Introduction 2.

Objects, tasks and subject of judicial

ballistic examination 3.

The concept of firearms 5.

Device and purpose of the main

parts and mechanisms of firearms

weapons 7.

Classification of cartridges for

hand firearms 12.

Device unitary cartridges

and their main parts 14.

Drafting an expert opinion and

Photo tables 21.

List of used literature 23.

Introduction.

The term " ballistics" comes from the Greek word "ballo" - I throw, to the sword. Historically, ballistics arose as a military science that determines the theoretical foundations and practical application of the laws of flight of a projectile in the air and the processes that impart the necessary kinetic energy to the projectile. Its emergence is associated with the great scientist antiquity - Archimedes, who designed throwing machines (ballistas) and calculated the flight path of projectiles.

At a specific historical stage in the development of mankind, such a technical tool as firearms was created. Over time, it began to be used not only for military purposes or for hunting, but also for illegal purposes - as a weapon of crime. As a result of its use, it was necessary to fight crimes involving the use of firearms. Historical periods provide for legal, technical measures aimed at their prevention and disclosure.

Forensic ballistics owes its emergence as a branch of forensic technology to the need to investigate, first of all, gunshot injuries, bullets, shot, buckshot and weapons.

- This is one of the types of traditional forensic examinations. The scientific and theoretical basis of forensic ballistic examination is the science called "Forensic ballistics", which is included in the forensic system as an element of its section - forensic technology.

The first specialists called upon by the courts as "shooting experts" were gunsmiths, who, as a result of their work, knew and could assemble, disassemble weapons, had more or less accurate knowledge of shooting, and the conclusions that were required of them concerned most of the issues about whether a shot was fired from a weapon, from what distance this or that weapon hits the target.

Judicial ballistics - a branch of krimtechnics that studies the methods of natural sciences with the help of specially developed methods and techniques of firearms, phenomena and traces accompanying its action, ammunition and their components in order to investigate crimes committed with the use of firearms.

Modern forensic ballistics was formed as a result of the analysis of the accumulated empirical material, active theoretical research, generalization of facts related to firearms, ammunition for it, and the patterns of formation of traces of their action. Some provisions of ballistics proper, that is, the science of the movement of a projectile, a bullet, are also included in forensic ballistics and are used in solving problems related to establishing the circumstances of the use of firearms.

One of the forms of practical application of forensic ballistics is the production of forensic ballistic examinations.

OBJECTS, OBJECTIVES AND SUBJECT OF FORENSIC BALLISTIC EXAMINATION

Forensic ballistics - this is a special study carried out in the procedural form established by law with the preparation of an appropriate conclusion in order to obtain scientifically based factual data on firearms, ammunition for it and the circumstances of their use, which are relevant to the investigation and trial.

object of any expert research are material carriers of information that can be used to solve the corresponding expert tasks.

The objects of forensic ballistic examination in most cases are associated with a shot or its possibility. The range of these objects is very diverse. It includes:

Firearms, their parts, accessories and blanks;

Shooting devices (construction and assembly, starting pistols), as well as pneumatic and gas weapons;

Ammunition and cartridges for firearms and other shooting devices, separate elements of cartridges;

Samples for a comparative study obtained as a result of an expert experiment;

Materials, tools and mechanisms used for the manufacture of weapons, ammunition and their components, as well as ammunition equipment;

Fired bullets and spent cartridge cases, traces of the use of firearms on various objects;

Procedural documents contained in the materials of the criminal case (protocols of inspection of the scene, photographs, drawings and diagrams);

Material conditions of the scene.

It should be emphasized that, as a rule, only small arms are the objects of forensic ballistic examination of firearms. Although there are known examples of examinations on shell casings from an artillery shot.

Despite all the diversity and diversity of objects of forensic ballistic examination, the tasks facing it can be divided into two large groups: tasks of an identification nature and tasks of a non-identification nature (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Classification of tasks of forensic ballistic examination

Identification tasks include: group identification (establishing the group membership of an object) and individual identification (establishing the identity of an object).

Group identification includes setting:

Items belonging to the category of firearms and ammunition;

Type, model and type of firearms and cartridges presented;

Type, model of weapons on traces on spent cartridges, fired shells and traces on an obstacle (in the absence of firearms);

The nature of the gunshot damage and the type (caliber) of the projectile that caused it.

To individual identification relate:

Identification of the weapon used by the traces of the bore on the projectiles;

Identification of the weapon used by traces of its parts on spent cartridge cases;

Identification of the equipment and devices used to equip ammunition, manufacture its components or weapons;

Establishing that the bullet and cartridge case belong to the same cartridge.

Non-identification tasks can be divided into three types:

Diagnostic, related to the recognition of the properties of the objects under study;

Situational, aimed at establishing the circumstances of the firing;

Reconstruction related to the reconstruction of the original appearance of objects.

Diagnostic tasks:

Establishment of the technical condition and suitability for the production of shots of firearms and cartridges for it;

Establishing the possibility of firing a weapon without pulling the trigger under certain conditions;

Establishing the possibility of firing a shot from a given weapon with certain cartridges;

Establishing the fact that a shot was fired from a weapon after the last cleaning of its bore.

Situational tasks:

Establishing the distance, direction and place of the shot;

Determining the relative position of the shooter and the victim at the time of the shot;

Determining the sequence and number of shots.

Reconstruction tasks- this is mainly the identification of destroyed numbers on firearms.

Let us now discuss the subject of forensic ballistic examination.

The word "subject" has two main meanings: an object as a thing and an object as the content of the phenomenon under study. Speaking about the subject of forensic ballistic examination, we mean the second meaning of this word.

The subject of forensic examination is understood as circumstances, facts established through expert research, which are important for the decision of the court and the production of investigative actions.

Since forensic ballistic examination is one of the types of forensic examination, this definition also applies to it, but its subject can be specified based on the content of the tasks to be solved.

The subject of forensic ballistic examination as a type of practical activity is all the facts, circumstances of the case, which can be established by means of this examination, on the basis of special knowledge in the field of judicial ballistics, forensic and military equipment. Namely, the data:

On the state of firearms;

About the presence or absence of the identity of firearms;

About the circumstances of the shot;

On the relevance of items to the category of firearms and ammunition. The subject of a particular examination is determined by the questions posed to the expert.

THE CONCEPT OF FIREARMS

The Criminal Code, providing for liability for the illegal carrying, storage, acquisition, manufacture and sale of firearms, their theft, careless storage, does not clearly define what is considered a firearm. At the same time, the explanations of the Supreme Court explicitly state that when special knowledge is required to decide whether the item that the perpetrator stole, illegally carried, stored, acquired, manufactured or sold is a weapon, the courts need to appoint an expert examination. Therefore, experts must operate with a clear and complete definition that reflects the main features of firearms.

In which there is no thrust or control force and moment, is called a ballistic trajectory. If the mechanism that drives the object remains operational throughout the entire time of movement, it belongs to a number of aviation or dynamic ones. The trajectory of an aircraft during flight with the engines turned off at high altitude can also be called ballistic.

An object that moves along given coordinates is affected only by the mechanism that sets the body in motion, the forces of resistance and gravity. A set of such factors excludes the possibility of rectilinear motion. This rule works even in space.

The body describes a trajectory that is similar to an ellipse, hyperbola, parabola or circle. The last two options are achieved at the second and first cosmic velocities. Calculations for movement along a parabola or a circle are carried out to determine the trajectory of a ballistic missile.

Taking into account all the parameters during launch and flight (mass, speed, temperature, etc.), the following features of the trajectory are distinguished:

• In order to launch the rocket as far as possible, you need to choose the right angle. The best is sharp, around 45º.
• The object has the same initial and final speeds.
• The body lands at the same angle as it is launched.
• The time of movement of the object from the start to the middle, as well as from the middle to the finish point, is the same.

Trajectory properties and practical implications

The movement of the body after the influence of the driving force on it ceases to be studied by external ballistics. This science provides calculations, tables, scales, sights and develops the best options for shooting. The ballistic trajectory of a bullet is a curved line that describes the center of gravity of an object in flight.

Since the body is affected by gravity and resistance, the path that the bullet (projectile) describes forms the shape of a curved line. Under the action of the reduced forces, the speed and height of the object gradually decreases. There are several trajectories: flat, hinged and conjugated.

The first is achieved by using an elevation angle that is smaller than the greatest range angle. If for different trajectories the flight range remains the same, such a trajectory can be called conjugate. In the case when the elevation angle is greater than the angle of the greatest range, the path becomes called hinged.

The trajectory of the ballistic movement of an object (bullet, projectile) consists of points and sections:

• departure(for example, the muzzle of the barrel) - this point is the beginning of the path, and, accordingly, the reference.
• Horizon Arms- this section passes through the departure point. The trajectory crosses it twice: during release and fall.
• Elevation site- this is a line that is a continuation of the horizon forms a vertical plane. This area is called the shooting plane.
• Path vertices- this is the point that is in the middle between the start and end points (shot and fall), has the highest angle throughout the entire path.
• Leads- the target or place of the sight and the beginning of the movement of the object form the aiming line. An aiming angle is formed between the horizon of the weapon and the final target.

Rockets: features of launch and movement

There are guided and unguided ballistic missiles. The formation of the trajectory is also influenced by external and external factors (resistance forces, friction, weight, temperature, required flight range, etc.).

The general path of the launched body can be described by the following steps:

• Launch. In this case, the rocket enters the first stage and begins its movement. From this moment, the measurement of the height of the flight path of a ballistic missile begins.
• Approximately one minute later, the second engine starts.
• 60 seconds after the second stage, the third engine starts.
• Then the body enters the atmosphere.
• The last thing is the explosion of warheads.

Rocket launch and movement curve formation

The rocket travel curve consists of three parts: the launch period, free flight, and re-entry into the earth's atmosphere.

Live projectiles are launched from a fixed point of portable installations, as well as vehicles (ships, submarines). Bringing into flight lasts from ten thousandths of a second to several minutes. Free fall makes up the largest part of the flight path of a ballistic missile.

The advantages of running such a device are:

• Long free flight time. Thanks to this property, fuel consumption is significantly reduced in comparison with other rockets. For the flight of prototypes (cruise missiles), more economical engines (for example, jet engines) are used.
• At the speed at which the intercontinental gun is moving (about 5 thousand m / s), interception is given with great difficulty.
• A ballistic missile is able to hit a target at a distance of up to 10,000 km.

In theory, the path of movement of a projectile is a phenomenon from the general theory of physics, a section of the dynamics of rigid bodies in motion. With respect to these objects, the movement of the center of mass and the movement around it are considered. The first relates to the characteristics of the object making the flight, the second - to stability and control.

Since the body has programmed trajectories for flight, the calculation of the ballistic trajectory of the rocket is determined by physical and dynamic calculations.

Modern developments in ballistics

Since combat missiles of any kind are life-threatening, the main task of defense is to improve points for launching damaging systems. The latter must ensure the complete neutralization of intercontinental and ballistic weapons at any point in the movement. A multi-tiered system is proposed for consideration:

• This invention consists of separate tiers, each of which has its own purpose: the first two will be equipped with laser-type weapons (homing missiles, electromagnetic guns).
• The next two sections are equipped with the same weapons, but designed to destroy the warheads of enemy weapons.

Developments in defense rocketry do not stand still. Scientists are engaged in the modernization of a quasi-ballistic missile. The latter is presented as an object that has a low path in the atmosphere, but at the same time abruptly changes direction and range.

The ballistic trajectory of such a rocket does not affect the speed: even at extremely low altitude, the object moves faster than a normal one. For example, the development of the Russian Federation "Iskander" flies at supersonic speed - from 2100 to 2600 m / s with a mass of 4 kg 615 g, missile cruises move a warhead weighing up to 800 kg. When flying, it maneuvers and evades missile defenses.

Intercontinental weapons: control theory and components

Multistage ballistic missiles are called intercontinental. This name appeared for a reason: because of the long flight range, it becomes possible to transfer cargo to the other end of the Earth. The main combat substance (charge), basically, is an atomic or thermonuclear substance. The latter is placed in front of the projectile.

Further, the control system, engines and fuel tanks are installed in the design. Dimensions and weight depend on the required flight range: the greater the distance, the higher the starting weight and dimensions of the structure.

The ballistic flight path of an ICBM is distinguished from the trajectory of other missiles by altitude. A multi-stage rocket goes through the launch process, then moves upward at a right angle for several seconds. The control system ensures the direction of the gun towards the target. The first stage of the rocket drive after complete burnout is independently separated, at the same moment the next one is launched. Upon reaching a predetermined speed and flight altitude, the rocket begins to rapidly move down towards the target. The flight speed to the destination object reaches 25 thousand km/h.

World developments of special-purpose missiles

About 20 years ago, during the modernization of one of the medium-range missile systems, a project for anti-ship ballistic missiles was adopted. This design is placed on an autonomous launch platform. The weight of the projectile is 15 tons, and the launch range is almost 1.5 km.

The trajectory of a ballistic missile to destroy ships is not amenable to quick calculations, so it is impossible to predict the actions of the enemy and eliminate this weapon.

This development has the following advantages:

• Launch range. This value is 2-3 times greater than that of the prototypes.
• The speed and altitude of the flight make military weapons invulnerable to missile defense.

World experts are confident that weapons of mass destruction can still be detected and neutralized. For such purposes, special reconnaissance out-of-orbit stations, aviation, submarines, ships, etc. are used. The most important "opposition" is space reconnaissance, which is presented in the form of radar stations.

The ballistic trajectory is determined by the intelligence system. The received data is transmitted to the destination. The main problem is the rapid obsolescence of information - in a short period of time, the data loses its relevance and can diverge from the real location of the weapon at a distance of up to 50 km.

Characteristics of combat complexes of the domestic defense industry

The most powerful weapon of the present time is considered to be an intercontinental ballistic missile, which is placed permanently. The domestic R-36M2 missile system is one of the best. It houses the 15A18M heavy-duty combat weapon, which is capable of carrying up to 36 individual precision-guided nuclear projectiles.

The ballistic trajectory of such weapons is almost impossible to predict, respectively, the neutralization of the missile also presents difficulties. The combat power of the projectile is 20 Mt. If this munition explodes at a low altitude, the communication, control, and anti-missile defense systems will fail.

Modifications of the given rocket launcher can also be used for peaceful purposes.

Among solid-propellant missiles, the RT-23 UTTKh is considered especially powerful. Such a device is based autonomously (mobile). In the stationary prototype station ("15ZH60"), the starting thrust is 0.3 higher compared to the mobile version.

Missile launches that are carried out directly from the stations are difficult to neutralize, because the number of shells can reach 92 units.

Missile systems and installations of the foreign defense industry

The height of the ballistic trajectory of the rocket of the American Minuteman-3 complex does not differ much from the flight characteristics of domestic inventions.

The complex, which was developed in the United States, is the only "defender" of North America among weapons of this type to this day. Despite the age of the invention, the stability indicators of the guns are not bad even at the present time, because the missiles of the complex could withstand anti-missile defense, as well as hit a target with a high level of protection. The active phase of the flight is short, and is 160 s.

Another American invention is the Peekeper. He could also provide an accurate hit on the target due to the most advantageous ballistic trajectory. Experts say that the combat capabilities of the given complex are almost 8 times higher than those of the Minuteman. Combat duty "Peskyper" was 30 seconds.

Projectile flight and movement in the atmosphere

From the section of dynamics, the influence of air density on the speed of movement of any body in various layers of the atmosphere is known. The function of the last parameter takes into account the dependence of the density directly on the flight altitude and is expressed as:

H (y) \u003d 20000-y / 20000 + y;

where y is the flight height of the projectile (m).

The calculation of the parameters, as well as the trajectory of an intercontinental ballistic missile, can be performed using special computer programs. The latter will provide statements, as well as data on flight altitude, speed and acceleration, and the duration of each stage.

The experimental part confirms the calculated characteristics, and proves that the speed is affected by the shape of the projectile (the better the streamlining, the higher the speed).

Guided weapons of mass destruction of the last century

All weapons of the given type can be divided into two groups: ground and aviation. Ground devices are devices that are launched from stationary stations (for example, mines). Aviation, respectively, is launched from the carrier ship (aircraft).

The ground-based group includes ballistic, cruise and anti-aircraft missiles. For aviation - projectiles, ABR and guided air combat projectiles.

The main characteristic of the calculation of the ballistic trajectory is the height (several thousand kilometers above the atmosphere). At a given level above ground level, projectiles reach high speeds and create enormous difficulties for their detection and neutralization of missile defense systems.

Well-known ballistic missiles, which are designed for an average flight range, are: Titan, Thor, Jupiter, Atlas, etc.

The ballistic trajectory of a missile, which is launched from a point and hits the given coordinates, has the shape of an ellipse. The size and length of the arc depends on the initial parameters: speed, launch angle, mass. If the speed of the projectile is equal to the first space speed (8 km/s), the combat weapon, which is launched parallel to the horizon, will turn into a satellite of the planet with a circular orbit.

Despite constant improvement in the field of defense, the flight path of a live projectile remains virtually unchanged. At the moment, technology is not able to violate the laws of physics that all bodies obey. A small exception are homing missiles - they can change direction depending on the movement of the target.

Inventors of anti-missile systems are also modernizing and developing weapons for the destruction of new generation weapons of mass destruction.

BASICS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL BALLISTICS

Ballistics(German Ballistik, from Greek ballo - I throw), the science of the movement of artillery shells, bullets, mines, air bombs, active and rocket projectiles, harpoons, etc.

Ballistics- military-technical science, based on a complex of physical and mathematical disciplines. Distinguish between internal and external ballistics.

The emergence of ballistics as a science dates back to the 16th century. The first works on ballistics are the books of the Italian N. Tartaglia "New Science" (1537) and "Questions and discoveries related to artillery shooting" (1546). In the 17th century the fundamental principles of external ballistics were established by G. Galileo, who developed the parabolic theory of the movement of projectiles, the Italian E. Torricelli and the Frenchman M. Mersenne, who proposed calling the science of the movement of projectiles ballistics (1644). I. Newton conducted the first studies on the movement of a projectile, taking into account air resistance - "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687). In the XVII - XVIII centuries. The movement of projectiles was studied by the Dutchman H. Huygens, the Frenchman P. Varignon, the Swiss D. Bernoulli, the Englishman B. Robins, the Russian scientist L. Euler, and others. The experimental and theoretical foundations of internal ballistics were laid in the 18th century. in the works of Robins, Ch. Hetton, Bernoulli, and others. In the 19th century. the laws of air resistance were established (the laws of N.V. Maievsky, N.A. Zabudsky, the Le Havre law, the law of A.F. Siacci). At the beginning of the 20th century the exact solution of the main problem of internal ballistics is given - the work of N.F. Drozdov (1903, 1910), the issues of burning gunpowder in a constant volume were studied - the work of I.P. Grave (1904) and the pressure of powder gases in the bore - the work of N.A. Zabudsky (1904, 1914), as well as the Frenchman P. Charbonnier and the Italian D. Bianchi. In the USSR, a great contribution to the further development of ballistics was made by scientists from the Commission for Special Artillery Experiments (KOSLRTOP) in 1918-1926. During this period, V.M. Trofimov, A.N. Krylov, D.A. Wentzel, V.V. Mechnikov, G.V. Oppokov, B.N. Okunev et al. performed a number of works on improving the methods for calculating the trajectory, developing the theory of corrections, and studying the rotational motion of the projectile. Research N.E. Zhukovsky and S.A. Chaplygin on the aerodynamics of artillery shells formed the basis of the work of E.A. Berkalova and others to improve the shape of shells and increase their flight range. V.S. Pugachev first solved the general problem of the movement of an artillery shell. An important role in solving the problems of internal ballistics was played by the studies of Trofimov, Drozdov and I.P. Grave, who wrote in 1932-1938 the most complete course of theoretical internal ballistics.

M.E. Serebryakov, V.E. Slukhotsky, B.N. Okunev, and from foreign authors - P. Charbonnier, J. Sugo and others.

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 under the leadership of S.A. Khristianovich carried out theoretical and experimental work to increase the accuracy of rocket projectiles. In the post-war period, these works continued; the issues of increasing the initial velocities of projectiles, establishing new laws of air resistance, increasing the survivability of the barrel, and developing methods of ballistic design were also studied. Significant progress has been made in studies of the aftereffect period (V.E. Slukhotsky and others) and in the development of B. methods for solving special problems (smooth-bore systems, active rocket projectiles, etc.), problems of external and internal B. in relation to rocket projectiles, further improving the methods of ballistic research related to the use of computers.

Details of internal ballistics

Internal ballistics - This is a science that studies the processes that occur when a shot is fired, and especially when a bullet (grenade) moves along the bore.

Details of external ballistics

External ballistics - this is a science that studies the movement of a bullet (grenade) after the cessation of the action of powder gases on it. Having flown out of the bore under the action of powder gases, the bullet (grenade) moves by inertia. A grenade with a jet engine moves by inertia after the expiration of gases from the jet engine.

Flight of a bullet in the air

Having flown out of the bore, the bullet moves by inertia and is subjected to the action of two forces of gravity and air resistance

The force of gravity causes the bullet to gradually descend, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to knock it over. To overcome the force of air resistance, part of the energy of the bullet is expended

The force of air resistance is caused by three main reasons: air friction, the formation of eddies, and the formation of a ballistic wave (Fig. 4)

The bullet collides with air particles during flight and causes them to oscillate. As a result, the air density increases in front of the bullet and sound waves are formed, a ballistic wave is formed. The force of air resistance depends on the shape of the bullet, flight speed, caliber, air density

Rice. 4. Formation of air resistance force

In order to prevent the bullet from tipping over under the action of air resistance, it is given a rapid rotational movement with the help of rifling in the bore. Thus, as a result of the action of gravity and air resistance on the bullet, it will not move uniformly and rectilinearly, but will describe a curved line - a trajectory.

them when shooting

The flight of a bullet in the air is influenced by meteorological, ballistic and topographical conditions.

When using the tables, it must be remembered that the given trajectories in them correspond to normal shooting conditions.

The following are accepted as normal (table) conditions.

Weather conditions:

Atmospheric pressure at the horizon of the weapon 750 mm Hg. Art.;

air temperature on the weapon horizon +15 degrees Celsius;

50% relative humidity (relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the largest amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air at a given temperature),

There is no wind (the atmosphere is still).

Let us consider what range corrections for external shooting conditions are given in the shooting tables for small arms at ground targets.

Table range corrections when firing small arms at ground targets, m
Changing firing conditions from tabular	Cartridge type	Firing range, m
Air temperature and charge at 10°C	Rifle
arr. 1943								-	-
Air pressure at 10 mm Hg. Art.	Rifle
arr. 1943								-	-
Initial speed at 10 m/s	Rifle
arr. 1943								-	-
On a longitudinal wind at a speed of 10 m/s	Rifle
arr. 1943								-	-

The table shows that two factors have the greatest influence on the change in the range of bullets: a change in temperature and a drop in the initial speed. Range changes caused by air pressure deviation and longitudinal wind, even at distances of 600-800 m, have no practical significance, and they can be ignored.

Side wind causes the bullets to deviate from the plane of fire in the direction in which it blows (see Fig. 11).

The wind speed is determined with sufficient accuracy by simple signs: with a weak wind (2-3 m / s), a handkerchief and a flag sway and flutter slightly; with a moderate wind (4-6 m / s), the flag is kept unfolded, and the scarf flutters; with a strong wind (8-12 m/sec), the flag flutters with noise, the handkerchief is torn from the hands, etc. (see Fig. 12).

Rice. eleven Effect of wind direction on bullet flight:

A - lateral deflection of the bullet with a wind blowing at an angle of 90 ° to the firing plane;

A1 - lateral deflection of the bullet with wind blowing at an angle of 30° to the firing plane: A1=A*sin30°=A*0.5

A2 - lateral deflection of the bullet with wind blowing at an angle of 45° to the firing plane: A1=A*sin45°=A*0.7

In the manuals on shooting, there are tables of corrections for a moderate side wind (4 m / s) blowing perpendicular to the shooting plane.

If the shooting conditions deviate from normal, it may be necessary to determine and take into account the corrections for the range and direction of fire, for which it is necessary to follow the rules in the manuals on shooting

Rice. 12 Determination of wind speed in local subjects

Thus, having given the definition of a direct shot, having analyzed its practical significance in shooting, as well as the influence of shooting conditions on the flight of a bullet, it is necessary to skillfully apply this knowledge when performing exercises from service weapons both in practical exercises in fire training and in the performance of service and operational tasks. tasks.

scattering phenomenon

When firing from the same weapon, with the most careful observance of the accuracy and uniformity of the production of shots, each bullet, due to a number of random reasons, describes its own trajectory and has its own point of impact (meeting point) that does not coincide with the others, as a result of which the bullets scatter.

The phenomenon of scatter of bullets when firing from the same weapon in almost the same conditions is called natural dispersion of bullets or dispersion of the trajectory. The set of bullet trajectories obtained as a result of their natural dispersion is called sheaf of trajectories.

The point of intersection of the average trajectory with the surface of the target (obstacle) is called mid point of impact or scattering center

The scattering area is usually elliptical in shape. When shooting from small arms at close range, the scattering area in the vertical plane may have the shape of a circle (Fig. 13.).

Mutually perpendicular lines drawn through the center of dispersion (middle point of impact) so that one of them coincides with the direction of fire are called dispersion axes.

The shortest distances from the meeting points (holes) to the dispersion axes are called deviations.

Rice. thirteen Trajectory sheaf, dispersion area, scattering axes:

a- on a vertical plane, b– on a horizontal plane, medium trajectory marked red line, With- middle point of impact, BB 1- axis scattering height, BB 1, is the scattering axis in the lateral direction, dd1 ,- the axis of dispersion along the range of impact. The area on which the meeting points (holes) of bullets are located, obtained by crossing a sheaf of trajectories with any plane, is called the dispersion area.

Causes of dispersion

Causes of bullet dispersion , can be summarized in three groups:

reasons causing a variety of initial velocities;

Causes that cause a variety of throwing angles and shooting directions;

Causes that cause a variety of conditions for the flight of a bullet. The reasons for the variety of initial bullet velocities are:

variety in the weight of powder charges and bullets, in the shape and size of bullets and cartridge cases, in the quality of gunpowder, loading density, etc. as a result of inaccuracies (tolerances) in their manufacture;

a variety of charge temperatures, depending on the air temperature and the unequal time spent by the cartridge in the barrel heated during firing;

Variety in the degree of heating and quality of the barrel.

These reasons lead to fluctuations in the initial speeds, and, consequently, in the ranges of the bullets, i.e., they lead to dispersion of bullets in range (altitude) and depend mainly on ammunition and weapons.

Reasons for diversity throwing angles and shooting direction, are:

Variety in horizontal and vertical aiming of weapons (mistakes in aiming);

a variety of launch angles and lateral displacements of the weapon, resulting from a non-uniform preparation for firing, unstable and non-uniform retention of automatic weapons, especially during burst firing, improper use of stops and unsmooth trigger release;

· angular vibrations of the barrel when firing with automatic fire, arising from the movement and impacts of the moving parts of the weapon.

These reasons lead to the dispersion of bullets in the lateral direction and in range (height), have the greatest impact on the size of the dispersion area and, mainly, depend on the skill of the shooter.

The reasons for the variety of bullet flight conditions are:

diversity in atmospheric conditions, especially in the direction and speed of the wind between shots (bursts);

variety in the weight, shape and size of bullets (grenades), leading to a change in the value of air resistance,

These reasons lead to an increase in the dispersion of bullets in the lateral direction and in range (altitude) and mainly depend on the external conditions of firing and ammunition.

With each shot, all three groups of causes act in different combinations.

This leads to the fact that the flight of each bullet occurs along a trajectory different from the trajectory of other bullets. It is impossible to completely eliminate the causes of dispersion, and therefore, to eliminate the dispersion itself. However, knowing the reasons on which the dispersion depends, it is possible to reduce the influence of each of them and thereby reduce the dispersion, or, as they say, increase the accuracy of fire.

bullet dispersion reduction is achieved by excellent training of the shooter, careful preparation of weapons and ammunition for shooting, skillful application of the rules of shooting, correct preparation for shooting, uniform application, accurate aiming (aiming), smooth release of the trigger, steady and uniform holding of the weapon when firing, as well as proper care of the weapon and ammunition.

Scattering law

With a large number of shots (more than 20), a certain regularity is observed in the location of the meeting points on the dispersion area. The scattering of bullets obeys the normal law of random errors, which in relation to the dispersion of bullets is called the law of dispersion.

This law is characterized by the following three provisions (Fig. 14):

1. Meeting points (holes) on the dispersion area are located uneven - denser towards the center of dispersion and less frequently towards the edges of the dispersion area.

2. On the scattering area, you can determine the point that is the center of dispersion (middle point of impact), relative to which the distribution of meeting points (holes) symmetrical: the number of meeting points on both sides of the scattering axes, consisting in absolute limits (bands), is the same, and each deviation from the scattering axis in one direction corresponds to the same deviation in the opposite direction.

3. Meeting points (holes) in each particular case occupy not limitless but a limited area.

Thus, the dispersion law in general can be formulated as follows: with a sufficiently large number of shots fired under practically identical conditions, the dispersion of bullets (grenades) is uneven, symmetrical and not limitless.

Fig.14. Scattering pattern

The reality of the shooting

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, depending on the nature of the target, the distance to it, the method of firing, the type of ammunition and other factors, different results can be achieved. To select the most effective method of performing a fire mission under given conditions, it is necessary to evaluate the shooting, i.e., determine its validity

Shooting reality the degree of compliance of the results of firing with the assigned fire task is called. It can be determined by calculation or by the results of experimental firing.

To assess the possible results of shooting from small arms and grenade launchers, the following indicators are usually taken: the probability of hitting a single target (consisting of one figure); mathematical expectation of the number (percentage) of hit pieces in a group goal (consisting of several pieces); mathematical expectation of the number of hits; the average expected consumption of ammunition to achieve the required reliability of firing; the average expected time spent on the execution of a fire mission.

In addition, when assessing the validity of shooting, the degree of lethal and penetrating action of the bullet is taken into account.

The lethality of a bullet is characterized by its energy at the moment of meeting with the target. To inflict damage on a person (put him out of action), an energy equal to 10 kg / m is sufficient. A small arms bullet retains lethality almost to the maximum firing range.

The penetrating effect of a bullet is characterized by its ability to penetrate an obstacle (shelter) of a certain density and thickness. The penetrating effect of a bullet is indicated in the manuals on shooting separately for each type of weapon. A cumulative grenade from a grenade launcher pierces the armor of any modern tank, self-propelled guns, armored personnel carrier.

To calculate the indicators of the reality of shooting, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the dispersion of bullets (grenades), errors in the preparation of shooting, as well as methods for determining the probability of hitting the target and the probability of hitting targets.

Target hit probability

When shooting from small arms at single live targets and from grenade launchers at single armored targets, one hit hits the target. Therefore, the probability of hitting a single target is understood as the probability of getting at least one hit with a given number of shots.

The probability of hitting the target with one shot (P,) is numerically equal to the probability of hitting the target (p). The calculation of the probability of hitting the target under this condition is reduced to determining the probability of hitting the target.

The probability of hitting a target (P,) with several single shots, one burst or several bursts, when the probability of hitting for all shots is the same, is equal to one minus the probability of a miss to the power equal to the number of shots (n), i.e. P, = 1 - (1 - p)", where (1 - p) is the probability of a miss.

Thus, the probability of hitting a target characterizes the reliability of shooting, that is, it shows how many cases out of a hundred, on average, under given conditions, the target will be hit with at least one hit

Shooting is considered sufficiently reliable if the probability of hitting the target is at least 80%

Chapter 3

Weight and Linear Data

The Makarov pistol (Fig. 22) is a personal weapon of attack and defense, designed to defeat the enemy at short distances. Pistol fire is most effective at distances up to 50 m.

Rice. 22

Let's compare the technical data of the PM pistol with pistols of other systems.

In terms of the main qualities, the reliability of the PM pistol was superior to other types of pistols.

Rice. 24

a- left-hand side; b- Right side. 1 - the base of the handle; 2 - trunk;

3 - rack for mounting the barrel;

4 - a window for placing the trigger and the crest of the trigger guard;

5 - trunnion sockets for trigger pins;

6 - curved groove for placement and movement of the front trunnion of the trigger rod;

7 - trunnion sockets for the trunnions of the trigger and sear;

8 - grooves for the direction of movement of the shutter;

9 - window for the feathers of the mainspring;

10 - cutout for the shutter delay;

11 - tide with a threaded hole for attaching the handle with a screw and a mainspring with a valve;

12 - cutout for the magazine latch;

13 - tide with a socket for attaching the trigger guard;

14 - side windows; 15 - trigger guard;

16 - comb to limit the movement of the shutter back;

17 - a window for the exit of the upper part of the store.

The barrel serves to direct the flight of the bullet. Inside the barrel has a channel with four rifling, winding up to the right.

The grooves are used to communicate rotational movement. The gaps between the grooves are called fields. The distance between opposite fields (in diameter) is called the caliber of the bore (for PM-9mm). In the breech there is a chamber. The barrel is connected to the frame by a press fit and secured with a pin.

The frame serves to connect all parts of the gun. The frame with the base of the handle are one piece.

The trigger guard is used to protect the tail of the trigger.

The shutter (Fig. 25) serves to feed the cartridge from the magazine into the chamber, lock the bore when fired, hold the cartridge case, remove the cartridge and cock the hammer.

Rice. 25

a - left side; b – bottom view. 1 - front sight; 2 - rear sight; 3 - window for ejection of the cartridge case (cartridge); 4 - socket for a fuse; 5 - notch; 6 - channel for placing the barrel with a return spring;

7 - longitudinal protrusions for the direction of movement of the shutter along the frame;

8 - tooth for setting the shutter to the shutter delay;

9 - groove for the reflector; 10 - groove for the uncoupling protrusion of the cocking lever; 11 - recess for disengaging the sear with the cocking lever; 12 - rammer;

13 - protrusion for disengaging the cocking lever with a sear; one

4 - recess for placing the uncoupling ledge of the cocking lever;

15 - groove for the trigger; 16 - comb.

The drummer serves to break the primer (Fig. 26)

Rice. 26

1 - striker; 2 - cut for the fuse.

The ejector serves to hold the sleeve (cartridge) in the bolt cup until it meets the reflector (Fig. 27).

Rice. 27

1 - hook; 2 - heel for connection with the shutter;

3 - yoke; 4 - ejector spring.

For the operation of the ejector, there is a yoke and an ejector spring.

The fuse is used to ensure the safe handling of the gun (Fig. 28).

Rice. 28

1 - fuse box; 2 - retainer; 3 - ledge;

4 - rib; 5 - hook; 6 - protrusion.

The rear sight together with the front sight serves for aiming (Fig. 25).

The return spring serves to return the bolt to the forward position after the shot, the extreme coil of one of the ends of the spring has a smaller diameter compared to other coils. With this coil, the spring is put on the barrel during assembly (Fig. 29).

Rice. 29

The trigger mechanism (Fig. 30) consists of a trigger, a sear with a spring, a trigger rod with a cocking lever, a trigger, a mainspring and a mainspring valve.

Fig.30

1 - trigger; 2 - sear with a spring; 3 - trigger rod with a cocking lever;

4 - mainspring; 5 - trigger; 6 - valve mainspring.

The trigger serves to strike the drummer (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31
a- left-hand side; b- Right side; 1 - head with a notch; 2 - cutout;

3 - recess; 4 - safety platoon; 5 - combat platoon; 6 - trunnions;

7 - self-cocking tooth; 8 - ledge; 9 - deepening; 10 - annular notch.

The sear serves to hold the trigger on the cocking and safety cocking (Fig. 32).

Rice. 32

1 - sear trunnions; 2 - tooth; 3 - ledge; 4 - whispered nose;

5 - whispered spring; 6 - stand whispered.

The trigger rod with the cocking lever is used to pull the trigger from the cocking and cock the trigger when the trigger tail is pressed (Fig. 33).

Rice. 33

1 - trigger pull; 2 – cocking lever; 3 - pins of the trigger rod;

4 - uncoupling protrusion of the cocking lever;

5 - cutout; 6 - self-cocking ledge; 7 - the heel of the cocking lever.

The trigger is used for descent from the cocking and cocking the trigger when firing self-cocking (Fig. 34).

Rice. 34

1 - trunnion; 2 - hole; 3 - tail

The mainspring is used to actuate the trigger, the cocking lever and the trigger rod (Fig. 35).

Rice. 35

1 - wide pen; 2 - narrow feather; 3 - baffle end;

4 - hole; 5 - latch.

The mainspring latch is used to attach the mainspring to the base of the handle (Fig. 30).

A handle with a screw covers the side windows and the rear wall of the base of the handle and serves to make it easier to hold the pistol in your hand (Fig. 36).

Rice. 36

1 - swivel; 2 - grooves; 3 - hole; 4 - screw.

The shutter delay holds the shutter in the rear position after all the cartridges from the magazine have been used up (Fig. 37).

Rice. 37

1 - protrusion; 2 - a button with a notch; 3 - hole; 4 - reflector.

It has: in the front part - a ledge to hold the bolt in the rear position; knurled button to release the shutter by pressing a hand; in the back - a hole for connection with the left trunnion of the sear; in the upper part - a reflector for reflecting outward shells (cartridges) through a window in the shutter.

The magazine serves to accommodate the feeder and magazine cover (Fig. 38).

Rice. 38

1 - store case; 2 - feeder;

3 – feeder spring; 4 - store cover.

Accessories are attached to each pistol: a spare magazine, cleaning cloth, holster, pistol strap.

Rice. 39

The reliability of locking the bore during firing is achieved by a large mass of the bolt and the force of the return spring.

The principle of operation of the pistol is as follows: when the tail of the trigger is pressed, the trigger, freed from the sear, under the action of the mainspring hits the drummer, which breaks the cartridge primer with a striker. As a result, the powder charge ignites and a large amount of gases are formed, which press equally in all directions. The bullet is ejected by the pressure of powder gases from the bore, the shutter under the pressure of gases transmitted through the bottom of the cartridge case moves back, holding the cartridge case with the ejector, compressing the return spring. The sleeve, upon meeting with the reflector, is ejected through the window in the shutter. When retreating back, the bolt turns the trigger and puts it on a combat platoon. Under the influence of the return spring, the bolt returns forward, grabbing the next cartridge from the magazine, and sends it to the chamber. The bore is locked with a blowback, the pistol is ready to fire.

Rice. 40

To fire the next shot, you need to release the trigger and pull it again. When all the cartridges are used up, the shutter becomes on the shutter delay and remains in the extremely rear position.

Shot and after shot

To load a pistol you need:

Equip the store with cartridges;

Insert the magazine into the base of the handle;

turn off the fuse (turn the box down)

Move the shutter to the rearmost position and release it sharply.

When equipping the store, the cartridges lie on the feeder in one row, compressing the feeder spring, which, when unclenched, lifts the cartridges up. The upper cartridge is held by the curved edges of the side walls of the magazine housing.

When inserting an equipped magazine into the handle, the latch jumps over the ledge on the wall of the magazine and holds it in the handle. The feeder is located below the cartridges, its hook does not affect the slide delay.

When the fuse is turned off, its protrusion for receiving the strike of the trigger rises, the hook comes out of the recess of the trigger, releases the protrusion of the trigger, thus the trigger is released.

The shelf of the ledge on the axis of the fuse releases the sear, which, under the action of its spring, goes down, the nose of the sear becomes ahead of the safety cocking of the trigger

The fuse rib comes out from behind the left protrusion of the frame and disconnects the shutter from the frame.

The shutter can be pulled back by hand.

When the bolt is pulled back, the following happens: moving along the longitudinal grooves of the frame, the bolt turns the trigger, the sear, under the action of a spring, jumps with its spout behind the cocking of the trigger. The movement of the shutter back is limited by the crest of the trigger guard. The return spring is in maximum compression.

When the trigger is turned, the front part of the annular notch shifts the trigger rod with the cocking lever forward and slightly upward, while part of the trigger free play is selected. Rising up and down the cocking lever comes to the ledge of the sear.

The cartridge is lifted by the feeder and placed in front of the bolt rammer.

When the bolt is released, the return spring sends it forward, the bolt rammer advances the upper cartridge into the chamber. The cartridge, sliding along the curved edges of the side backs of the magazine housing and along the bevel on the tide of the barrel and in the lower part of the chamber, enters the chamber, resting with the front cut of the sleeve against the ledge of the chamber. The bore is locked by a free shutter. The next cartridge rises up until it stops against the bolt ridge.

The hook is ejected, jumping into the annular groove of the sleeve. The trigger is cocked (see fig. 39 on page 88).

Inspection of live ammunition

Inspection of live ammunition is carried out in order to detect malfunctions that can lead to delays in firing. When inspecting cartridges before firing or joining the outfit, you must check:

· Are there any rust, green deposits, dents, scratches on the cases, whether the bullet is pulled out of the case.

· Are there any training cartridges among the combat cartridges?

If the cartridges are dusty or dirty, covered with a slight green coating or rust, they must be wiped with a dry, clean rag.

Index 57-Н-181

A 9 mm cartridge with a lead core is produced for export by the Novosibirsk Plant of Low-Voltage Equipment (bullet weight - 6.1 g, initial speed - 315 m / s), Tula Cartridge Plant (bullet mass - 6.86 g, initial speed - 303 m / s), Barnaul machine-tool plant (bullet weight - 6.1 g, initial speed - 325 m / s). Designed to destroy manpower at a distance of up to 50 m. It is used when firing from a 9 mm PM pistol, 9 mm PMM pistol.

Caliber, mm - 9.0

Sleeve length, mm - 18

Chuck length, mm - 25

Cartridge weight, g - 9.26-9.39

Gunpowder grade - P-125

Weight of powder charge, gr. - 0.25

Speed ​​в10 - 290-325

Primer-igniter - KV-26

Bullet diameter, mm - 9.27

Bullet length, mm - 11.1

Bullet weight, g - 6.1- 6.86

Core material - lead

Accuracy - 2.8

Breakthrough action - not standardized.

Trigger pull

The release of the trigger in terms of its specific weight in the production of a well-aimed shot is of paramount importance and is a determining indicator of the degree of preparedness of the shooter. All shooting errors are solely due to incorrect processing of the trigger release. Aiming errors and weapon oscillations allow you to show decent enough results, but trigger errors inevitably lead to a sharp increase in dispersion and even misses.

Mastering the technique of proper triggering is the cornerstone of the art of accurate shooting with any handgun. Only those who understand this and consciously master the technique of pulling the trigger will confidently hit any targets, in any condition will be able to show high results and fully realize the combat properties of personal weapons.

Pulling the trigger is the most difficult element to master, requiring the longest and most painstaking work.

Recall that when a bullet leaves the bore, the bolt moves back by 2 mm, and there is no effect on the hand at this time. The bullet flies to where the weapon was aimed at the moment it leaves the bore. Therefore, it is correct to pull the trigger - it is to perform such actions in which the weapon does not change its aiming position in the period from the trigger to the release of the bullet from the barrel.

The time from trigger release to bullet departure is very short and is approximately 0.0045 s, of which 0.0038 s is the time of rotation of the trigger and 0.00053-0.00061 s is the time of passage of the bullet along the barrel. Nevertheless, in such a short time period, with errors in trigger processing, the weapon manages to deviate from the aiming position.

What are these errors, and what are the reasons for their appearance? To clarify this issue, it is necessary to consider the system: shooter-weapon, while two groups of causes of errors should be distinguished.

1. Technical reasons - errors caused by the imperfection of serial weapons (gaps between moving parts, poor surface finish, clogging of mechanisms, barrel wear, imperfection and poor debugging of the firing mechanism, etc.)

2. Causes of the human factor - mistakes directly by a person, due to various physiological and psycho-emotional characteristics of the body of each person.

Both groups of causes of errors are closely related to each other, manifest themselves in a complex and entail one another. Of the first group of technical errors, the most tangible role that negatively affects the result is played by the imperfection of the trigger mechanism, the disadvantages of which include:

Internal and external ballistics.

Shot and its periods. The initial speed of the bullet.

Lesson number 5.

"RULES FOR SHOOTING FROM SMALL ARMS"

1. Shot and its periods. The initial speed of the bullet.

Internal and external ballistics.

2. Shooting rules.

Ballistics is the science of the movement of bodies thrown in space. It focuses primarily on the movement of projectiles fired from firearms, rocket projectiles and ballistic missiles.

A distinction is made between internal ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile in a gun channel, as opposed to external ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile as it leaves the gun.

We will consider ballistics as the science of the movement of a bullet when fired.

Internal ballistics is a science that studies the processes that take place when a shot is fired and, in particular, when a bullet moves along a barrel bore.

A shot is the ejection of a bullet from the bore of a weapon by the energy of gases formed during the combustion of a powder charge.

When fired from small arms, the following phenomena occur. From the impact of the striker on the primer of a live cartridge sent into the chamber, the percussion composition of the primer explodes and a flame forms, which penetrates through the hole in the bottom of the sleeve to the powder charge and ignites it. During the combustion of a powder (or so-called combat) charge, a large amount of highly heated gases are formed, which create high pressure in the barrel bore on the bottom of the bullet, the bottom and walls of the sleeve, as well as on the walls of the barrel and the bolt. As a result of the pressure of gases on the bullet, it moves from its place and crashes into the rifling; rotating along them, it moves along the bore with a continuously increasing speed and is thrown outward in the direction of the axis of the bore. The pressure of gases on the bottom of the sleeve causes recoil - the movement of the weapon (barrel) back. From the pressure of gases on the walls of the sleeve and the barrel, they are stretched (elastic deformation) and the sleeves, tightly pressed against the chamber, prevent the breakthrough of powder gases towards the bolt. At the same time, when fired, an oscillatory movement (vibration) of the barrel occurs and it heats up.

During the combustion of a powder charge, approximately 25-30% of the energy released is spent on communicating the translational motion to the pool (the main work); 15-25% of energy - to perform secondary work (cutting and overcoming the friction of a bullet when moving along the bore, heating the walls of the barrel, cartridge case and bullet; moving the moving parts of the weapon, gaseous and unburned parts of gunpowder); about 40% of the energy is not used and is lost after the bullet leaves the bore.

The shot passes in a very short period of time: 0.001‑0.06 seconds. When fired, four periods are distinguished:

Preliminary;

First (or main);

Third (or period of aftereffect of gases).

Preliminary period lasts from the beginning of the burning of the powder charge to the complete cutting of the shell of the bullet into the rifling of the bore. During this period, the gas pressure is created in the barrel bore, which is necessary in order to move the bullet from its place and overcome the resistance of its shell to cutting into the rifling of the barrel. This pressure (depending on the rifling device, the weight of the bullet and the hardness of its shell) is called forcing pressure and reaches 250-500 kg / cm 2. It is assumed that the combustion of the powder charge in this period occurs in a constant volume, the shell cuts into the rifling instantly, and the movement of the bullet begins immediately when the forcing pressure is reached in the bore.

First (main) period lasts from the beginning of the movement of the bullet until the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge. At the beginning of the period, when the speed of the bullet along the bore is still low, the amount of gases grows faster than the volume of the bullet space (the space between the bottom of the bullet and the bottom of the case), the gas pressure rises rapidly and reaches its maximum value. This pressure is called maximum pressure. It is created in small arms when a bullet travels 4-6 cm of the path. Then, due to the rapid increase in the speed of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than the influx of new gases and the pressure begins to fall, by the end of the period it is equal to approximately 2/3 of the maximum pressure. The speed of the bullet is constantly increasing and by the end of the period reaches 3/4 of the initial speed. The powder charge completely burns out shortly before the bullet leaves the bore.

Second period lasts from the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge until the moment the bullet leaves the barrel. With the beginning of this period, the influx of powder gases stops, however, highly compressed and heated gases expand and, putting pressure on the bullet, increases its speed. The speed of the bullet at the exit from the bore ( muzzle velocity) is slightly less than the initial speed.

initial speed called the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel, i.e. at the time of its departure from the bore. It is measured in meters per second (m/s). The initial speed of caliber bullets and projectiles is 700‑1000 m/s.

The value of the initial speed is one of the most important characteristics of the combat properties of weapons. For the same bullet an increase in the initial speed leads to an increase in the flight range, penetrating and lethal action of the bullet, as well as to reduce the influence of external conditions on its flight.

Bullet penetration is characterized by its kinetic energy: the depth of penetration of a bullet into an obstacle of a certain density.

When firing from AK74 and RPK74, a bullet with a steel core of 5.45 mm cartridge pierces:

o steel sheets with thickness:

2 mm at a distance of up to 950 m;

3 mm - up to 670 m;

5 mm - up to 350 m;

o steel helmet (helmet) - up to 800 m;

o earthen barrier 20-25 cm - up to 400 m;

o pine beams 20 cm thick - up to 650 m;

o brickwork 10-12 cm - up to 100 m.

Bullet lethality characterized by its energy (live force of impact) at the moment of meeting with the target.

Bullet energy is measured in kilogram-force-meters (1 kgf m is the energy required to do the work of lifting 1 kg to a height of 1 m). To inflict damage on a person, an energy equal to 8 kgf m is needed, to inflict the same defeat on an animal - about 20 kgf m. The bullet energy of the AK74 at 100 m is 111 kgf m, and at 1000 m it is 12 kgf m; the lethal effect of the bullet is maintained up to a range of 1350 m.

The value of the muzzle velocity of a bullet depends on the length of the barrel, the mass of the bullet and the properties of the powder. The longer the barrel, the longer the powder gases act on the bullet and the greater the initial velocity. With a constant barrel length and a constant mass of the powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the smaller the mass of the bullet.

Some types of small arms, especially short-barreled ones (for example, the Makarov pistol), do not have a second period, because. complete combustion of the powder charge by the time the bullet leaves the bore does not occur.

The third period (the period of aftereffect of gases) lasts from the moment the bullet leaves the bore until the moment the action of the powder gases on the bullet ceases. During this period, powder gases flowing out of the bore at a speed of 1200-2000 m/s continue to act on the bullet and give it additional speed. The bullet reaches its greatest (maximum) speed at the end of the third period at a distance of several tens of centimeters from the muzzle of the barrel.

Hot powder gases flowing from the barrel after the bullet, when they meet with air, cause a shock wave, which is the source of the sound of the shot. The mixing of hot powder gases (among which there are oxides of carbon and hydrogen) with atmospheric oxygen causes a flash, observed as a shot flame.

The pressure of the powder gases acting on the bullet ensures that it is given translational speed, as well as rotational speed. The pressure acting in the opposite direction (on the bottom of the sleeve) creates a recoil force. The movement of a weapon under the influence of recoil force is called bestowal. When shooting from small arms, the recoil force is felt in the form of a push to the shoulder, arm, acts on the installation or the ground. The recoil energy is greater, the more powerful the weapon. For hand-held small arms, the recoil usually does not exceed 2 kg / m and is perceived by the shooter painlessly.

Rice. 1. Throwing the muzzle of the weapon barrel up when fired

as a result of the action of recoil.

The recoil action of a weapon is characterized by the amount of speed and energy that it has when moving backward. The recoil speed of the weapon is about as many times less than the initial speed of the bullet, how many times the bullet is lighter than the weapon.

When firing from an automatic weapon, the device of which is based on the principle of using recoil energy, part of it is spent on communicating movement to moving parts and reloading the weapon. Therefore, the recoil energy when fired from such a weapon is less than when fired from non-automatic weapons or from automatic weapons, the device of which is based on the principle of using the energy of powder gases discharged through holes in the barrel wall.

The pressure force of powder gases (recoil force) and the recoil resistance force (butt stop, handles, weapon center of gravity, etc.) are not located on the same straight line and are directed in opposite directions. The resulting dynamic pair of forces leads to the angular displacement of the weapon. Deviations can also occur due to the influence of the action of small arms automation and the dynamic bending of the barrel as the bullet moves along it. These reasons lead to the formation of an angle between the direction of the axis of the bore before the shot and its direction at the moment the bullet leaves the bore - departure angle. The magnitude of the deviation of the muzzle of the barrel of a given weapon is the greater, the greater the shoulder of this pair of forces.

In addition, when fired, the barrel of the weapon makes an oscillatory movement - it vibrates. As a result of vibration, the muzzle of the barrel at the moment the bullet takes off can also deviate from its original position in any direction (up, down, right, left). The value of this deviation increases with improper use of the firing stop, contamination of the weapon, etc. The departure angle is considered positive when the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure is higher than its position before the shot, negative when it is lower. The value of the departure angle is given in the firing tables.

The influence of the departure angle on firing for each weapon is eliminated when bringing him to a normal fight (see 5.45mm Kalashnikov manual... - Chapter 7). However, in case of violation of the rules for laying weapons, using the stop, as well as the rules for caring for weapons and saving them, the value of the angle of departure and the battle of the weapon change.

In order to reduce the harmful effect of recoil on the results in some samples of small arms (for example, the Kalashnikov assault rifle), special devices are used - compensators.

Muzzle brake-compressor is a special device on the muzzle of the barrel, acting on which, the powder gases after the bullet takes off, reduce the recoil speed of the weapon. In addition, the gases flowing out of the bore, hitting the walls of the compensator, somewhat lower the muzzle of the barrel to the left and down.

In the AK74, the muzzle brake compensator reduces recoil by 20%.

1.2. external ballistics. Bullet flight path

External ballistics is a science that studies the movement of a bullet in the air (i.e. after the cessation of the action of powder gases on it).

Having flown out of the bore under the action of powder gases, the bullet moves by inertia. In order to determine how the bullet moves, it is necessary to consider the trajectory of its movement. trajectory called the curved line described by the center of gravity of the bullet during flight.

A bullet flying through the air is subjected to two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes it to gradually decrease, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet's flight speed gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curve in shape.

Air resistance to the flight of a bullet is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium, therefore, part of the energy of the bullet is expended in this medium, which is caused by three main reasons:

Air friction

The formation of swirls

formation of a ballistic wave.

The resultant of these forces is the air resistance force.

Rice. 2. Formation of air resistance force.

Rice. 3. The action of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet:

CG - center of gravity; CS is the center of air resistance.

Air particles in contact with a moving bullet create friction and reduce the speed of the bullet. The air layer adjacent to the surface of the bullet, in which the movement of particles changes depending on the speed, is called the boundary layer. This layer of air, flowing around the bullet, breaks away from its surface and does not have time to immediately close behind the bottom.

A discharged space is formed behind the bottom of the bullet, as a result of which a pressure difference appears on the head and bottom parts. This difference creates a force directed in the direction opposite to the movement of the bullet, and reduces the speed of its flight. Air particles, trying to fill the rarefaction formed behind the bullet, create a vortex.

The bullet collides with air particles during flight and causes them to oscillate. As a result, the air density increases in front of the bullet and a sound wave is formed. Therefore, the flight of a bullet is accompanied by a characteristic sound. When the speed of the bullet is less than the speed of sound, the formation of these waves has little effect on its flight, because. The waves travel faster than the speed of the bullet. At a bullet flight speed greater than the speed of sound, a wave of highly compacted air is created from the incursion of sound waves against each other - a ballistic wave that slows down the speed of the bullet, because. the bullet spends some of its energy creating this wave.

The effect of the force of air resistance on the flight of a bullet is very large: it causes a decrease in speed and range. For example, a bullet at an initial speed of 800 m/s in airless space would fly to a distance of 32,620 m; the flight range of this bullet in the presence of air resistance is only 3900 m.

The magnitude of the air resistance force mainly depends on:

§ bullet speed;

§ the shape and caliber of the bullet;

§ from the surface of the bullet;

§ air density

and increases with an increase in the speed of the bullet, its caliber and air density.

At supersonic bullet speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of air compaction in front of the head (ballistic wave), bullets with an elongated pointed head are advantageous.

Thus, the force of air resistance reduces the speed of the bullet and overturns it. As a result of this, the bullet begins to “tumble”, the air resistance force increases, the flight range decreases and its effect on the target decreases.

The stabilization of the bullet in flight is ensured by giving the bullet a rapid rotational movement around its axis, as well as by the tail of the grenade. The rotation speed when taking off from a rifled weapon is: bullets 3000-3500 rpm, turning of feathered grenades 10-15 rpm. Due to the rotational movement of the bullet, the impact of air resistance and gravity, the bullet deviates to the right side from the vertical plane drawn through the axis of the bore, - firing plane. The deviation of a bullet from it when flying in the direction of rotation is called derivation.

Rice. 4. Derivation (view of the trajectory from above).

As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet flies in space along an unevenly curved curve called trajectory.

Let's continue consideration of elements and definitions of a trajectory of a bullet.

Rice. 5. Trajectory elements.

The center of the muzzle of a barrel is called departure point. The departure point is the start of the trajectory.

The horizontal plane passing through the departure point is called weapon horizon. In the drawings depicting the weapon and the trajectory from the side, the horizon of the weapon appears as a horizontal line. The trajectory crosses the horizon of the weapon twice: at the point of departure and at the point of impact.

pointed weapons , is called elevation line.

The vertical plane passing through the line of elevation is called shooting plane.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon is called elevation angle. If this angle is negative, then it is called angle of declination (decrease).

A straight line that is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure , is called throw line.

The angle enclosed between the line of throw and the horizon of the weapon is called throw angle.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throw is called departure angle.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon is called drop point.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called angle of incidence.

The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called full horizontal range.

The speed of the bullet at the point of impact is called final speed.

The time it takes for a bullet to travel from point of departure to point of impact is called total flight time.

The highest point of the trajectory is called the top of the path.

The shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon is called path height.

The part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top is called ascending branch, the part of the trajectory from the top to the point of fall is called descending branch of the trajectory.

The point on the target (or outside it) at which the weapon is aimed is called aiming point (TP).

The straight line from the shooter's eye to the aiming point is called aiming line.

The distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the aiming line is called target range.

The angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight is called aiming angle.

The angle enclosed between the line of sight and the horizon of the weapon is called target elevation angle.

The line joining the departure point with the target is called target line.

The distance from the departure point to the target along the target line is called slant range. When firing direct fire, the target line practically coincides with the aiming line, and the slant range - with the aiming range.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacles) is called meeting point.

The angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the surface of the target (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point is called meeting angle.

The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. As the elevation angle increases, the height of the trajectory and the total horizontal range of the bullet increases. But this happens to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet is greatest is called farthest angle(the value of this angle is about 35°).

There are flat and mounted trajectories:

1. flat- called the trajectory obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range.

2. hinged- called the trajectory obtained at elevation angles of a large angle of greatest range.

Flat and hinged trajectories obtained by firing from the same weapon at the same initial speed and having the same total horizontal range are called - conjugate.

Rice. 6. Angle of greatest range,

flat, hinged and conjugate trajectories.

The trajectory is flatter if it rises less above the line of the target, and the smaller the angle of incidence. The flatness of the trajectory affects the value of the range of a direct shot, as well as the size of the affected and dead space.

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the results of shooting has an error in determining the setting of the sight): this is the practical significance of the trajectory.

When it comes to ammo, I consider myself nothing more than an amateur - I do a bit of ammo reloading, play SolidWorks, and read dusty tomes full of hard work from people who have collected the most detailed information about ammo. I honestly crammed but not a true expert. But when I started writing, I found that very few people I meet know as much about cartridges as I do.

By the way, this situation is perfectly illustrated by comparing the number of participants in the IAA forum (about 3200 people at the time of writing), with the AR15.com forum, where the number of registered members is approaching half a million. And don't forget that IAA forum the largest English-language forum for collectors/ammunition enthusiasts- at least to my knowledge, and AR15.com is just one of the many large gun forums on the net.

In any case, being a part of the gun world both as a shooter and as an author, I have heard a lot of myths about ammunition and ballistics, some of them are quite obvious to most people, but others are repeated much more often than they should be. What is behind some of these myths and what is the truth?

1. More is better

I put this statement first because it is the most widely used. And this myth will never die, as it is clear enough. If you have it handy, then take and compare the cartridge of caliber .45 ACP with 9 mm, or .308 Winchester with .223; any two cartridges that differ greatly in size and weight will do. This is true obviously, which makes the explanation somewhat more difficult, that a large cartridge is the best cartridge, since it does much more damage. There's a serious .45 ACP bullet in your hand, it's all three quarter ounces (21.2 grams), and it even feels a lot more solid and powerful compared to a 9mm or .32 or any other smaller caliber bullet.

I won't spend much time making assumptions "why"? Maybe it all comes from our ancestors picking up stones in the river to hunt birds, but I think that such a reaction does not allow this myth to disappear.

Cartridges .308 Win RWS & LAPUA, as well as their ballistics.

But regardless of the cause, the external ballistics of different bullets is a complex subject, and often the results differ from the assumptions that can be made based only on the sizes of different bullets. High-velocity rifle bullets that devastate on impact, such as can inflict much more severe wounds than large-caliber bullets of larger weight and size, especially if the target is not protected. Explosive hollow-jacketed bullets, even in small calibers like .32, can shatter and cause more damage than a .45-caliber jacketed bullet. Even the shape of the bullet can affect the nature of the damage, so a flat, angular bullet will cut and tear tissue better than a larger caliber bullet with a rounded nose.

None of this says a larger caliber never doesn't seem to be more efficient, or that everything is the same and to a certain extent, modern faring or expanding bullets do not differ in efficiency, the truth is that the external ballistics of a bullet are much deeper and more complex, and often the real results of different bullets are contrary to expectations.

2. Longer barrel = proportionally higher speed

This is one of the myths in which the catch is intuitively felt. If we double the length of the barrel, we double the speed, So? Most likely, for my readers it is obvious, it is not so, but there are still many people who hold this false claim (even the designer Loren C. Cook (Loren C. Cook) repeated this myth, advertising his submachine gun). This is an obvious assumption based on the information that longer rifle barrels (often) provide increased bullet velocity, but it is incorrect.

The relationship between barrel length and bullet speed is actually very differentiated, but the gist of it is this: When gunpowder in a cartridge ignites, gases are formed that expand and put pressure on the bottom of the bullet. When the bullet is clamped in the case, when the powder burns, the pressure rises, and this pressure pushes the bullet out of the case, and then pushes it along the bore, losing its energy, in addition, the pressure decreases due to a significant and constant increase in the volume in which the gas is located . This means that the energy of the propellant gases decreases with every inch of barrel length, and its maximum value is reached just in weapons with a short barrel. For example, increasing the length of a rifle barrel from 10 to 13 inches can mean an increase in bullet speed by hundreds of feet per second, while increasing the length from 21 to 24 inches can mean an increase in speed of only a couple of tens of feet per second. You often hear that the change in pressure and force on the bottom of a bullet is called "pressure curve".

In turn, this curve and its relationship with the length of the barrel is different for different charges. Rifle-caliber Magnum cartridges use a very slow-burning explosive that provides a significant change in bullet velocity even when using a long barrel. Pistol cartridges, on the other hand, use fast-burning propellants, which means that after a few inches, the increase in bullet speed due to the use of a longer barrel becomes negligible. In fact, when shooting a pistol cartridge from a long rifle barrel, you will even get a slightly lower muzzle velocity compared to a short barrel, since the friction between the bullet and the bore will begin to slow down the flight of the bullet more than the additional pressure will speed it up.

3. Caliber matters, bullet type doesn't.

This strange arrogant opinion pops up very often in conversations, especially in the form of the phrase: “Caliber X is not enough. You need a Y-gauge”, while the mentioned calibers differ little from each other. It is possible that someone chooses a caliber that is completely inappropriate for the task at hand, but most often such discussions revolve around cartridges that are more or less suitable for the task, with the right choice of bullet type.

And now such a discussion becomes more substantive than just a myth: in almost all such disputes, one should pay more attention to the choice of the type of bullet, and not to the caliber and power of the charge. After all, between the .45 ACP jacketed bullet and the .45 ACP HST expansive cavity bullet, the difference in efficiency is much greater than between the 9mm HST and the .45 ACP HST. Choosing one caliber or another probably won't make a huge difference in hitting results, but choosing the type of bullet definitely makes a difference!

Excerpts from an hour and a half seminar "Ballistics" by Sergei Yudin within the framework of the project "National Shooting Association".

4. Momentum = Stopping power

Momentum is mass multiplied by speed, a very easy-to-understand physical quantity. A large man running into you on the street will push you away more than a petite girl if they are moving at the same speed. More splashes from a large stone. This simple value is easy to calculate and understand. The larger something and the faster it moves, the more momentum it has.

That's why it was natural to use momentum as a rough estimate of the bullet's stopping power. This approach has spread throughout the gun community, from reviews that give no information other than that the larger the bullet, the louder the ringing sound of hitting a steel target, to Taylor Knock-Out Index, in which momentum is related to bullet diameter in an attempt to calculate stopping power over big game. However, while momentum is an important ballistic characteristic, it is not directly related to the effectiveness of the bullet on impact, or "stopping power".

Momentum is a conserved quantity, which means that since the bullet moves forward under the action of expanding gases, the weapon, when fired by this bullet, will move backward with the same momentum as the total momentum of the bullet and powder gases. Which means that the momentum of a bullet fired from the shoulder or from the hands is not sufficient to cause even significant damage to a person, not to mention the murder. The momentum of the bullet, at the moment it hits the target, does nothing but possibly bruise the tissues and give a very small push. The lethality of a shot, in turn, is determined by the speed at which the bullet travels and the size of the channel that the bullet creates inside the target.

This article is deliberately written in an attention-grabbing and very generalized manner, as I plan to cover these issues in more detail, at different levels of complexity, and I want to know how interested readers will be in such a topic. If you want me to talk more about ammunition and ballistics, tell me about it in the comments.

Interesting bullet ballistics from the National Geographic channel.