In appearance speech, in its structure, a lot depends on the task that the speaker sets himself, on the purpose of speech. Indeed, it is one thing to describe something, for example, autumn, a forest, mountains, a river, another thing is to talk about an event, an adventure, a third thing is to explain, interpret the causes of any phenomena - natural or social. Of course, in each of these cases, the structure of speech will change significantly. Centuries (if not millennia) of the development of language, thinking, speech have developed the most expressive, economical and exact ways, schemes, word structures for relevant literary tasks. Therefore, such important, essential components of speech as description, narration, reasoning have long been distinguished, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of speech, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose of speech and its meaning.

This division dates back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose work.

The allocation of only three types is explained by the fact that the study of texts did not go beyond the scope of literary and artistic speech. If we keep in mind the whole variety of texts, then the list of functional and semantic types of speech can be expanded. So does, for example, V.V. Odintsov, who adds to the description, narration, reasoning a definition (explanation), a characteristic as a kind of description and a message as a variant of narration.

Let us consider each of the functional-semantic types of speech separately, and then joint use.

Description

Description- one of the most common components of monologue author's speech. In logical terms, to describe an object, a phenomenon means to list its features.

"Description," we read in P.S. Kogan's "Theory of Literature" (1915), "consists in depicting a whole series of features, phenomena, objects, or events that must be imagined all at the same time."

Allocate static description, which interrupts the development of the action, and dynamic description- usually small in scope, which does not pause the action when included in the event. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the character in the course of his movement ("Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov). Description as a type of speech depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, the author's belonging to a particular literary movement.

AT fiction, journalism, description is the most important element of speech, which allows you to vividly, vividly, visually, figuratively present an object, person, event, phenomenon. Here characteristic example from the memoirs of K.I. Chukovsky about Repin:

Meanwhile, winter came. And the winter Kuokkala was not at all like the summer one. Summer Kuokkala, noisy, smart, colorful, teeming with fashionable dandies, multi-colored ladies' umbrellas, ice-cream workers, carriages, flowers, children, all disappeared with the onset of the first frosts and immediately turned into a deserted, gloomy, abandoned by everyone. In winter it was possible to go through it all, from the station to the sea, and not meet a single person. For the winter, all the dachas were boarded up, and only the janitors remained with them, sleepy, gloomy people who rarely got out of their cramped and stuffy lairs ...

Description as a type of speech is closely connected with the person (portraitization), with the place, as in the example just given (stage character), with the conditions (situation) in which the action takes place. Descriptions can be portrait, landscape, event, etc. Weaving into the author's speech, they perform a variety of stylistic functions.

Thus, the landscape description depicts the atmosphere of the action. It either coincides with inner world hero, or dissonant with him, is given in contrast. The range of shades here is very diverse.

The ocean roared behind the wall in black mountains, the blizzard whistled strongly in the heavy gear, the steamer trembled all over, overcoming both it and these mountains, - as if with a plow, breaking apart their unsteady, now and then boiling up and high foamy tails huge masses, the siren, choked with mist, groaned in mortal anguish, the watchmen on their tower froze from the cold and went crazy from the unbearable strain of attention, to the gloomy and sultry bowels of the underworld, its last, ninth circle was like the underwater womb of a steamboat, - the one where the gigantic fireboxes, devouring with their red-hot mouths of heaps of coal, with a roar thrown into them, drenched in acrid, dirty sweat and waist-deep naked people, crimson from the flames; and here, in the bar, they carelessly threw their legs on the arms of their chairs, sipped cognac and liquors, floated in waves of spicy smoke, everything in the dance hall shone and poured out light, warmth and joy, couples either spun in waltzes, or bent into tango - and the music insistently, in sweet, shameless sadness, she prayed all about one thing, all about the same ... (I.A. Bunin).

The landscape can also recreate a cheerful, cheerful major picture, as in Pushkin's poem "Winter Morning":

Frost and sun; wonderful day!

You are still dozing, my lovely friend, -

It's time, beauty, wake up!

Open eyes closed by bliss

Towards the northern Aurora,

Be the star of the north!

Evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry,

There was a haze in the cloudy sky:

The moon is like a pale spot

Turned yellow through the gloomy clouds,

And you sat sad -

And now... look out the window.

Under blue skies

splendid carpets,

Shining in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river under the ice glitters.

An important function of the description is the creation of figurative pictures: the situation, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by the selection of bright details, a long enumeration of them:

Farewell, witness of fallen glory,

Petrovsky castle. Well! don't stand

Let's go! Already the pillars of the outpost

Turn white; here on Tverskaya

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

This description from "Eugene Onegin" expressively paints a picture fast driving. And the main means of imagery is enumeration, in which booths and women, boys and lanterns turn out to be nearby. This is how Tatyana Larina perceives the situation from a rapidly rushing cart.

It is difficult to name all the stylistic functions of description in work of art- they are too diverse and depend on the individual style, genre, specific segment of the text in which the description is used. But it is important to emphasize that description is always an essential component of the verbal and artistic fabric.

A somewhat different character has a description in journalism. Let's take as an example an excerpt from M. Sturua's report "Morning Star over Ferrindon Road":

I know Ferrindon Road as flaky. This comparison is arbitrary. On it, most of the houses have peeling facades. This is usually warehouses, offices, garages, workshops. Here the London Underground emerges and runs in a dry bed of a non-existent river, past the warehouses of the company that makes the famous English jeep brand "Boots". The bare urban picture is brightened up only by a string of carts on which second-hand booksellers lay out their unique goods - books touched by the golden yellowness of time. The salesmen - old men and women in blue coats and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains.

This is the first paragraph, the beginning of the report. The purpose of the description is to introduce the reader into the situation of the action, to make him a spectator, an eyewitness of what is happening. The description is given not "detached", objectified, but through the perception of the author, who directly and openly reveals his I narrator (I know Ferrindon Road as flaky.) The subjective, emotional nature of the description brings the reader closer to the situation of events, making the description an element of reporting. Here I-not a kind of stylization, not an artistic device, but a genuine I author, journalist. This is what distinguishes a reportage or, more broadly, publicistic description from a fictional one, where it is plausible, but does not have the character of authenticity, reliability, being colored by the mood of the hero and performing an artistic and compositional role. The function of description in journalism is a documentary, accurate reproduction of the situation, such as the author saw it.

This goal is served by an abundance of specific details, among which visual ones predominate: flaky facades; nude urban painting; books touched golden yellowness time; old men and women in blue gowns and black berets sitting like owls.

Probably, the visually perceived landscape, the situation is a characteristic feature of the reportage description. The characterization of the scene of action through visual perception most sharply, vividly, intelligibly draws a picture of what is happening. It is related to one of key features genre - show, portray, reproduce. The reporter describes what appears before his eyes, what he sees, and the reader sees what is happening with him.

The language of description, its syntax, and vocabulary are also subordinated to this task. Present tenses (has peeling facades; the subway comes to the surface and others - "real constant") give a static picture, as if a snapshot of the situation and, due to their timeless nature, have an emphatically descriptive meaning. Artistic and figurative speech concretization (the term of M.N. Kozhina) is also very important. One could write: Sellers sit and doze off. But how much more expressive, more figurative (due to concretization) the author has: Sellers - old men and women in blue coats and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains. Dozing - it is a fixation of an action; dozing, shuddering from the roar of passing trains - this is a picture, a description.

The specificity of the description in reporting and journalism in general is in its documentary, authenticity, authenticity. This character of the description determines restraint, moderation in the use of visual means. Reportage description, apparently, is alien to too bright, too "fictional" means and new formations. All this is contrary to the nature of the description in the report and in newspaper speech in general. But as inclusions, linguistic metaphors, epithets and other means of expressiveness successfully encrust the verbal fabric and enliven the narrative. Here is how he wrote famous journalist V. Orlov: "Probably, it is impossible to formulate the indisputable ideal of the newspaper form. One can only express personal tastes. It is dangerous to overdo it by pressing on the formal moment. Poems in prose lie strangely on the newspaper sheet. collection. Behind any finds, it seems to me, cursive writing should be felt. Even jewelry must be woven into a modest business fabric that is organic to a newspaper strip."

A kind of description in non-fiction prose - characteristic, a special case of which is technical description. Here is a typical example:

Tape recorder "Seagull" is a device designed to record and play music and speech at home. The tape recorder provides the ability to record from a microphone, sound pickup, as well as recording from another tape recorder, radio broadcast network, radio or TV.

Tape recorder "Seagull" is made in a decorative portable box. The design of the entire device consists of the following nodes ... All controls of the tape recorder, with the exception of the fuse, input and output jacks, are located on the top panel "...

Here, as we see, artistic and aesthetic tasks are completely excluded. The main thing is to accurately indicate the technical parameters, characterize the model, design, etc.

What is the role of description in fiction, journalism, business speech?

Narration

storytelling, as "Theory of Literature" defines, as opposed to description, "there is a depiction of events or phenomena that do not occur simultaneously, but follow one after another or determine each other."

Apparently, the shortest example of narration in world literature is the famous story of Caesar: "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Veni, vidi, vici). It vividly, condensedly conveys the very essence of the narrative, semantic and linguistic - this is a story about what happened, happened. The main means of such a story is the perfective past tense verbs replacing each other and naming actions. Figuratively, we can say that the narration is a kind of speech science.

So, the narrative reveals closely related events, phenomena, actions as objectively taking place in the past. The sentences of narrative contexts do not describe actions, but narrate about them, that is, the event itself, the action, is transmitted. For example:

Several weeks passed... Suddenly the father receives a letter from St. Petersburg from our relative, Prince B**. The prince wrote to him about me. After an ordinary attack, he announced to him that the suspicions about my participation in the plans of the rebels, unfortunately, turned out to be too thorough, that an exemplary execution should have befallen me, but that the Empress, out of respect for the merits and advanced years of her father, decided to pardon the criminal son and , saving him from a shameful execution, ordered only to be exiled to a remote region of Siberia for an eternal settlement.

This unexpected blow nearly killed my father. He lost his usual firmness, and his grief (usually mute) poured out in bitter complaints (L.S. Pushkin).

The narrative can be considered the main, main part of the author's monologue speech. Narration, story - the essence, the soul of literature. A writer is, first of all, a storyteller, a person who knows how to tell interesting, exciting stories. Like other functional and semantic types of speech, narration is a reflection of reality in which a story, story, novel takes place. Narration intimately associated with space and time. The designations of the place, the action, the names of persons and non-persons performing the actions, and the designations of the actions themselves are the language means by which the narration is conducted.

The stylistic functions of the narration are diverse, associated with the individual style, genre, subject of the image. Narration can be more or less objectified, neutral, or, on the contrary, subjective, permeated with the author's emotions.

The last type of narration is also typical for many journalistic genres. Here is an excerpt from the already quoted report by M. Sturua:

On that day - it was April 24 - when I got to Ferrindon Road, I could not help noticing a change here. Outwardly, everything was in its place. And yet something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable. I saw the clue right away: the letters that read “Daily Worker” were removed from the facade of house number 75. In their place were others: the Morning Star.

In this text, the plan of the past tense prevails, which is typical for a story about events, facts of the past. At the same time, it is significant that the verb forms of the perfect form denote actions that replace each other (notice, see) and are dynamic in nature, and the verbal forms of the imperfect form denote actions that take place in the same time plane and are of a static nature (elements of description). The narration is given from the author, the events are passed through the author's perception, as evidenced by the use I, colloquial syntax, cf., for example, triple use what in one sentence (Still, something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable).

Message as a kind of narration - mainly the sphere of newspaper speech.

The thief who stole a shopping bag from a 29-year-old resident of Los Angeles while she was ordering lunch at the counter of a local diner showed a certain nobility towards his victim. He took the money, of course, but then threw the bag over. And in the bag was an expensive silicone prosthesis of the left hand of the robbed citizen, which she lost in a car accident four years ago. The skilful work of the prosthetists, apparently, impressed the crook so much that he did not even begin to remove the expensive amethyst and diamond ring from the index finger of the prosthesis. A woman tries not to wear her prosthesis in hot weather due to discomfort.

Not everyone will swim across the Vyatka with their feet and hands tied

Anatoly Dormachev, a 47-year-old resident of Kirovo-Chepetsk, with a large crowd of onlookers, swam across the Vyatka on the most turbulent stretch of the river. The athlete's legs were tied, and he clasped his hands behind his back. Vyatsky Houdini swam on his stomach, making movements reminiscent of the butterfly style. Throughout the route, Anagolia was accompanied by a boat with rowers for insurance. Eleven minutes later, the brave swimmer overcame a distance of more than 300 meters and went ashore, Euro-Asian News reports.

As a functional-semantic type of speech, the message is distinguished by laconic presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.

Messages are not limited to newspaper speech or radio, television. They are also possible in historical literature. Here is a typical illustration from the history of the siege of the Trinity Monastery by the Poles (an example of V.V. Odintsov):

Having received a decisive refusal to surrender the fortress, the pans on September 30 made an attempt to take it by storm. The attack was made from four sides at once, but was repulsed with great damage to the attackers. Sapega was finally convinced that it was impossible to take the fortress without a proper siege, and from October 3 he undertook an almost continuous shelling of the monastery, which lasted more than six weeks. Preparing to storm the fortress, the interventionists led a dig against the coal, the so-called Pyatnitskaya tower.

This text speaks only of the most significant moments of the siege. But if we add here the details, the details of less significant, then the message will turn into a narrative that is well known to us.

Write about the same event in the form of a narrative-story and in the form of a message.

reasoning

"Reasoning... aims to elucidate some concept, to develop, prove or refute some idea. "This is how the old "Theory of Literature" defines reasoning.

From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of conclusions on some topic, presented in a consistent form. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments related to a question, which follow one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow from previous judgments, and as a result we get an answer to the question posed. So, the reasoning is based on the conclusion, for example:

All frogs are amphibians.

All amphibians are vertebrates.

All frogs are vertebrates.

However, inference is rarely found in speech in its pure form, more often it appears in the form of reasoning. V.V. Odintsov distinguishes between two types of reasoning. In the first of them, concepts and judgments are directly related to each other (but not in the form of a syllogism - this is the similarity and difference between reasoning and inference), for example:

And one more important circumstance. While the ways of encoding hereditary properties are now well studied, much less is known about the ways that link the code with specific phenotypic traits (especially morphological ones). So long as this is the case, one must be careful in judging what can and cannot be in heredity. After all, heredity is not only a code, but also a reading mechanism.

In the second type of reasoning, concepts, judgments are related to facts, examples, etc. Here is a typical example:

Striving for balance is one of the main laws of development of the world around us. Violation of at least one link in the chain causes a response of all the components connected together. The growth of population in river basins, the increase in sown areas lead to an increase in water consumption, a reduction in river flow, which leads to a decrease in sea level, which in turn causes an increase in salinity sea ​​water, salinization of spawning grounds, consequently, a reduction in fish catches, etc. These connections are multi-valued and have many side links.

As can be judged even by our examples, the main area of ​​​​use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. And this is natural, because here it is most often necessary to prove, develop, confirm or refute an idea.

However, reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. The heroes of literary works not only act, perform certain actions, but also talk about life, death, the meaning of being, God, morality, art. The topics are truly endless. And the method, the manner of reasoning, its subject, on the one hand, undoubtedly characterize the hero, on the other hand, allow the author to express very important thoughts, supplement the artistic image with conceptual information, and in this way the reader receives, one might say, a three-dimensional representation: the event is depicted and explained philosophically. Remarkable in this regard is the story of L. Tolstoy "Cutting the Forest", where there is also vivid description, storytelling, and deep reasoning. Here is one of them:

I have always and everywhere, especially in the Caucasus, noticed a special tact in our soldier in times of danger to keep silent and bypass those things that could have an unfavorable effect on the spirit of comrades. The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based in the same way as the courage of the southern peoples - on an enthusiasm that quickly ignites and cools down: it is just as difficult to kindle it as it is to make it lose heart. He does not need effects, speeches, warlike cries, songs and drums; on the contrary, he needs calmness, order and (the absence of everything strained. In a Russian, a real Russian soldier, you will never notice boasting, arrogance, a desire to be fooled, get excited in time of danger, on the contrary, modesty, simplicity, and the ability to see something quite different from danger in danger constitute distinctive features his character. I saw a soldier wounded in the leg, who for the first minute regretted only the pierced new sheepskin coat, the rider, crawling out from under the horse killed under him and unfastening the girth to take the saddle. Who does not remember the incident during the siege of Gergebil, when a tube of a stuffed bomb and fireworks caught fire in the laboratory? he ordered two soldiers to take a bomb and run to throw it into a cliff, and how the soldiers did not throw it in the nearest place near the colonel's tent, which stood over the cliff, but carried it farther so as not to wake the gentlemen who were sleeping in the tent, and both were torn to pieces.

The reasoning begins with the "personal" observation of the author (I always and everywhere ... noticed ...), smoothly introducing the following reflection into the general context of the story. Then comes the already generalized thought-maxim (The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based like that...). And then there is a transition from a generalized characterizing position to its detail: an enumeration of the features of a Russian soldier that reveals his spirit (calmness, love of order, etc.) is given. Further reflection imperceptibly passes into the narrative. This is the structure of the argument. Naturally woven into the context, it emphasizes the leading theme of the story, which is revealed in the images, and in the pictures, and in the dialogues, and in the descriptions, and in the narratives. This theme is the spirit of the Russian soldier. It is characteristic that in the previous chapters there were already elements of reasoning that directed the reader's attention to this idea. Thus, Chapter II begins with the words: "In Russia there are three predominant types of soldiers" ... Further, a detailed description of the features of each type is given. In the passage cited above, this theme receives the most complete, concentrated expression in the form of reasoning, organically supplementing the artistic and aesthetic information and, as a result, giving a relief, three-dimensional disclosure of the theme.

Apparently, the artist often feels a deep need for a direct, direct expression of his thoughts, views, the need not only artistically, but also philosophically to comprehend reality. And then philosophical, aesthetic digressions are born - reasoning, such as, for example, the famous reflection of N.V. Gogol about writers:

Happy is the writer who, past boring, nasty characters, striking in their sad reality, approaches characters that show the high dignity of a man, who from the great pool of daily revolving images chose only a few exceptions, who never changed the sublime order of his lyre, did not descend from the top his to his poor, insignificant brothers and, not touching the earth, all plunged into his images far torn away from her and exalted. His wonderful destiny is doubly enviable: he is among them, as in his own family; and meanwhile his glory is far and loudly carried. He fumigated people's eyes with an intoxicating smoke, he miraculously flattered them, hiding the sadness in life, showing them a wonderful person. Everyone, applauding, rushes after him and rushes after his solemn chariot. They call him the great world poet, soaring high above all other geniuses of the world, as an eagle soars above other high-flying ones. At his name alone, young passionate hearts are already filled with trepidation, response tears shine in all eyes ... There is no equal to him in strength - he is a god! But such is not the destiny, and another is the fate of the writer, who dared to bring out everything that is every minute before his eyes and that indifferent eyes do not see - all the terrible, amazing mire of trifles that have entangled our life, the whole depth of the cold, fragmented, everyday characters with which ours is teeming. an earthly, sometimes bitter and boring road, and with the strong strength of an inexorable chisel that dared to expose them convexly and brightly to the eyes of the people! He cannot gather popular applause, he cannot see the grateful tears and the unanimous delight of the souls excited by him, a sixteen-year-old girl with a dizzy head and heroic enthusiasm will not fly towards him, he will not forget in the sweet charm of the sounds he uttered; finally, he cannot escape from the modern court, the hypocritically insensitive modern court, which will call the creatures cherished by him insignificant and low, will allot him a contemptible corner in the row of writers who insult humanity, will give him the qualities of the heroes depicted by him, will take away his heart, and soul, and the divine flame of talent. For the modern court does not recognize that the glasses are equally wonderful, looking around the suns and conveying the movements of unnoticed insects; for the modern court does not recognize that much depth of soul is needed in order to illuminate the picture taken from a contemptible life and elevate it to the pearl of creation; for the modern court does not recognize that high enthusiastic laughter is worthy to stand next to high lyrical movement and that there is a whole abyss between it and the antics of a farce buffoon! The modern court does not recognize this and will turn everything into a reproach and reproach to the unrecognized writer, without division, without answer, without participation, like a familyless traveler, he will be left alone in the middle of the road. Severe is his field, and he will bitterly feel his loneliness.

And for a long time yet it is determined by my wonderful power to go hand in hand with my strange heroes, to survey the whole vastly rushing life, to survey it through laughter visible to the world and invisible, unknown to it tears! And the time is still far away when, in a different way, a formidable blizzard of inspiration will rise from the head clothed in holy horror and brilliance and smell in the confused trembling the majestic thunder of other speeches...

The author's reasoning can be expressed in the form of deep philosophical generalizations, maxims, and sometimes in the form of comic conclusions and conclusions, such as the reflections of A.P. Chekhov about sneezing in the story "The Death of an Official":

One fine evening, a no less fine executor, Ivan Dmitritch Chervyakov, was sitting in the second row of seats and looking through binoculars at the Corneville Bells. He looked and felt himself on top of bliss. But suddenly ... In the stories, this "but suddenly" is often found. The authors are right: life is so full of surprises! But suddenly his face frowned, his eyes rolled up, his breathing stopped ... he took the binoculars away from his eyes, bent down and ... apchhi !!! Sneezed, as you can see. Sneezing is not forbidden to anyone and nowhere. The peasants sneeze, and the police chiefs, and sometimes even secret advisers. Everyone is sneezing. Chervyakov was not at all embarrassed.

Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech, it is widespread mainly in the scientific literature and lies in the fact that the concept being defined is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while signs (or a sign) are given that are special for this concept(species difference).

For example:

Flotation is one of the ways to enrich minerals, based on the principle of floating the crushed parts of the fossil to the surface along with air bubbles.

The definition is revealed, developed in explanation. Here, for example, is an explanation of the concept of flotation:

The essence of flotation is to bring heavy mineral particles to the surface of the bath. This is done by air bubbles, which stick well only to useful substances. And the empty rock goes to the bottom. But it is not enough to bring a "useful" particle up; it still needs to be kept afloat. And if the bubbles did not have strong walls and foamy clothes, if they burst, as ordinary air bubbles burst, enrichment plants could not work.

The definition is more common in scientific texts, the explanation - in popular science, in the language of mass communication. But often they act together - the definition is accompanied by an explanation.

So far, we have considered the functional types of speech separately. However, in reality, for example in a work of art, purely descriptive or purely narrative contexts are very rare. This can be seen in the examples above. Much more common is the combination of narrative and description. Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. Here is a typical example. The context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately goes into a description:

One day, returning home, I accidentally wandered into some unfamiliar estate. The sun was already hidden, and evening shadows were stretched on the flowering rye. Two rows of old, closely planted, very tall firs stood like two solid walls, forming a gloomy beautiful alley.

I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles, which here covered the ground by an inch.

It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks a bright golden light trembled here and there and shimmered like a rainbow in the webs of a spider. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.

Then again the action followed by the description.

Then I turned down a long linden alley. And there is also desolation and old age, last year's foliage rustled sadly underfoot, and in the twilight shadows hid between the trees. (A.P. Chekhov).

As you can see, the elements of narrative and description are organically merged. Without such a merger, the text would acquire a protocol character. I. R. Galperin rightly believes that the synthesis of narrative and descriptive contexts is feature the language of artistic prose.

But what determines the change, the alternation of narration and description? First of all, imagery. Analyzing the cited Chekhov passage, I. R. Galperin writes: "The reader, as it were, walks along with the character and observes the changing pictures of the surrounding nature. This figurativeness is achieved by almost reliable temporal and spatial characteristics, as well as by a synesthetic effect -" it smelled strongly, stuffy of pine needles " .

Description-brush strokes not only create an artistic depiction of the movement of the character, but also indirectly indicate to some extent a slow pace of movement. In the semantics of words accidentally, wandered, unfamiliar, as I.R. Halperin, contains meaning components expressing caution, attentiveness. These words, as it were, predetermine the slow pace of the narrator's movement, which allows him to stop looking at the details of an unfamiliar situation. Spatial and temporal parameters are woven into the narrative-descriptive context:

a) movement in space: returning home, wandered ... into the estate, climbed over the fence, along this alley, turned into a long linden alley; b) movement of time: the sun was already hiding, the evening shadows, it was quiet, dark, in the twilight ... shadows were hiding.

The change of functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning) depends on the individual inclinations of the writer, on the prevailing literary ideas of the era, on the content of the work. For example, in Hemingway's stories, description is relatively rare, narration is given most often in the form of a background, and dialogue occupies a predominant place. On the other hand, in those stories in which the reader's attention is directed to events, actions in their course, narrative and description occupy a significant place.

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Functional-semantic types of speech

Since ancient times, such important components of speech as description, narration, reasoning have been distinguished. In linguistics, they are usually called functional-semantic types of speech. Their selection goes back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose composition. The list of functional and semantic types of speech can be expanded by adding to description, narration, reasoning definition(explanation) characteristic as a kind of description and message as a storytelling option.

Description - enumeration of signs of an object or phenomenon. There is a static description that interrupts the development of the action, and a dynamic description - usually small in volume, which is included in the event: the landscape is given through the perception of the character in the course of his movement ("Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov). Description as a type of speech depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, the author's belonging to a particular literary movement.

Description as a type of speech is closely connected with the person, with the place, with the conditions in which the action takes place. Descriptions are portrait, landscape, event, etc.

In journalism, the function of description is a documentary, accurate reproduction of the situation. This goal is served by an abundance of specific details. A kind of description in non-fiction prose is a characteristic, a special case of which is a technical description.

Narration - an image of events or phenomena that do not occur simultaneously, but follow one after another or determine each other: Caesar's story: "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Veni, vidi, vici).

This is the main part of the author's monologue speech. It is closely related to space and time. Designations of place, action, names of persons and the actions themselves are the language means by which the narration is conducted. The narrative can be more or less objectified, neutral or, on the contrary, subjective. The last type of narration is typical for journalism.

Type of storytelling message, which, as a kind of narration, is found in newspaper speech. It is distinguished by conciseness of presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.

reasoning is a chain of consecutive conclusions on a topic. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments on any issue, which follow one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow from previous judgments.

The main area of ​​​​use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. Reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose.

Varieties of reasoning - definition and explanation. Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech, it is distributed mainly in the scientific literature. The defined concept is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while the features that are special for this concept (species difference) are given. The definition is revealed in explanation. They can also appear separately: the definition is more common in scientific texts, the explanation - in popular science, in the language of mass communication.

Functional-semantic types of speech are rarely found in their pure form. Much more common is the combination of narration and description, narration and reasoning.

Practice #6

Topic of the lesson: Spelling of alternating vowels in the root. Spelling of prefixes PRE, PRI.

1. In these words, highlight the roots and indicate the alternation of vowels and consonants.

Sample: close - close (s - (), catch - catch (v-vl).

Feed - feeding, face - face, sleep - sleep, buy - bought, marvel - surprise, captivate - captivate, friend - friends - friendship, forgive - forgiveness, freedom - liberation, place - landowner, offer - offer, refute - refutation, inventory - I will describe, isolate - isolation, day - day, I take - take.

2. Indicate the generating stem of each of these words.

Sample: artist - artist, mandatory - obligatory.

Fellow student, intruder, oatmeal, larch, musicality, discern, trunk, fluency, sawyer, engine, demanding, straw, unprincipled.

3. Determine in what way (attachment, suffix, attachment-suffix, non-suffix, addition) words are formed.

Anti-social, wallet, fidelity, pour in, water pump, university student, height, clayey, read up, legislator, scream, Moscow State University, public, steam locomotive, boletus, glass holder, vacuum cleaner, self-criticism, savings bank, darkness, Youth Theater.

4. Fill in the table: distribute the words depending on the method of word formation.

Thanks (for help) - thanks to (help), the above, edge (extreme) - edge (edge), braid (mow) - braid (pigtail), slightly wounded, illiteracy, ice cream, undersigned, unknown, wounded, straw, canteen, immediately , impenetrable, insane, ambition,

5. Build word-building chains and write them down, highlighting morphemes.

1. Pay, pay, pay, salary, deplorable.

2. Expensive, path, high cost, expensive, more expensive.

3. Laugh, mix, mix, funny, furry.

4. Herald, message, lead, notice, notify.

6. Make a morphemic and word-formation analysis of words.

Bus, car, inventor, someone, alms, millimeter, ministry.

7. Work with a textbook on compiling a table.

1. Prefix PRE- written in cases:

when she gives meaning to wordslimiting degree of actionexceeding any measure, orhighest quality: pre uplift, pre embroider, pre increase, pre ascend, pre be on time; pre sunrise, pre pretty, pre cute, pre nicely;

When she has the meaning of a prefixre-: pre fence (to fence off), pre to turn, pre cut, pre giving (to pass), pre step (step over), pre gate (inverted), pre emnik (adopt).

2. Prefix PRI- gives meaning to words

spatial proximity, adjacencies: at maritime, At amur, at breezier, at station, at manor;

additions, approximations, additions: at tend, at drive, at lead, at to knit, at to freeze at quilt;

incomplete action:at wither, at open, at lie down at lower, at subside;

completing an action, until a certain result:at search, at cum, at jam ( drown out completely), at learn, at think, at cut;

taking action in own interests , enhanced manifestation of action:at to look at pocket, at beckon, at dress up, at hide, at own, at listen;

concomitant action: at sing, at whistle at dance.

Notes:
1. Prefix pre- is Old Church Slavonic in origin. In Russian, it corresponds to a prefix with a full-vowel combination re-; compare: pre hail - pen town, pre to give - pen to give.

2. It is necessary to distinguish between spellings similar in sound, but different in meaning, words with prefixes pre- and pre-; cf: pre zeer (hate) and at zirat ( give shelter); cf. also: pre vision and at vision; pre bow (head) and at bend ( branch to the ground); pre create ( dream into reality) and at create (door), at going on ( sleeping); pre endure (discomfort) and at endure ( to inconvenience); pre walking (moment, cf. passing) and at walking (postman, participle from come).

3. It is necessary to distinguish between the spelling of words e multiply (strongly multiply), etc. and multiply ( add a small amount), although these meanings are often difficult to distinguish.

4. In following words former prefixes are no longer distinguished: limit, object, advantage, contradict, seduce, pass over, (signs of) punctuation, obstacle, obstacle, bicker, notorious, satiate, repel, stumbling (stumbling block), device, fastidious, comely, order, decent, primitive, claim, take communion , reason, affection.

5. In loanwordspossibly written as pre- and pre- (these elements, as a rule, are not prefixes):pre ambulance, pre wallow, pre zident, pre zidium, pre parath; at cotton, at madonna, at privilege, at mitive, at priority.

Questions for self-control:

Name the significant parts of the word. How are they designated (by example)?

What is an ending? How to determine the ending in a word? What null ending? Give examples. What is the end for?

What is the base word?

What is a word root? What are words with the same root called?

What is a prefix or suffix? What do they serve?

What is word formation, inflection? What parts of the word do they come from?

What three rules teach how to write the root of a word?

What is an attachment? What do you need to know about prefixes in order to write them correctly?

How to distinguish a preposition from a prefix?What are their similarities?

Literature

1.V.N. Spelling and punctuation: a reference book. - M .: "Neolit", 2007
2. Rosenthal D.E. Handbook of spelling and style. - St. Petersburg: IK "Komplekt", 2007

3. Rosenthal D.E. What better way to say it?: Book. For students Art. classes. – M.: Enlightenment, 2008.

Chapter 2 discussed various meanings of the term "speech", one of which is synonymous with the term "text". Thus, the text is a product of speech activity, it is the space of utterance, within which the speech strategy is formed. In the 70-80s of the XX century. Linguistic studies of the text clearly revealed two directions: functional typology, which was based on the social functions and purposes of using texts, and structural typology, which addresses the internal organization of texts.

A functional approach to the typology of texts brings types of speech closer to genres: narration, description, reasoning.

The type of speech is understood as a text (or a fragment of a text) with a certain generalized meaning (an object and its attribute; an object and its action; an assessment of an event, a phenomenon; causal relationships, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.

Functional type of speech - type of speech, depending on the goals and meaning of the monologue statement.

Forming the concept of functional types of speech, take into account the totality of essential features: ( 1 ) function (hence - functional type of speech); (2) meaning (hence semantic type of speech); ( 3) structure and language means.

By functions texts (types of speech) are divided into: (a) texts that reflect reality; (b) texts - human thoughts about reality.

By meaning texts (types of speech) are divided into description, narration, reasoning.

The first two types of speech involve a relationship with the world of objects (in the broadest sense), the last - with the world of concepts, judgments.

Description - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, in which an image of a phenomenon is given by listing its characteristic features.

Compositional model of this type of speech: description object - its signs - general picture, image.From the point of view of the object of description, the following types are distinguished: portrait, interior, landscape, household, scientific and technical, description of the state of affairs. The description involves the enumeration of features (constant or homogeneous), therefore it differsstatic.In descriptive texts, the signs of an object are thatnewthe information for which the statement is being made. The starting point is the object itself or part of it. The development of thought occurs due to the fact that each next sentence adds new features to what has been said, therefore the connection of sentences in descriptions is usually parallel. Verbs are used in the form imperfect form. The basis of the description is subject vocabulary. Descriptions are stylistically heterogeneous. This difference is especially evident between artistic and scientific-business descriptions.

In some cases, they talk about dynamic description. It is usually small in scope, included in the event, and does not pause actions. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the subject in the course of his movement (“Steppe” by A.P. Chekhov).

Narration - This is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is an image of actions and events in time. Composition model: plot - once whirl of action - climax - denouement.

In the narrative, individual sentences are connected by a chain link. The sequence of actions, events is conveyed with the help of perfective verbs, which, replacing each other, show the development of the narrative. Predicate verbs usually come after the subject. Narrative texts, as well as descriptive ones, are stylistically different, which is especially evident in the opposition of artistic narrative (story, short story) and scientific and business narrative (report, receipt, etc.).

reasoning - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is a verbal presentation, clarification and confirmation of any thought. Composition model: thesis - proof - conclusion. It is desirable to draw up the conclusion briefly and clearly, in one sentence, which would be distantly associated with the thesis, confirming or refuting it, depending on the task at hand.

This type of speech is characterized by a large number complex sentences, mostly - complex subordinate clauses with goals, causes, conditions, consequences, etc. Predicates are usually expressed by verbs in the present tense. Lot introductory words. Abstract vocabulary is widely used. So, depending on the goals of the monologue statement, the presence of certain semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, three main communicative types of speech are distinguished: description, narration, reasoning.

Lecture No. 83 Functional-semantic types of speech

This lecture deals with issues related to the normative construction of sentences with separate members.

Functional-semantic types of speech

This lecture deals with issues related to the normative construction of sentences with separate members.

Lecture plan

83.1. Description.

83.2. Narration.

83.3. Reasoning.

83.1. Description

The text as a unit, primarily informative and communicative, needs the characteristics of its structure in terms of functional and semantic. Function and meaning, and not syntactic structures, create characterological features of the text. Therefore, it becomes necessary to pay attention to the ways of presenting the material in the text, and necessarily in relation to the nature of the textual information. To designate speech methods of transmitting information, there are terms - functional-semantic types of speech, types of presentation, methods of presentation.

Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTR) are communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include:

• description,
• storytelling,
• reasoning.

Description is FSTR, the essence of which is to express the fact of the coexistence of objects, their attributes at the same time. The description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, appearance.

For example:

“Kochanovskaya estate stands on the river, opposite the village. The manor is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides the gate connects it with the outbuildings, in the left outbuilding there is a kitchen, in the right one there is a barn, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but you can’t see the river, the old hard raspberry tree props up the outbuilding ... "(K. Fedin. Shepherd)

Depending on the subject of speech, descriptive texts are divided into 1) landscape and 2) portrait .

For example:

1) It was a clear, blue lake with an unusual expression of water. A large cloud was completely reflected in the middle. On the other side, on a hill densely covered with woody greenery (which is the more poetic the darker), an old black tower rose straight from dactyl to dactyl.

2) He was a man of medium height, at first glance rather ugly and even clumsy, thin, with a sunken chest and a downcast head. His face was small, pale reddish, his nose was irregular, as if flattened, his mouth was slightly twisted, especially when it opened, small frequent teeth; thick blond hair fell in a tuft on a white, beautiful, albeit low, forehead.

In landscape descriptions, specific words are often used, for example, a river, a village, a house, a gate, an outbuilding, a window, etc., and words of spatial significance, for example, on the river, against the village, far away, near.

In portrait descriptions, words that characterize a person (his height, age, general appearance, condition, etc.) are used more often than others.

In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load carry nouns and adjectives. Present tense verbs are often used, expressing a long-term state of an object or a “timeless” state (standing, connecting, propping up), past tense imperfective verbs indicating the state of the described phenomena at the moment of observing them (whitened, bloomed).

Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they speak of a "dynamic description" - a type of transitional speech bordering on the narrative. The dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of very detailed description actions with great precision in the transfer of details - "second style"). In addition, a dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the hero's internal state.

The dynamic description is also widely presented in scientific texts (along with the static description and reasoning), where it is used for a detailed, accurate depiction of actions performed during the experiment, experiment. The task of the author in this case is not to tell about the events unfolding at a certain time (which is typical for the narrative), but to describe the process, the stages of this process, usually regardless of the specific time.

For example:

« They take a prism of Icelandic spar ... The prism is sawn perpendicular to the plane ... Then both halves are glued together with Canadian balsam ...» (A.G. Stoletov. Introduction to acoustics and optics).

Elements of description are present in almost any text, while the description of an object, phenomenon, person depends on the functional style of speech, and on the type of text. In scientific and technical, official business speech, the description is factual, in artistic speech it is figurative.

83.2. Narration

Narration - FSTR, designed to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another.

For example:

“And Dr. Startsev, Dmitry Ionych, when he had just been appointed a zemstvo doctor and settled in Dyalizh, nine miles from S., was also told that he, like intelligent person, you need to get acquainted with the Turkins. One winter in the street he was introduced to Ivan Petrovich; we talked about the weather, about the theater, about cholera, followed by an invitation. In the spring, on a holiday - it was the ascension - after receiving the sick, Startsev went to the city to have a little fun and, by the way, buy himself something. He walked slowly (he didn’t have his own horses yet), and sang all the time ... He dined in the city, took a walk in the garden, then somehow by itself Ivan Petrovich’s invitation came to his mind, and he decided to go to the Turkins to see what kind of people they are…”(A.P. Chekhov. Ionych).

In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the course of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of the action, in the movement of the plot. In this case, events can be transmitted both in direct, chronological order, and in reverse - the reader can first learn about the denouement, and then about the action itself.

In the narrative, the main semantic load is usually performed by perfective verbs, prefixed and non-prefixed (settled, introduced, talked, went, dined, walked, decided, etc.), which denote actions that are limiting, changing. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary (doctor, patients, horses, city, garden). The course of events is accentuated by means of the circumstances of time (just now, somehow in winter, in spring, on a holiday, after receiving patients).

In terms of the use of syntactic constructions and types of connection of sentences, the narrative is opposed to the description, which is manifested, in particular, in the following:

1) in the difference in the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of forms of the imperfect aspect, the narrative is perfect;

2) in the predominance of a chain connection of sentences in the narrative - a parallel connection is more characteristic of the description;

3) in use one-part sentences- nominative sentences, impersonal sentences widely presented in descriptive contexts are atypical for the narrative.

Narration is a type of speech that functions primarily in literary texts and forms a story about events, the system of which makes up the plot of a work.

Narrative texts in their pure form are very rare. In artistic and visual speech (fiction, texts of some genres of journalism - reportage, essay, informative and expressive notes, texts-stories in colloquial style) elements of descriptiveness and narrative are organically combined. The description is included in the narrative for a visual-figurative representation of the characters, the place of action.

83.3. reasoning

Reasoning - FSTR, the main purpose of which is the presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. In other words, reasoning is used when it is necessary to give a reasoned character to a speech (to come to a new judgment in a logical way or to argue what was said earlier).

Reasoning as a textual phenomenon was formed in scientific speech, because scientific speech is characterized by a logical, rational type of thinking. It is thanks to the scientific style that Russian literary language in the process of its development was enriched by reasoning in its most "pure" form.

For example:

“Under the influence of an electromagnetic wave, an atom can pass with equal probability both to a higher and to a lower energy state... In the first case, the wave will be weakened, in the second case it will be strengthened. If the paramagnet is in thermal equilibrium, the atoms are distributed among the sublevels in accordance with Boltzmann's law ... Therefore, the number of atoms in a state with a lower energy exceeds the number of atoms in a state with a higher energy. Therefore, transitions occurring with an increase in the energy of atoms will prevail over transitions occurring with a decrease in energy. As a result, the intensity of the wave will decrease - the paramagnet absorbs electromagnetic radiation, as a result of which it heats up. It follows from the foregoing that electron paramagnetic resonance is a selective absorption of radio frequency field energy in paramagnetic substances in a constant magnetic field..

Special place in scientific style occupy subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character:

• proof - communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis,
• refutation - a type of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis,
• confirmation - or empirical evidence, function - establishing the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts,
• justification - establishing the expediency of action, motivation.

Explanation should be attributed to a special subtype of reasoning. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, the explanation serves primarily not to confirm the validity of the thesis (or establish its falsity), but to reveal the causes of real phenomena.

For example:

“It is interesting to note that the sharp edges of the shaped profiles of the holes become smoothed in the fiber, and if the size of the details of the profiled hole is not very large, then the fiber turns out to be of a circular cross section, i.e., the same as with a round hole. This happens because surface tension forces act on the liquid jet ... "(S.P. Papkov. Polymeric fibrous materials).

In the texts of other styles, an adaptation of the reasoning to the specifics of the style is found.

Strictly logical detailed reasoning is not typical for artistic, journalistic, official business texts.

In literary texts, reasoning appears in the form of its emotional variant - free reflection. Literary texts do not use evidence. The laxity of the form of speech, the ease of reflection help to create an atmosphere of intimate communication between the author and the reader, which is characteristic of the artistic sphere. In addition, in a work of art, reasoning performs a purely communicative function - it makes the depicted more visual, psychologically more reliable, helps the reader to feel internal state hero.

For example:

« He stood with his hands on the back of the seat, and was obviously very agitated: his face was red, and a muscle twitched on his cheek.... "(L.N. Tolstoy. Kreutzer Sonata).

In journalistic texts, reasoning performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments that logically follow from one another, but information followed by conclusion. For journalism focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not by means of proof itself, i.e. not by strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, confirmation of their facts is used.

For example:

Where have the “rulers of thoughts” and “engineers of human souls” gone? No matter how one treats the Soviet past, no one can dispute the fact that then literature was really a tribune public consciousness, public opinion. And in those days, already quite far from us, the appearance of any significant work, both in aesthetic and socio-political terms, immediately caused a certain resonance.

Other works, being under an unspoken or open ban, were passed from hand to hand, read at night.

But we all wanted freedom. We got it, and all of a sudden, literature in the sense I'm talking about disappeared. That is, there is literature, I know it. There are talented writers, there are works, and for different tastes. But literature ceased to be a phenomenon public life in the deep and serious sense of the word. The mass reader is now fascinated by Marinina, Akunin, Dashkova, and so on... But where are our event books? What happened to literature?

In official business texts, in general, the frequency of the use of reasoning is insignificant. Due to the specifics of this style, its extra-linguistic basis - its purpose in society, regulating the functions of reasoning cannot be a systemic feature of official business speech. In some genres, certain types of reasoning are presented (for example, substantiation is typical for statements and claims), but there is not a single subtype of reasoning that would be used in business texts of all genres (at least genres within one substyle). In addition, subtypes of reasoning function here specifically, reflecting the peculiarities of the style.

Date: 2010-05-22 10:56:04

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