Muzzle velocity - factors of influence. Air Bullet Velocity Additional Factors Affecting Muzzle Velocity

muzzle velocity

muzzle velocity- the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel.

Per initial speed the conditional speed is accepted, which is slightly more than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is determined empirically with subsequent calculations. muzzle velocity strongly depends on the length of the barrel: than longer barrel, the longer the powder gases can act on the bullet, accelerating it. For pistol cartridges, the muzzle velocity is approximately equal to 300-500 m / s, for intermediate and rifle cartridges 700-1000 m / s.

The value of the initial velocity of the bullet is indicated in the firing tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.

With an increase in the initial speed, the range of the bullet, the range of a direct shot, the lethal effect of the bullet and the penetrating effect of the bullet increase, and the influence of external conditions for her flight.

Even ordinary bullets that have an initial velocity of more than 1000 m / s have a powerful high-explosive effect. This high-explosive action has an expansive growth as the muzzle velocity crosses the 1000 m/s limit.

The main factors affecting the muzzle velocity of a bullet

• bullet weight;
• the weight powder charge;
• the shape and size of the grains of gunpowder (the rate of combustion of gunpowder).

Additional Factors Affecting Muzzle Velocity

• barrel length;
• temperature and humidity of the powder charge;
• loading density;
• friction forces between the bullet and the bore;
• temperature environment.

Influence of barrel length

• The longer the barrel, the longer the powder gases act on the bullet and the greater the muzzle velocity. With a constant barrel length and a constant weight of the powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the lower the weight of the bullet.

The influence of the characteristics of the powder charge

• The shapes and sizes of gunpowder have a significant impact on the burning rate of the powder charge, and, consequently, on the muzzle velocity of the bullet. They are selected accordingly when designing weapons.
• With an increase in the humidity of the powder charge, its burning rate and the initial speed of the bullet decrease.
• With an increase in the temperature of the powder charge, the burning rate of the powder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and initial speed increase. As the charge temperature decreases, the initial speed decreases. An increase (decrease) in initial velocity causes an increase (decrease) in the range of the bullet. In this regard, it is necessary to take into account range corrections for air and charge temperature (charge temperature is approximately equal to air temperature).
• A change in the weight of the powder charge leads to a change in the amount of powder gases, and, consequently, to a change in the maximum pressure in the bore and the initial velocity of the bullet. How more weight powder charge, the greater the maximum pressure and muzzle velocity of the bullet.

The length of the barrel and the weight of the powder charge increase when designing weapons to the most rational dimensions.

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See what the "initial bullet velocity" is in other dictionaries:

muzzle velocity (bullets)- The speed of the bullet with which it flies out of the barrel of a rifle. [Department of Linguistic Services of the Sochi 2014 Organizing Committee. Glossary of terms] EN muzzle velocity Speed ​​of the bullet as it leaves the rifle barrel. [Department… … Technical Translator's Handbook

muzzle velocity- 3.5.2 muzzle launch speed vp0 (projectile launch speed), m/s: The speed of the bullet when leaving the muzzle. Source … Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

Bullets are the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel. For the initial speed, the conditional speed is taken, which is slightly more than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is determined empirically with subsequent calculations. Muzzle velocity is strong ... ... Wikipedia

Initial projectile speed- INITIAL SPEED OF THE PROJECT, forward speed. the movement of a projectile (bullet) fired from a weapon at the muzzle. cut. Its size, ch. arr., depends on the magnitude of the charge, max. gunpowder pressure. gas, projectile weight, chamber and channel length, diameter ... ... Military Encyclopedia

- (Initial velocity) the speed of forward movement of the projectile (bullet) when leaving the muzzle. N. S. one of the most important ballistic data of any firearms. An increase in the initial speed helps to increase the range of the projectile, ... ... Marine Dictionary

Estimated translational velocity of a projectile (mines, bullets) at the muzzle of the barrel. Measured in m/s. Indicated in EdwART shooting tables. Explanatory Naval Dictionary, 2010 ... Marine Dictionary

In artillery, the estimated speed will be received. movement of the projectile (mines, bullets) at the muzzle of the barrel; one of the chapter ballistic char k, which determine the range of a direct shot, the range of a projectile (mines, bullets) and its power or penetrating effect ... ... Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary

starting speed- in ballistics, the speed of the projectile (bullet) at the muzzle of the barrel of a firearm. One of the main ballistic performance, which determine the range of the projectile (bullet), its kinetic energy and penetrating ability ... Forensic Encyclopedia

starting speed- the estimated translational speed of the projectile (mines, bullets) at the muzzle of the barrel. It is reported to the projectile (mine, bullet) when it moves along the bore and during the aftereffect period. N. s. One of the most important tactics specifications… … Dictionary of military terms

initial- 3.1 primary general education school: A school organized as an independent institution, as well as as part of a basic or secondary general education school (the term of study is primary school 4 years).

In chapter gold fund What is the speed of the bullet? given by the author *** the best answer is The speed of a bullet depends on the type of weapon and for modern firearms it varies on average from 300 to 1000 m/s.
There is one very simple method for measuring bullet speed:
A heavy piece of wood suspended on a thread (four, a thread from each end).
Measurement technique: you shoot at a piece of wood, you look at how much it deviates, you count.
Vbullets = (2*sin((90*l)/(Pi*R)) * sqrt(g*R) * (m+M)) /m
where:
l - how much the piece of wood deviates when a bullet hits, m
Pi - 3.14159265356...
R - length of the suspension thread, m - not less than a meter
g - free fall acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
m - bullet mass
M - mass of wood

Answer from 2 answers[guru]

Hello! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: what is the speed of a bullet?

Answer from Zig Fried[guru]
About 370 meters per second...

Answer from Paul[guru]
It depends on which barrel and which bullet ...

Answer from User deleted[newbie]
x ... you will catch up !!

Answer from Yergey Terentiev[guru]
Of course it depends on the weapon and on the cartridge. I know for sure that the speed of a bullet (ordinary, with a lead core) fired from an SVD is 920-940 m.s.

Answer from 1 [guru]
different well, somewhere 400 km per hour

Answer from !! [active]
about 900 m.v seconds

Answer from User deleted[newbie]
If she (the bullet) is already well .. not, then not high ...

Answer from User deleted[guru]
if from Kalash = 750m / sec. From another weapon, sorry ...

Answer from D.M.[guru]
In the memoirs of a pilot of the First World War, a case is described when in the air he saw a bullet flying nearby,
obviously on the run. The speed of the aircraft at that time was about 50 km. in hour.

Answer from Ѐuslan Ivanov[active]
For pistols, the bullet speed is within the speed of sound (340m/s), for efficient use of silencers
AK-47=750 m.s
AK-74=900 m.s
SVD=840
PM=315

Answer from Sergio Noise[newbie]
The speed of the bullet affects this: the quality of the gunpowder (the smaller the particles, the better), the humidity, the ambient temperature .. And a number of other factors.

Answer from Plovezz[active]
do not be afraid of the sounds of a shot in the war, you will not hear your bullet ...

Bullet speed is one of the most important characteristics of a weapon. Its value depends on a number of factors. These include the mass of the bullet, the length of the barrel of the weapon, and the energy transferred to the bullet, which depends on the mass of the powder charge. Moving along the bore under the influence of powder gases, the bullet reaches its maximum speed a few centimeters from the muzzle. This speed is called the initial speed and is indicated in the characteristics of the weapon. Naturally, for each weapon model, the bullet speed will be different. In this regard, it is possible to answer the question of how fast a bullet flies only by grading small arms by its categories.

Pistols, revolvers, submachine guns

This category of weapons is characterized by a short barrel (it is often called short-barreled). It uses, as a rule, pistol cartridges equipped with a relatively small charge of gunpowder. In this regard, the initial velocity of the bullet is relatively low and averages 300-500 m/s. So, the initial speed of a bullet in a Makarov pistol (PM) is 315 m/s, in a TT pistol - 420 m/s.

Assault rifles, assault rifles

In this category of weapons, the so-called intermediate cartridge is mainly used. The initial speed of a bullet can reach an average of 700-1000 m / s. For example, the muzzle velocity of a bullet in a Kalashnikov assault rifle is 720 m/s.

Rifles, sniper rifles, machine guns

Such weapons use reinforced ammunition, and this factor has a decisive influence on how fast the bullet flies. Its value can reach 1500 m/s. So, the muzzle velocity of the famous Mosin rifle of the 1891/30 model. was equal to 865 m / s, the speed of the bullet in sniper rifle Dragunov is 830 m/s, and light machine gun Kalashnikov (RPK) fires bullets at an initial speed of 960 m/s.

For a shooter, the initial velocity of a bullet (projectile) is perhaps the most important of all the quantities considered in internal ballistics.

Indeed, this quantity depends longest range shooting, direct shot range, i.e. the greatest range of direct fire at visible targets, at which the height of the trajectory of the bullet does not exceed the height of the target, the time of movement of the bullet (projectile) to the target, the impact of the projectile on the target and other indicators.

That is why it is necessary to pay attention to the very concept of the initial speed, to the methods for determining it, to how the initial speed changes when the parameters change. internal ballistics and when changing shooting conditions.

When fired from small arms, a bullet, starting to move faster and faster along the bore under the action of powder gases, reaches its maximum speed a few centimeters from the muzzle.

Then, moving by inertia and meeting the resistance of the air, the bullet begins to lose its speed. Therefore, the speed of the bullet changes all the time. Given this circumstance, it is customary to fix the speed of a bullet only in some specific phases of its movement. Usually fix the speed of the bullet when it leaves the bore.

The speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel at the moment it leaves the bore is called the muzzle velocity.

For the initial speed, the conditional speed is taken, which is slightly more than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is measured by the distance that a bullet could cover in 1 second after leaving the bore if neither air resistance nor its gravity acted on it. Since the speed of a bullet at some distance from the muzzle differs little from the speed when it leaves the bore, in practical calculations it is usually considered that the most great speed the bullet has at the moment of departure from the bore, i.e. that the muzzle velocity of the bullet is the greatest (maximum) velocity.

The initial speed is determined empirically with subsequent calculations. The value of the initial velocity of the bullet is indicated in the firing tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.

So, when firing from a 7.62 mm magazine rifle of the Mosin system mod. 1891/30 the muzzle velocity of a light bullet is 865 m/s, and that of a heavy bullet is 800 m/s. When firing from a 5.6 mm TOZ-8 small-caliber rifle, the initial velocity of a bullet of various batches of cartridges varies between 280-350 m / s.

The value of the initial velocity is one of the most important characteristics of not only cartridges, but also the combat properties of weapons. However, it is impossible to judge the ballistic properties of a weapon by only one initial bullet velocity. With an increase in the initial speed, the range of the bullet, the range of a direct shot, the lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet increases, and the influence of external conditions on its flight also decreases.

The value of the muzzle velocity depends on the length of the barrel of the weapon; bullet mass; mass, temperature and humidity of the powder charge of the cartridge, the shape and size of the powder grains and the loading density.

The longer the barrel of a small arms weapon, the longer the powder gases act on the bullet and the higher the muzzle velocity of the bullet.

It is also necessary to consider the muzzle velocity of the bullet in combination with its mass. It is very important to know how much energy the bullet has, what work it can do.

It is known from physics that the energy of a moving body depends on its mass and speed. Therefore, the greater the mass of the bullet and the speed of its movement, the greater the kinetic energy of the bullet. With a constant barrel length and a constant mass of the powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the smaller the mass of the bullet. An increase in the mass of the powder charge leads to an increase in the amount of powder gases, and, consequently, to an increase in the maximum pressure in the bore and an increase in the muzzle velocity. The greater the mass of the powder charge, the greater the maximum pressure and muzzle velocity of the bullet.

The length of the barrel and the mass of the powder charge increase when designing small arms samples to the most rational sizes.

With an increase in the temperature of the powder charge, the burning rate of the powder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and the initial speed of the bullet increase. As the charge temperature decreases, the initial speed decreases. An increase (decrease) in initial velocity causes an increase (decrease) in the range of the bullet. In this regard, when shooting, it is imperative to take into account range corrections for air and charge temperature (charge temperature is approximately equal to air temperature).

With an increase in the humidity of the powder charge, its burning rate and the initial speed of the bullet decrease.

The shape and size of the powder have a significant impact on the burning rate of the powder charge, and hence on the muzzle velocity of the bullet. They are selected accordingly when designing weapons.

Loading density is the ratio of the mass of the charge to the volume of the sleeve with the inserted pool (charge combustion chambers). With a very deep landing of a bullet, the loading density increases significantly, which can lead to a sharp pressure jump when fired and, as a result, to a rupture of the barrel, so such cartridges cannot be used for shooting. With a decrease (increase) in the loading density, the initial velocity of the bullet increases (decreases).

The penetrating effect of a bullet (tables 1 and 2) is characterized by its kinetic energy(live force). The kinetic energy that the powder gases impart to the bullet at the moment it leaves the bore is called muzzle energy. Bullet energy is measured in joules.

Table 1
Penetrating action of a light bullet 7.62 mm sniper repeating rifle
Mosin system arr. 1891/30 (when shooting at distances up to 100 m)

RIFLE bullets have tremendous kinetic energy. So, the muzzle energy of a light bullet when firing from a rifle of the 1891/30 model. is equal to 3600 J. How great is the energy of the bullet, it can be seen from the following: in order to obtain such energy in such a short period of time (not by firing), a machine with a power of 3000 hp would be required. With.

From what has been said, it is clear how great practical value has a high initial velocity for firing and the muzzle energy of the bullet dependent on it. With an increase in the initial velocity of the bullet and its muzzle energy, the firing range increases; the trajectory of the bullet becomes more sloping; the influence of external conditions on the flight of a bullet is significantly reduced; bullet penetration increases.

At the same time, by the value of the initial velocity of the bullet (projectile) big influence causes bore wear. During operation, the barrel of the weapon undergoes significant wear. This contributes whole line causes of mechanical, thermal, gas-dynamic and chemical nature.

First of all, the bullet, when passing through the bore, due to high friction forces, rounds off the corners of the rifling fields and abrades the inner walls of the bore. In addition, moving with high speed particles of powder gases hit with force the walls of the bore, causing the so-called hardening on their surface. This phenomenon consists in the fact that the surface of the bore is covered with a thin crust with fragility gradually developing in it. The elastic deformation of the barrel expansion occurring during the shot leads to the appearance of small cracks on the inner surface of the metal.

The formation of such cracks is facilitated by heat powder gases, which, due to their very short action, cause partial melting of the bore surface. Large stresses arise in the heated metal layer, which ultimately lead to the appearance and growth of these small cracks. The increased fragility of the surface layer of the metal and the presence of cracks on it lead to the fact that the bullet, when passing through the bore, produces metal chips at the cracks. The wear of the barrel is also greatly facilitated by the soot remaining in the bore after the shot. It is the remains of the combustion of the primer composition and gunpowder, as well as metal scraped off from the bullet or smelted from it, pieces of the case mouth torn off by gases, etc.

The salts present in soot have the ability to absorb moisture from the air, dissolve in it and form solutions that, reacting with the metal, lead to its corrosion (rust), the appearance of a rash in the bore, and then shells. All these factors lead to a change, destruction of the surface of the bore, which entails an increase in its caliber, especially at the bullet entry, and, of course, a decrease in its overall strength. Therefore, the noted change in the parameters during barrel wear leads to a decrease in the initial velocity of the bullet (projectile), as well as to a sharp deterioration in the combat of the weapon, i.e. to the loss of their ballistic qualities.

If during the time of Peter I the initial speed of the cannonball reached 200 meters per second, then modern artillery shells fly much faster. The flight speed of a modern projectile in the first second is usually 800-900 meters, and some projectiles fly even faster, at a speed of 1000 or more meters per second. This speed is so great that the projectile, when it flies, is not even visible. Consequently, modern projectile flies at a speed 40 times the speed of a courier train and 8 times the speed of an airplane.

table 2
Penetrating action of a bullet of a 5.6 mm TOZ-8 small-caliber rifle (when firing at a distance of up to 25 m)

However, here we are talking about ordinary passenger aircraft and about artillery shells flying from average speed.

If we take for comparison, on the one hand, the “slowest” projectile, and on the other, a modern jet aircraft, then the difference will not be so great, and, moreover, not in favor of the projectile: jet aircraft fly at an average speed of about 900 kilometers per hour, that is, about 250 meters per second, and a very “slow” projectile, for example, a 152-mm self-propelled howitzer"Msta" 2 S19, with the smallest charge, flies in the first second only 238 meters.

It turns out that a jet aircraft will not only not lag behind such a projectile, but will also overtake it.

A passenger plane flies about 900 kilometers in an hour. How much will a projectile fly in an hour, flying several times faster than an airplane? It would seem that the projectile should fly about 4000 kilometers in an hour.

In fact, however, the entire flight artillery shell usually lasts less than a minute, the projectile flies 15-20 kilometers, and only for some guns - more.

What is the matter here? What prevents a projectile from flying as long and as far as an airplane flies?

The plane flies for a long time because the propeller pulls or the jet engine pushes it forward all the time. The engine runs for several hours in a row - until there is enough fuel. Therefore, the plane can fly continuously for several hours in a row.

The projectile receives a push in the channel of the gun, and then it flies by itself, no force pushes it forward anymore. From the point of view of mechanics, a flying projectile will be a body moving by inertia. Such a body, the mechanic teaches, must obey a very simple law: it must move in a straight line and uniformly, unless no other force is applied to it.

Does the projectile obey this law, does it move in a straight line?

Imagine that a kilometer away from us there is a target, for example, an enemy machine-gun point. Let's try to point the gun so that its barrel is pointed directly at the machine gun, then we'll fire a shot.

No matter how many times we shoot like this, we will never hit the target: every time the projectile will fall to the ground and burst, flying only 200-300 meters. If we continue the experiments, we will soon come to the following conclusion: in order to hit, you need to direct the barrel not at the target, but somewhat above it.

It turns out that the projectile does not fly forward in a straight line: it descends in flight. What's the matter? Why does the projectile fly in a straight line? What is the force pulling the projectile down?

Artillery scientists of the late 16th and early 17th centuries explained this phenomenon in this way: a projectile flying obliquely upwards loses its strength, like a person climbing a steep mountain. And when the projectile finally loses its strength, it will stop in the air for a moment, and then fall down like a stone. The path of the projectile in the air seemed to the artillerymen of the 16th century as shown in the figure.

Nowadays, all people who have studied physics, knowing the laws discovered by Galileo and Newton, will give a more correct answer: gravity acts on a flying projectile and makes it descend during the flight. After all, everyone knows that a thrown stone does not fly straight, but describes a curve and, having flown a short distance, falls to the ground. Ceteris paribus, the stone flies the farther, the stronger it is thrown, the greater the speed it received at the moment of the throw.

Let's put a tool in place of a person throwing a stone, and replace the stone with a projectile; like any flying body, the projectile will be attracted to the ground during the flight and, therefore, move away from the line along which it was thrown, this line is called in artillery the line of throw, and the angle between this line and the horizon of the gun is the throw angle.

If we assume that only the force of gravity acts on the projectile during its flight, then under the influence of this force in the first second of the flight the projectile will fall by approximately 5 meters (more precisely - by 4.9 meters), in the second - by almost 15 meters (more precisely - by 14.7 meters) and every next second the falling speed will increase by almost 10 meters per second (more precisely, by 9.8 meters per second). This is the law of free fall of bodies discovered by Galileo.

Therefore, the line of flight of the projectile - the trajectory - is not straight, but exactly the same as for a thrown stone, similar to an arc.

In addition, one may wonder: is there a relationship between the angle of throw and the distance that the projectile flies?

Let's try to fire the gun once with the barrel horizontal, another time with a throw angle of 3 degrees, and a third time with a throw angle of 6 degrees.

In the first second of the flight, the projectile must move down from the throwing line by 5 meters. And this means that if the barrel of the gun lies on the machine 1 meter high from the ground and is directed horizontally, then the projectile will have nowhere to fall, it will hit the ground before the first second of the flight expires. The calculation shows that after 6 tenths of a second the projectile will hit the ground.

A projectile thrown at a speed of 600-700 meters per second, with a horizontal position of the barrel, will fly only 300 meters before falling to the ground. Now let's fire a shot at an angle of 3 degrees.

The line of throwing will no longer go horizontally, but at an angle of 3 degrees to the horizon.

According to our calculations, a projectile fired at a speed of 600 meters per second would have to rise to a height of 30 meters in a second, but gravity will take 5 meters away from it, and in fact the projectile will be at a height of 25 meters above the ground. After 2 seconds, the projectile, without gravity, would have already risen to a height of 60 meters, in fact, gravity will take another 15 meters in the second second of flight, and only 20 meters. By the end of the second second, the projectile will be at a height of 40 meters. If we continue the calculations, they will show that already at the fourth second the projectile will not only stop rising, but will begin to fall lower and lower. And by the end of the sixth second, having flown 3600 meters, the projectile will fall to the ground.

The calculations for firing at a 6-degree throw angle are similar to those we just did, but the calculations will take much longer: the projectile will fly for 12 seconds and fly 7200 meters.

Thus, we realized that the greater the angle of throw, the farther the projectile flies. But there is a limit to this increase in range: the projectile flies farthest if it is thrown at an angle of 45 degrees. If you further increase the angle of throw, the projectile will climb higher, but it will fall closer.

It goes without saying that the flight range will depend not only on the angle of throw, but also on the speed: the greater the initial velocity of the projectile, the further it will fall, all other things being equal.

For example, if you throw a projectile at an angle of 6 degrees with a speed of not 600, but 170 meters per second, then it will fly not 7200 meters, but only 570.

Therefore, the real highest muzzle velocity that can be achieved in the classical artillery piece, fundamentally cannot exceed the value of 2500-3000 m / s, and the actual firing range does not exceed several tens of kilometers. This is the peculiarity of artillery barrel systems (including small arms), realizing that humanity, in its pursuit of cosmic speeds and ranges, turned to the use of the jet propulsion principle.

On three magnums ("Diana 31", "Gamo Socom Carbine Luxe", "Hatsan Striker") and one "super" ("Hatsan mod 135"), the speeds were also quite consistent with them. Where did all these fantastic figures of 380-400-470 m/s m/s come from? The secret is in the use for advertising purposes of ultralight, completely not designed for such power, but very fast bullets.

Pre-pumped pneumatics (PCP) are no exception. It is clear that by pushing an ultra-light bullet into the drum and working with the pump from the heart, it is possible to achieve speeds exceeding 400 meters per second, almost at the level of a smooth-bore firearm. However, PCP owners use the right ammunition for their weapon and optimize the pressure (the so-called "plateau") or set the gearbox to optimal performance again. Depending on the caliber, the weapon gives out from 220 to about 320 m / s, and the more powerful it is, the lower the speed, and the bullets are heavier! In addition, the silencers installed on most modern PCP rifles, like those of a firearm, work correctly only at subsonic (up to 330 m/s) speeds.

For hunting, the main thing is the stopping effect of the projectile. That is, with light high-speed bullets it’s not bad to break through the boards for a dispute, and the heavy one will get stuck in them, transferring all the destructive energy to the mass of the tree. The same is true of living flesh.

In principle, this could have ended - the truth was voiced, the culprits were named. But if you really want to get to the bottom of the issue, and most importantly, decide on the characteristics of your specific rifle and choose the best ammunition for it, then you should continue reading this article. It will be interesting - then I will give examples of calculating the real indicators of pneumatic weapons.

The formula for calculating the energy, speed and mass of a bullet

Now we will conduct a "session of exposing black advertising magic." To do this, we will resort to the help of exact sciences - mathematics, physics, as well as more narrowly specialized ballistics ( full version of this article and other specialized materials on the features of shooting and hunting with pneumatics, read on my website arbalet-airgun.ru).

We will rely on the energy ("power") indicators officially cited by rifle manufacturers, which, unlike high-speed ones, are quite objective. The fact is that the weapons legislation of most countries focuses specifically on them, and they don’t joke with such things. Secondly, if meters per second is perfectly imagined by most people, then with all sorts of different joules, not everything is so smooth. This is like for motorists: maximum speed in km / h (by the way, also always overestimated) is understandable to any "blonde", but there are already problems with Newton meters of torque.

There is a fundamental formula E = mv 2 /2, where "E" is energy, "m" is mass, and "v" is speed. That is, all these quantities are interconnected and depend on each other. We will carry out calculations of real indicators air rifles With different levels energy. Of the spring-piston 4.5 mm, we will focus on the license-free version up to 7.5 joules, the “magnums” - 20 and 25 joules, as well as the “supermagnums” - 30 J. We will consider weapons with pre-pumping (PCP) already in three main calibers - 4.5 (.177), 5.5 (.22) and 6.35 (.25) mm; 37, 53 and 60 joules, respectively

So, what kind of bullets do airgun manufacturers have in mind when they give fantastic velocity figures for advertised rifles...