institutions and has as its task the study (based on certain methods of cognition) of the objective laws of the development of nature, society and thinking in order to foresee and transform reality in the interests of society [ Burgin and others.].

Each of the above definitions reflects one or another aspect of the concept of "science", some statements are duplicated.

As a basis for the subsequent analysis, we put the fact that science is a specific human activity [ Philosophy and methodology of science].

Let's take a look at what makes this activity special. Any activity:

Has a purpose;

The final product, methods and means of obtaining it;

It is directed at some objects, revealing its object in them;

It is the activity of subjects who, solving their tasks, enter into certain social relations and form various forms of social institutions.

In all these parameters, science differs significantly from other spheres of human activity. Let's consider each of the parameters separately.

The main, defining goal of scientific activity is to obtain knowledge about reality. Knowledge is acquired by a person in all forms of his activity - both in everyday life, and in politics, and in economics, and in art, and in engineering. But in these areas of human activity, the acquisition of knowledge is not the main goal.

For example, art is meant to create aesthetic value. In art, the attitude of the artist to reality, and not a reflection of it, is in the foreground. The same is true in engineering. Its product is a project, the development of a new technology, an invention. Of course, engineering developments are based on science. But in any case, the product of engineering developments is evaluated from the point of view of its practical usefulness, the optimal use of resources, and the expansion of the possibilities for transforming reality, and not by the amount of knowledge acquired.

From the examples given, it can be seen that science differs from all other activities in its purpose.

Knowledge can be scientific or non-scientific. Let's take a closer look distinctive features exactly scientific knowledge.

Science as a system of knowledge

1.1 The concept of science

The science- this is a continuously developing system of knowledge of the objective laws of nature, society and thinking, obtained and converted into the direct productive force of society as a result of the special activities of people

Science can be viewed in various dimensions:

1) as a specific shape public consciousness, which is based on the knowledge system;

2) as a process of cognition of the laws of the objective world;

3) as a certain type of social division of labor;

4) as one of the important factors of social development and as a process of knowledge production and its use.

Science as a whole is divided into separate sciences corresponding to branches of knowledge. They are combined into groups: natural(physics, chemistry, biology), public and technical(construction and metallurgy). This classification has developed historically and is conditional. There are sciences that cannot be attributed to only one group. for example, geography refers simultaneously to the natural and social sciences, ecology - to the natural and technical, technical aesthetics - to the social and technical.

Not all knowledge can be considered scientific. It is impossible to recognize as scientific the knowledge that a person receives only on the basis of simple observation. This knowledge plays an important role in people's lives, but it does not reveal the essence of the phenomena, the relationship between them, which would make it possible to explain why this phenomenon occurs one way or another, and to predict its further development. The correctness of scientific knowledge is determined not only by logic, but, above all, by its mandatory verification in practice. Scientific knowledge is fundamentally different from blind faith, from the unquestioning recognition of this or that position as true, without any logical substantiation and practical verification. Revealing the regular connections of reality, science expresses them in abstract concepts and schemes that strictly correspond to this reality.

The main feature and main function of science is the knowledge of the objective world. Science was created to directly reveal the essential aspects of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking.

Purpose of Science- knowledge of the laws of development of nature and society and the impact on nature based on the use of knowledge to obtain results useful to society. Until the relevant laws are discovered, a person can only describe phenomena, collect, systematize facts, but he cannot explain or predict anything.

The development of science proceeds from the collection of factors, their study and systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a coherent, logically coherent system of scientific knowledge, which makes it possible to explain already known facts and predict new ones. The path of knowledge is determined from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from the latter to practice.

The process of cognition includes the accumulation of facts. No science can exist without systematization and generalization, without logical comprehension of facts. But although facts are the air of a scientist, they are not science in themselves. Facts become integral part scientific knowledge when they appear in a systematic, generalized form.

Facts are systematized and generalized with the help of simple abstractions - concepts (definitions), which are important structural elements of science. The broadest concepts are called categories. These are the most general abstractions. The categories include philosophical concepts about the form and content of phenomena, in theoretical economy - this is a product, cost, etc.

An important form of knowledge is principles (postulates), axioms . Under the principle understand the initial provisions of any branch of science. They are the initial form of systematization of knowledge (the axioms of Euclidean geometry, Bohr's postulate in quantum mechanics, etc.).

The most important component link in the system of scientific knowledge is scientific laws that reflect the most essential, stable, repetitive objective internal connections in nature, society and thinking. Usually laws act in the form of a certain correlation of concepts, categories.

The highest form of generalization and systematization of knowledge is theory. Under theory understand the doctrine of generalized experience (practice), which formulates scientific principles and methods that allow you to generalize and cognize existing processes and phenomena, analyze the effect on them various factors and offer recommendations on how to use them in the practical activities of people.

Science also includes research methods . A method is understood as a method of theoretical research or practical implementation of a phenomenon or process. The method is a tool for solving the main task of science - the discovery of the objective laws of reality. The method determines the necessity and place of application of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, comparison of theoretical and experimental studies.

Any scientific theory, explaining the nature of certain processes of reality, is always associated with a certain particular method of research. Based on general and particular research methods, the scientist receives an answer to where to start research, how to relate to facts, how to generalize, which way to go to conclusions.