In August-September 2010, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam celebrated 65 years since the so-called. The "August Revolution" of 1945 (i.e. the capture of Hanoi by the communist rebels, who took advantage of the power vacuum after the surrender of Japan) and the proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2 of the same year.

Preparing for publication this material on the recent history of Vietnam, we originally planned to limit ourselves to a selection of Vietnamese publications about the so-called. "Ho Chi Minh Trail" - a transport facility that played a very important role in the events in Vietnam after World War II, and even being part of the identification of the Vietnamese in the eyes of the rest of the world (we will not claim that this is also part of the self-identification of the Vietnamese nation, as it claims official Vietnamese communist propaganda).

However, in the process of preparing the material, we saw that if we simply follow the official Vietnamese sources for the period under review, then we will be captured by propaganda that, if not lying directly, then prefers to hush up the inconvenient circumstances of the past.

It is also noteworthy that there are very few publications in Russian about the events in Vietnam in a very important era for the country - before the communists came to power. How Ho Chi Minh came to power in Hanoi, which happened in Vietnam during the last period of the country's rather sleepy life before the Second World War.

Due to the inertia of Soviet historiography, quite a lot is written in Russian about the war between North Vietnam and the Americans (often using the clichés of Soviet and Vietnamese communist propaganda), without saying that it was the Ho Chi Minh government that usually acted as the aggressor.

Based on all this, we decided to supplement publications from modern Vietnamese sources, also with an essay on the history of Vietnam, approximately from 1939 to 1975. And in the second part - Vietnamese primary sources about the Ho Chi Minh Trail - as a transport facility.

UPDATE: Our review of Vietnamese history was originally written and published on our website in September 2010, on the occasion of the 65th anniversary of the emergence of communist Vietnam, and in February 2018 was then somewhat stylistically corrected and redesigned, and besides, it was also added quite a bit. unique audio and video files of foreign broadcasting in Russian of Vietnam, as well as the USA.

The Ho Chi Minh trail as the path of the country: facts from the history of Vietnam on the occasion of the 65th anniversary of the creation of the modern Vietnamese communist state

In 1954, representatives of France, the communist North Vietnam (Hanoi) and some countries signed the Geneva Accords, which secured a ceasefire in Vietnam, where the troops of the North Vietnamese regime of Ho Chi Minh were at war with the French troops.

And here we will return a few decades ago to set out the background of events.

Vietnam before World War II: The division of the country into three parts. In the central part, the historical Vietnamese imperial Nguyen dynasty rules under the protectorate of France. The south is ruled directly by the French. North liberated by the French army from Chinese influence

Map of French Indochina before World War II: Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina are marked, and neighboring Cambodia and Laos, also part of the French possessions.

Map of French Indochina before World War II:

Marked Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina, and neighboring Cambodia and Laos, also part of the French possessions.

Recall that before the Second World War, Vietnam was a territory of three parts.:

To the north (around the current Vietnamese capital of Hanoi and up to the border with China, now known as the Bac Bo region) was the French protectorate of Tonkin. (The Europeanized name Tonkin comes from Đông Kinh - from the Chinese “Eastern Capital”, this is one of the old names for Hanoi. By the way, the names Tonkin and Tokyo have the same hieroglyphic basis and meaning);

The French protectorate of Annam was located in the center of the country, where the historical Vietnamese Nguyen dynasty and its last king Bao Dai ruled from the city of Hue. (Annam in translation means "pacified south". The name arose when the Vietnamese emperors in more ancient times successfully expanded their country to the south. Now it is the Vietnamese region of Chungbo);

In the south from the second half of XIX century, the French colony of Cochin China was located, the territory that was previously dependent on the Nguyen dynasty. (Cochinchina (from the Chinese name for this area, containing the word "China" in its name). The current territory in southern Vietnam around the city of Ho Chi Minh in modern Vietnam is known as the Nam Bo region. Ho Chi Minh City, formerly called Saigon, has been the capital since 1900 French Indochina. Prior to this, the residence of the Governor-General of Indochina was located in Hanoi).

Before the arrival of the French, Tonkin was considered a vassal territory of China, and during its colonization in the second half of the 19th century, the French troops had to engage in armed clashes with local Chinese robber bands that ruled over the region. In the struggle for the liberation of Tonkin, the French were also helped by the troops of the Nguyen dynasty, which, as already mentioned, began to rule under the control of the French only the central part of the country.

Before the arrival of the French, the Nguyen themselves were nominally considered vassals of the Chinese emperor, although they ruled an independent Vietnamese state. The last years before the French invasion, the Vietnamese dynasty spent for the most part, the policy of isolationism, at times persecuting his subjects who converted to Christianity. After a series of clashes between Vietnam and the French army, the French trading posts (which had previously appeared in the south of Vietnam under an agreement with France) were proclaimed the already mentioned colony of Cochin China.

The division of Vietnam into Tonkin, Annam and Cochin China was formally maintained until 1945..

1940 . The Japanese occupy Vietnam. At the same time, the colonial administration of France cooperates with them, since it represents the pro-German French government in Vichy. Triarchy is established in Vietnam: the French, the Japanese and (in the central part of the country) the government of the Vietnamese emperor

In 1940, Japanese troops appeared in Vietnam, who were allowed by the French colonial administration to move freely in Vietnam from the Chinese border, and cross further to Thailand.

In general, at that time, French Indochina found itself in a situation of confusion of power, because the French colonial administration, after the defeat of France in 1940 from Nazi Germany, was not too confident in its abilities.

The French administration was headed by Jean Decaux, who was appointed by the Vichy administration (the semi-puppet government of Marshal Petain, who collaborated with Nazi Germany and allied Japan, ruled from the town of Vichy southern part France, not occupied by Germany). As a result, the entire Second World War in Vietnam was simultaneously ruled by the French colonial administration, and the Japanese occupation authorities, and in Annam, moreover, by the officials of the Nguyen imperial government.

Since 1943, Jean Deco has been in contact with de Gaulle's government-in-exile (When Deco finds out that the commissioner of the de Gaulle movement "Free France" is operating underground in the country, he raises the question of trust in himself and receives assurances of such trust) .

In 1944 (after the final loss of legitimacy by the Vichy government during the German occupation of previously unoccupied units in France), Deco unofficially (because he was bound by the presence of Japanese troops in Vietnam) announced the recognition of the de Gaulle government. (Nevertheless, after the war, Jean Deccous is in Paris for several months on trial on charges of collaborationism, but he is acquitted).

On March 24, 1945, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, headed by de Gaulle, announced its intention to create a federation in Indochina - the so-called. French Union, and sends three of its representatives to Vietnam to secretly manage the colonial administration. (Two of these representatives are almost immediately captured by the Japanese, after an unsuccessful parachute drop).

May 1945. Japan, trying to prevent the invasion of France and England into Vietnam, persuades Emperor Annam (of the Vietnamese Nguyen dynasty) to take real power into his own hands and extend it to the entire territory of Vietnam, including the French colonies in the North and South. Proclamation of the Vietnamese Empire

On March 9, 1945, the Japanese military authorities, in a memorandum transmitted by the Japanese ambassador, demand that the French administration transfer power to the new Vietnamese administration (apparently in an attempt to save Vietnam from the Allied invasion), and on May 10, 1945, Emperor Annam Bao Dai proclaims himself emperor of all Vietnam with the capital in Hue. (The state was called the Vietnamese Empire).

By participating in this development of events, Japan formally goes in line with its (announced at the beginning of the war) policy of liberating the peoples of Asia as part of the creation of a “prosperous Asia territory” under the patronage of Japan. Somewhat earlier, Japanese troops begin to disarm the French colonial forces in Vietnam, sending the resisting French into POW camps. Part of the French troops go beyond the borders of Vietnam and into neighboring countries. Officials of the colonial administration are gradually removed from government.

August-September 1945. Ho Chi Minh comes to power in Hanoi and North Vietnam with the cooperation of Japanese forces, taking advantage of the power vacuum following the surrender of Japan. Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

On August 15, 1945, the Japanese emperor made a speech on the radio announcing his surrender in the war.: "We have decided to pave the way for peace for all future generations, enduring the unbearable and suffering the unsufferable."

According to the history of the Vietnamese Communist Party, the forces representing the Communist Party of Indochina and the "Vietnam Independence Struggle League" ("Vietnam Dok Lap Dong Minh Hoi", or Viet Minh, a communist satellite organization for short) constituted the Hanoi Uprising Committee immediately after the speech of the Japanese Emperor. (The course to seize power was approved a little earlier at the political conference of the Communist Party of Indochina in Tanchao (Tuyen Quang Province).

A few days later, the Vietnamese Communists, after several demonstrations and processions of sympathizers, took power in Hanoi with the help of their armed formations. The signal for an armed uprising was an explosion at the Hanoi power plant, staged by the communists.

It should be especially noted that almost all Japanese units voluntarily handed over their weapons to the Ho Chi Minh detachments without offering resistance. (Later, all Japanese prisoners of war were concentrated in prison camps on the sea cape of Vung Tau (south of Saigon), and then, with the help of the French authorities, they were sent home. An interesting touch. According to a modern publication published by the Japanese research Tokyo Foundation, the Ho Chi Minh Viet Minh after the arrival hired more than 600 Japanese soldiers as instructors to train the Vietnamese army).

On August 19, the Viet Minh Committee proclaimed its government on Hanoi Square in front of the city theater built by the French, headed by Ho Chi Minh, who appeared in the city only a few days later. (To Vietnam Ho Chi Minh (real surname Nguyen (namesake of the Vietnamese imperial dynasty - about 40% of the population of Vietnam have this most common surname since antiquity in the country, the pseudonym Ho Chi Minh was taken in 1940 on behalf of a Chinese whose documents were used by the Vietnamese leader) returned illegally in 1941 after living in the US, France, Soviet Russia, Thailand and China for almost 30 years.At the time of the uprising in Hanoi, the Vietnamese communists controlled only some rural areas in northern Vietnam, in particular the mountainous region of Viet Bac, north of the delta Red River, where the first large armed detachment of the Communist Party was created in December 1944 under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh's associate Nguyen Giap. this closest associate of Ho Chi Minh is still alive, preparing to celebrate his centenary in retirement).

On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh himself proclaimed in a speech on Badinh Square the independence of Vietnam and the creation of the so-called. Democratic Republic of Vietnam by reading the Declaration of Independence.

Related information: Text of the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (read by Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi on September 2, 1945)

The text of the Declaration cited by us was translated from the English version by the editors of the site due to the fact that the existing Russian translations were made back in Soviet times, in them the text of the Declaration looks smoothed out: when the places about God, about Ho Chi Minh's admiration for the American "Declaration of Independence" were removed (Ho Chi Minh characterizes it as an "immortal statement").

On the contrary, the words about the French in the Soviet translations of the Ho Chi Minh Declaration are in some cases tougher. Note that in the Declaration of Independence of the DRV there is not a word about communism, although a few years later Ho Chi Minh will implement completely different slogans.

So, the text of the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam:

“Compatriots all over the country!

"All men are created equal, endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, which include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

This immortal declaration was made in the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America in 1776. In a broader sense, this means the following: All peoples on earth are equal from birth, all peoples have the right to life, to be happy and free.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed by the French Revolution in 1791, also states: "All men are born free and with equal rights, and must always remain free and have equal rights."

These are undeniable truths.

Nevertheless, for more than 80 years the French imperialists, abusing the slogan "Liberty, equality and fraternity!", destroyed our Fatherland and oppressed our fellow citizens. They acted contrary to the ideals of humanity and justice.

In the field of politics, they have deprived our people of all democratic freedoms.

They strengthened the inhuman laws, they created three different political regimes North, Center and South of Vietnam to undermine our national unity and prevent the unity of our people.

They created more prisons than schools. They mercilessly killed our patriots, they drowned our uprisings in rivers of blood.

They fettered public opinion, they planted obscurantism among our people.

To weaken our race, they forced us to use opium and alcohol.

In the field of economics, they robbed us, doomed us to poverty, and devastated our lands.

They have robbed our rice fields, our mines, our forests, And our raw material wealth.

They monopolized the issue of banknotes and export trade.

They invented numerous unjustified taxes, and reduced our people, especially the peasantry, to a state of extreme poverty.

They hindered the prosperity of our national bourgeoisie, they exploited our workers mercilessly.

In the autumn of 1940, when the Japanese fascists invaded Indochina in order to use its territory to create new bases in their struggle against the allies, the French imperialists knelt before them and gave them our country. Thus, from this date, our people were subjected to the double oppression of both France and Japan. Their suffering and distress increased. As a result, from the end of last year to the beginning of this year in the province of Quang Tri (Northern Vietnam), more than 2 million of our fellow citizens died of starvation.

But on March 9 (1945), the French troops were disarmed by the Japanese. The French colonialists either fled or surrendered, showing that they not only did not know how to "defend" us, but also that in the span of 5 years they had already sold our country to the Japanese twice.

Until March 9, the Viet Minh League called on the French to unite with it against the Japanese. Instead of agreeing to this proposal, the French colonialists intensified their terrorist activities against members of the Viet Minh: before fleeing, they destroyed a large number of our political prisoners held in Yen Bai and Cao Bang.

Despite this, our fellow citizens always show a tolerant and humane attitude towards the French. Even after the Japanese Putsch (March 1945), the Viet Minh League helped many French people cross the border, saved some of them from Japanese prisons, and also saved French lives and property.

From the autumn of 1940, our country actually ceased to be a French colony and became a Japanese possession. After Japan's capitulation to the Allies, all of our people rose up to restore our national sovereignty in the form of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

True, we wrested independence from the Japanese, not from the French. But the French fled, the Japanese capitulated, Emperor Bao Dai abdicated. Our people broke the chains that had fettered them for almost a century and won the independence of their Fatherland. Our people at the same time overthrew the monarchical regime that had ruled for dozens of centuries, and in its place created a real Democratic Republic.

For these reasons, we, the members of the Provisional Government, representing the entire Vietnamese people, declare that from now on we break off all colonial relations with France, we cancel all international obligations that France has so far signed on behalf of Vietnam, and we cancel all special rights, which the French illegally acquired in our Fatherland.

From all the Vietnamese people, united common goal We declare that we are determined to fight to the end against any attempt by the French colonialists to conquer the country.

We are convinced that the Allied Powers, which in Tehran and San Francisco have recognized the principles of self-determination and equality of peoples, will not refuse to recognize the independence of Vietnam.

People who bravely resisted French domination for more than 80 years, people who fought side by side with the Allies against the Nazis in recent years, such people should be free and independent!

For these reasons, we, the members of the Provisional Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, solemnly declare to the whole world:

Vietnam has the right to be a free and independent country, and in fact it already is. The entire Vietnamese people is determined to mobilize all their physical and mental strength to sacrifice their lives and property in order to uphold independence and freedom.”

AT audio file below: fragments of the broadcast of the Russian edition of the foreign broadcast of communist Vietnam - Radio "Voice of Vietnam" dated 02/09/2013, dedicated to the celebration 68th Anniversary of Independence of Vietnam with a commentary on the meaning of the Ho Chi Minh Declaration of Independence:

• audio file #1

Video:News in Russian of the international TV channel of Vietnam VTV-4 from 02/09/2014 on the 69th anniversary of the independence of the so-called. Democratic Republic of Vietnam by Ho Chi Minh (Independence Day of Vietnam is a state holiday in the country), with materials about this:

Alternative view:

1945-1946 Ho Chi Minh occupies Central Vietnam, overthrows the emperor, and later negotiates with the French and welcomes their troops in Hanoi, but soon, offended, leaves for the jungle

The American magazine "Time" many times placed on its cover the main actors of the politics of North and South Vietnam after the Second World War: at least once Emperor Bao Dai, twice - the President of the Republic of Vietnam - Ngo Dinh Diem, who replaced Bao Dai in the leadership of the South Vietnam.

The American magazine "Time" many times placed on its cover the main actors of the politics of North and South Vietnam after the Second World War:

At least once Emperor Bao Dai, twice - the President of the Republic of Vietnam - Ngo Dinh Diem, who replaced Bao Dai in the leadership of South Vietnam.

And four times, between 1954 and 1975. - President Ho Chi Minh.

Here is a cover from 1950 showing Bao Dai as head of South Vietnam when he was no longer emperor.

Then (center) a 1955 cover with Ngo Dinh Diem. An article about Ngo was headlined in that issue of the magazine: "The Besieged Man." (Both Bao Dai and Ngo Dinh Diem are depicted against the backdrop of the South Vietnamese flag.)

And finally (far right) a 1965 cover depicting Ho Chi Minh waging a guerrilla war. A magazine article about him at the time was titled "Marxist from the Jungle".

A little-known fact among the general public in Russia: Ho Chi Minh's troops went into the jungle after World War II by no means because they were attacked by "French colonialists" who wanted to regain control of Vietnam. In fact, the Ho Chi Minh people peacefully and even solemnly accepted the French troops in Hanoi and North Vietnam.

On March 6, 1946, in the town of Fontainebleau near Paris, the so-called. Ho-Santeny agreement.

This agreement was signed between the Provisional Government of France (until January 1946 headed by de Gaulle) and the government of Ho Chi Minh, and, according to the document, the French until 1951 had the right to deploy troops in the northern part of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh in response promised to conduct free elections in the communist-controlled part of the country. And already on March 18, 1946, Ho Chi Minh welcomed in Hanoi the French troops entering the city of General Leclerc, a well-known figure, by the way, of the de Gaulle movement, who was instructed by the government of liberated France to restore order in the colony.

The agreement with France with Ho Chi Minh was preceded by the following events:

After establishing control over Hanoi, the communist government initially managed to gain a foothold only in the North, although there China, represented by the Kuomintang troops of Chiang Kai-shek, occupied part of the territories liberated by the Japanese.

Without engaging in armed clashes with Chiang Kai-shek, but creating in parallel with him their own authorities on the territory near the Vietnamese-Chinese border, the government of Ho Chi Minh first of all solved another problem, namely, the elimination of the main competitor, which could prevent the Ho Chi Minhs from becoming spokesmen for the idea of ​​the Vietnamese independence. Such a competitor was the government of Bao Dai. Three days after taking power in Hanoi, the Ho Chi Minhs launched an attack on the center of Vietnam, during which the communist troops took the imperial capital of Vietnam, the city of Hue, on August 23, 1945. After that, on the same day, the last emperor Bao Dai, convinced that by this he was serving the cause of the Vietnamese nation, handed over the emperor's sword and seal to the delegation of the Hanoi government, thereby abdicating power. Ho Chi Minh appointed the former emperor to the honorary post of supreme adviser to the new government. However, soon Bao Dai did not want to be an adviser, and was able to leave, having received permission from Ho to leave for France.

Meanwhile, Potsdam Conference 1945 makes the decision of the allies on the disarmament of the Japanese units in Indochina. According to the agreements of the victorious countries, from the beginning of September 1945, British troops and native formations from british india temporarily occupy the south of Vietnam and Saigon.

At the same time, de Gaulle announces the restoration of sovereignty over French Indochina, planning the creation of a semi-independent Federation of Indochina as part of a new so-called. French Union. In the autumn of 1945, French formations also begin to arrive in Vietnam. After French pressure on the Ho Chi Minh government, which at that time was not sufficiently self-confident, the aforementioned Ho-Santeny agreement is concluded (so named in honor of the main actors - Ho Chi Minh and the French government commissioner for negotiations in Indochina Santeny).

Pictured from the Bao Dai fan site: Photo of Ho Chi Minh and Bao Dai (standing behind Ho Chi Minh).

In an illustration from the Bao Dai fan site:

A photograph depicting Ho Chi Minh and Bao Dai (standing behind Ho Chi Minh).

Apparently, the photo is dated 1946, when Bao Dai was listed as Ho's chief adviser after his abdication.

Here are some excerpts from a rather curious book by the Soviet journalist Ilyinsky, who was a correspondent for Soviet publications in North Vietnam in the 1960s. His assessments of events are biased - the journalist is sharply anti-French, but the facts he cites regarding the situation in 1946 in Vietnam speak for themselves, no matter how the Soviet journalist comments on them.

It can be said that if Ho Chi Minh did not want to get unlimited power for his communist government in any way, and immediately throughout Vietnam, then Vietnam would have avoided the North Vietnamese-French colonial war of 1946-1954. The French government made concessions, offering autonomy to the regime that had existed for only three months and came to power with the help of the Japanese and armed with the prospect of complete independence. So, Ilyinsky writes:

“In the first months of 1946, a difficult situation arose in the South. The French occupied the main cities in the South, but were powerless against the partisans. Moreover, as long as the revolutionary power existed in Hanoi, the occupation of the South could not be lasting. Continuing military operations and receiving reinforcements from France, the colonialists began to develop a plan for the secession of Cochinchina and the creation of an "autonomous government" there. The presence in the North of the Chiang Kai-shek troops, the backbone of the reactionary parties, posed a constant threat to the people's power in Hanoi.

The French colonialists entered into negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek. They sought to obtain from him consent to the replacement of Chinese troops in the north of Indochina by French ones. At the same time, France renounced its extraterritorial rights in China, "granted" the Chinese side the right to freely transport goods along the Haiphong-Yunnan railway line, the "free zone" in Haiphong, and established a special status for Chinese immigrants in Indochina. Such an agreement was signed on February 28, 1946. Four thousand French soldiers, who had previously been hiding (from the Japanese) in China, moved to Vietnam, to the Laitiau region. At the same time, reinforcements from France were expected to land at Haiphong.

To avoid a simultaneous clash with the French colonialists and Chiang Kai-shek, the Vietnamese government compromised. The calculation was to gain time. On March 6, 1946, President Ho Chi Minh and a representative of the French government signed a preliminary agreement (just this is the Ho-Santeny agreement. Approx. site), consisting of the following points:

1. The French government recognizes the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a free state with its own government, parliament, army and finances, and as a member of the Indochinese Federation and the French Union. As regards the fate of Nambo, the French government undertakes to abide by the decision of the people in a referendum.

(That is, the agreement says that the Ho Chi Minh government controls the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (and the DRV controlled only the northern part of Vietnam), but on the other hand, that the DRV is part of the French Union, i.e. is not completely independent. In fact In this agreement, Ho Chi Minh accepted the idea of ​​France to establish independent but not completely independent governments in the colonies under the patronage of France.It was also implied that the DRV should ensure democratic freedoms.The ambiguity of the agreement led to sources sympathetic to the communists, as in Vietnam , and abroad, they usually talk about this document in a patter, noting only that the French government recognized the government of Ho Chi Minh, but not at all about what concessions Ho Chi Minh himself made. still criticized by conservative historians in France for the very fact of recognition of the Ho Chi Minh regime by the government.

2. The Vietnamese government declares that it is ready to receive the French army in a friendly manner when it is in accordance with international agreements will replace the Chiang Kai-shek troops.

3. Immediately after the signing of the agreement, each of the contracting parties will take all necessary measures to stop hostilities, keep the troops in their positions and create an atmosphere conducive to the early start of friendly and frank negotiations. These talks will consider Vietnam's diplomatic ties with other countries, the future position of Indochina, and France's cultural and economic interests in Vietnam.

After March 6, 1946, 15,000 French soldiers entered Hanoi. At the same time, 200,000 Chiang Kai-shek troops, and with them the adventurers from the Viet Quoc and Viet Quoc groups, left the country ... (Meaning the Viet Quoc and Viet Quoc that left North Vietnam are patriotic anti-communist movements of the Vietnamese who opposed the communists. We will talk about these movements below.

A few weeks after the signing of the agreement, the French High Commissioner Thierry d'Argenlier (based in South Vietnam) put together an "autonomous republic government", intending to permanently separate Nambo from the rest of Vietnam. Arriving in the capital of the DRV, General Leclerc declared that "Hanoi is the last stage of liberation"...

Preliminary negotiations in Dalat, which lasted from April to May 1946, recorded differences in the positions of the parties. The Vietnamese defended state sovereignty in the field of domestic and foreign policy and the territorial integrity of the country, while the French put forward the project of the "Indochinese Federation" headed by the French governor and claimed to represent Vietnam in all its international relations. The French wanted to include Vietnam in the franc area. All this was aimed at restoring the old colonial system, but under a new name. The main conflict was the question of the legal status of Nambo - Cochinchina, whose territory the French wanted to split off from the rest of the country. The Vietnamese delegation upheld the principle of the unity of Vietnam...

In October 1946, the National Assembly of the DRV instructed President Ho Chi Minh to form a new government on the basis of a broad consolidation of national forces. At the same session, the National Assembly of the country adopted the Constitution, which declared Vietnam to be a single country from North to South. And this was already the legal basis of a single state.

In response, French soldiers ... began to violate the sovereignty of Vietnam. The colonialists intended to open their customs in Haiphong, the only port through which North Vietnam maintained communications with the outside world, and customs duties were an important source of income for the budget. On November 20, French troops opened fire on Vietnamese soldiers in Hai Phong and Lang Son. On the same day, in Haiphong, French warships fired on populated areas. Thousands of inhabitants died. Having occupied Haiphong and Lang Son - the gateway to North Vietnam - the French command decided that control over Bakbo - North Vietnam - was established. The government of the DRV called on all the people to prepare for the war of resistance...

December 18 (French soldiers in Hanoi) captured the ministries of finance and communications. The population and self-defense units erected barricades, dug passages of communication from house to house, and prepared to repel enemy attacks. President Ho Chi Minh sent a message to the newly appointed French Prime Minister Léon Blum, demanding compliance with the signed agreements...

On December 19, the French command presented the Vietnamese government with an ultimatum demanding that they dismantle the barricades, disarm the self-defense units, and transfer the right to “keep order” in the capital of Vietnam to the French troops.

Enough! We will sacrifice everything, but we will not give up the freedom of our country and we will not become slaves.

Compatriots! Get up to fight!

Every Vietnamese citizen, man or woman, old or young, regardless of religious, party or national affiliation, must rise up to fight against the French colonialists in order to save the Motherland. Whoever has a rifle, let him arm himself with a rifle; whoever has a sword, let him arm himself with a sword. If there are not even swords, arm yourself with hoes, shovels or sticks. Everyone, as one, must rise to fight the colonialists in the name of saving the Motherland.

Army soldiers, self-defense troops, people's militia!

The hour of saving the Motherland has struck! In the name of the Motherland, we must fight to the last drop of blood.

The War of Resistance will be severe, but in selfless struggle our people will win."

(This document is kept in the Hanoi Historical Museum.).”

So writes the Soviet journalist Ilyinsky in his book Indochina: Ashes of Four Wars. Quote from militera.lib.ru.

After the communist government realized that cooperation with the French could cost it the loss of its monopoly on power, the government offices of Ho Chi Minh and a number of institutions and enterprises of Hanoi were evacuated to the jungle, to the Viet Bac mountain region. And in December 1946, a Viet Minh force of 30,000 launched the first large-scale attack against the French, thus beginning eight years of fighting known as the First Vietnam War.

However, at the first stage of the confrontation, the French practically occupied the country to the Chinese border, including holding Hanoi liberated from communist forces until 1952.

1946-1947 Vietnamese Anti-Communist Forces Establish a State in the South

Map showing the division of Vietnam into two states: North and South Vietnam.

As mentioned above, in addition to the government of Ho Chi Minh and the French authorities, there were also Chinese troops of the Kuomintang in North Vietnam, who entered Vietnamese territory immediately after the surrender of Japan to disarm the Japanese troops.

It was under the auspices of the Chinese commander in Vietnam, General Liu Han, that a coalition of Vietnamese nationalist political parties was created, which intended to negotiate with the Ho Chi Minh government on coalition governance and elections. The agreement of March 6, 1946 implied free elections and, possibly, a coalition (Note that in the first government of Ho Chi Minh in September 1945, several seats were reserved for representatives of anti-communist parties. This was done at the initiative of the Viet Minh itself). However, after the withdrawal of Chinese troops, the Vietnamese nationalist leaders representing the anti-communist forces did not feel safe and left North Vietnam for China.

On February 17, 1947, some of the representatives of these Vietnamese political parties met in Hong Kong and merged into a single party called the Nationalist Front, inviting former Emperor Bao Dai to be their leader.

On June 5, 1948, the former Emperor Bao Dai signed with the French High Commissioner in Vietnam the so-called. Halong Bay Agreement. Under this agreement, France recognized the independence of Vietnam, but at the same time retained control over Vietnam's foreign relations and defense, postponing the transfer of these state functions to future negotiations. A separate treaty with Bao Dai was signed because the Ho Chi Minh government was no longer negotiating. By that time, an autonomist government under the control of France was already functioning in the South Vietnamese regions.

In 1949, Bao Dai officially became the President of Vietnam (in the south of the country). In July 1949, the French authorized the creation of the South Vietnamese National Army. In October 1949, Mao Zedong defeated Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang during the Chinese Civil War. As a result, the fears of the United States and the West regarding the expansion of communist expansion intensified. This also applied to the situation in Vietnam. Moreover, a few months later (already in 1950), the PRC and the USSR recognized the government of Ho Chi Minh and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. At the same time, the Chinese began the transfer of military equipment to the Viet Minh army. It was equipment, mostly made in the United States, formerly owned by the Chinese Nationalists of the Kuomintang, which was recaptured by Mao's troops. The PRC also sent military advisers and volunteers to North Vietnam.

In February 1950, the United States and Great Britain recognized the Republic of Vietnam and the government of Bao Dai. And after coming to power as the 34th President of the United States, Dwight Eisenhower announced the so-called. "domino theory", as applied to Vietnamese affairs. He talked about how the victory of communism in Vietnam would lead to the collapse of non-communist governments in other countries in the region, similar to the fall of a row of dominoes. To avoid this, the US is increasing US military aid to the French to contain communist expansion in Southeast Asia.

In April 1953, the lack of success in attacks on French positions forces Ho Chi Minh commander Giap to change strategy by invading the border areas of Laos, where the forces of the French Union were not so strong.

In July 1953, the Korean War ended with an armistice, dividing the country along the 38th parallel into a communist North and a democratic South.

The ceasefire was seen by many in the international community as a potential model for resolving the ongoing conflict in Vietnam.

1954 The French are defeated at Dien Bien Phu

On the illustration: Two historical pictures from the website of the magazine "Vietnam", concerning the preparations for the battle of Dien Bien Phu.

In the top photo, according to the magazine: "President Ho Chi Minh and members of the Politburo of the CPV discuss the plan for the battle of Dien Bien Phu on December 6, 1953 at the Viet Bac military base."

Note that the Vietbak base is a Ho Chi Minh refuge in the jungle during the period of the struggle against the French, where the leader of North Vietnam spent, as it is believed, almost eight years - from 1946 to 1954.

In the bottom image, the magazine notes, "President Ho Chi Minh gives instructions to General Vo Nguyen Giap."

By 1954, France was tired of fighting the Ho Chi Minh guerrilla movement, which over time became so strong that it was capable of large-scale military actions, the most famous of which is the so-called. battle of Dien Bien Phu. The battle took place during the spring of 1954, when negotiations were already underway on the Vietnamese issue - the Geneva Conference on a settlement in Korea and Indochina.

The creation of a French military group in the border town of Dien Bien Phu (in northern Vietnam, on the border with Laos) was dictated by the goals of protecting neighboring Laos, on whose territory the Ho Chi Minh people constantly invaded. As a result, this group was isolated from the main forces, which is believed to have contributed to its defeat.

In order to win the battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Viet Minh built a labyrinth of tunnels and trenches as a way to get closer to the French lines. At the end of March 1954, the French garrison in Dien Bien Phu was actually under siege, the French suffered from a lack of water and medicines, 10,000 (with the start of the battle, the group was reinforced by about another 5,000 thousand) French soldiers under the leadership of Colonel de Castries were surrounded by 45,000 thousand a soldier of the Ho Chi Minh troops under the command of General Giap. On May 7, 1954, the French surrendered. Their losses amounted to 1,500 dead, the losses of the Vietnamese amounted to 8,000 people. Several thousand French prisoners were forced to walk 500 miles to the Vietnamese detention camps (One mile is about 1.5 km.). Almost half of them died during this march or in captivity.

In 2004, Vietnam solemnly celebrated the 50th anniversary, and in 2009, the 55th anniversary of the victory at Dien Bien Phu. The magazine "Vietnam" in its Russian version devoted a number of articles to this event.

In the article “The Victory at Dien Bien Phu is proof of the greatness of the spirit, strength and mind of the Vietnamese people,” Vietnamese general and military historian Hoang Minh Thao wrote:

“We correctly chose the Dien Bien Phu valley, surrounded on all sides by mountains, as a strategic base, which then became the site of a decisive turning point battle.

We chose the strategy of dispersing enemy forces in different directions, delivering strong strikes on all fronts at once, and for this it was necessary to transfer units to different areas of combat operations.

In order to limit the military power and mobility of the enemy troops, we had to disperse their forces into several theaters of operations so that they could not come to the aid of the corps stationed in Dien Bien Phu, and thereby ensure the victory of our operation.

Acting in accordance with this strategy, we managed to scatter about 70 of the 84 enemy mobile battalions in different theaters of war in Indochina,” wrote Vietnamese general and military historian Hoang Minh Thao.

Dien Bien Phu, where the battle took place, has become one of the important tourist attractions in Vietnam in recent decades.

There is an ensemble of monuments, which occupies part of the territory of the city of Dien Bien Phu and the territory of Dien Bien County.

These monuments are directly related to the 56-day battle (March 13, 1954 to May 07, 1954) and include Himlam hill where the operation began; hill A1, where the most fierce battle took place, deciding the outcome of the entire operation as a whole; Independence hills, C1, D1, E1 hills.

In 2005, the largest bronze sculpture in Vietnam, consisting of 12 fastened parts, was installed at height D1.

The largest of them weighs over forty tons.

The monument, 16.2 m high (sculpture - 12.6 m, pedestal - 3.6 m) was made according to the model of the work famous sculptor Nguyen Hai.

Sculpture was also cast in Vietnam.

The project of the monument was personally approved by General Ziap, who is now under a hundred years old.

On the field, in addition to the monument, there are many other interesting sights related to the battle: a crater from a thousand-kilogram land mine, the preserved underground headquarters of the French commander de Castries and the Vietnamese Giap, a system of trenches and fortifications.

There is also a memorial cemetery for Ho Chi Minh soldiers.

The Muong Thanh airfield is the central military airport of the French expedition, now rebuilt and renamed Dien Bien Phu Airport and is part of the Vietnamese civil aviation air route network.

So, in the illustration - photos from the website of the magazine "Vietnam": Memorial Complex in Dien Bien Phu today:

Photo.1. General Giap visits a field in Dien Bien Phu in 2005, here he is next to the underground command post of the French Commander de Castries;

A photo. 2. Part of a bronze monument;

A photo. 3. A monument is being built;

A photo. 4. and 7. Giap greets the crowd at the Dien Bien Phu field in 2005;

Photo 5. A giant crater from a thousand-kilogram land mine and a trench system at the top of A1;

Photo 6. Monument "Vietnamese soldiers pulling cannons by hand" in Dien Bien Phu.

And he continued: “The command of the operation near Dien Bien Phu first put forward the tactics of “strike and win,” planning to destroy a number of strongholds within only two days and three nights in conditions of temporary enemy defense.

The commander-in-chief of the army, General Vo Nguyen Giap, after listening to a report on the situation of forces and personally inspecting the front, 11 days later proposed, taking into account the changed situation, to change tactics to “delivering confident strikes and offensives” and then change the disposition of forces. His military tactics were approved by the Permanent Bureau of the Central Committee and President Ho Chi Minh.

In the Dien Bien Phu Valley, the enemy found himself isolated, as if in a ditch, and surrounded on all sides.

We created a whole system of trenches and positions, giving the troops the opportunity to launch an offensive. For the first time, our troops were able to surround and attack the strongholds of the French army, which had more modern weapons than ours ...

As for the disposition of troops and combat positions, we surrounded the enemy strongholds on the heights, broke through their defenses in the "pit" and the outer defensive line to penetrate inside - into the enemy headquarters, step by step occupied the airfield in order to limit and then cut off the French from their only supply route and their last hope.

In this arrangement of troops, the traditional Vietnamese art of warfare "weak against the strong" was manifested. We used this method of fighting because we did not have planes and tanks. This method took more time. Resolving emerging contradictions and acting in accordance with reality is dialectic, creative initiative, methodological command. An interesting fact is that for the first time in Vietnam (and this was rare in world history), it was possible to deliver guns high into the mountains and install them in shelters, directing their barrels towards the enemy in the “pit”. Thus, it was possible to save the guns and improve the accuracy of the hit. Our guns were at a distance of only 5-7 km from enemy targets. Guns of 105 mm caliber usually have a range of 10-11 km, but it takes up to 7 rounds to hit the target. While at a distance of 5-7 km only 2-3 shells are required. That's a big ammo saver. Therefore, our artillery silenced the enemy so effectively that the commander French artillery Peyrot was frightened and committed suicide.

The victory at Dien Bien Phu was a victory for the national struggle thanks to such successful military operations throughout the country as the capture of the airfields of Zhalam and Catbi. In Dien Bien Phu we destroyed and captured 16,200, and throughout Indo-China 200,000 enemy soldiers. The victory in the Dien Bien Phu operation was the result of a common victory throughout Indochina.

This victory inscribed another brilliant page of glory in the history of the national struggle against external aggressors. It strengthened the faith of the oppressed peoples, opened a new stage in the national liberation movement, which developed powerfully throughout the world, especially in African countries, caused a chain reaction that led to the independence not only of the French colonies, but also of other oppressed peoples of the world.

As President Ho Chi Minh stated, this manifested the steadfast, unconquered spirit of the nation, full of determination to fight against the invaders: "World and Vietnamese history have shown that if the people rose up to resolutely fight for their homeland, then no one, no force can stop them." This is a victory for Vietnamese culture, Ho Chi Minh culture,” wrote Vietnamese general and military historian Hoang Minh Thao in Vietnam magazine.

Here the journal noted in its historical and statistical reference to the article:

“Dien Bien Phu occupies an important military-strategic place: from here you can control the north-west of Vietnam and Upper Laos. The French army concentrated here 16.2 thousand soldiers in 21 battalions, including 17 infantry battalions, 3 artillery battalions, 1 battalion of engineer troops, 1 tank company, 1 squadron and 1 mechanized transport company. It housed almost the entire paratroopers and 40% of the French selected mobile forces in Indochina. These forces were located in three sectors - northern, central and southern - which in total consisted of 49 forts. It was the strongest grouping of strongholds in Indochina ...

The historic operation near Dien Bien Phu ended in victory. We destroyed and captured 16.2 thousand enemy soldiers, shot down 62 aircraft, destroyed and captured all enemy weapons, ammunition and other military means.

“Our method of fighting was to constantly push forward in combination with the encirclement of the enemy. Only a breakthrough can break enemy fortifications and destroy the enemy. And we need to break through continuously so that the enemy does not have time to resist, but in such a way that we have enough time to deploy large parts of the troops and change the positions of the offensive. Since the task was to surround and push back the enemy, it was necessary to organize the system of trenches in such a way as to ensure combat readiness and a springboard for a successful assault on enemy fortifications without heavy human losses.

End of quote. By the way, to the question of small losses on the part of the Ho Chi Minh forces. In the articles of the official magazine "Vietnam" on the solemn date of the victory at Dien Bien Phu, data are not voiced anywhere about the cost of the Ho Chi Minh government to achieve this victory - they only talk about the losses of the French. (The following data on the losses of Ho Chi Minh troops in the battle of Dien Bien Phu are given by us from several independent sources). The fact is that the Ho Chi Minh government usually did not consider losses, so now it is trying not to remember this ...

Information

The following main trends can be traced in the political history of Vietnam: expansion to the south, geographical regionalism (formed on the basis of administrative division or thanks to the informal power that provincial governors acquired) and the desire of the central government to control the actions of local leaders. It should be noted that there were few peaceful periods in the history of Vietnam. Vanlang was the oldest Vietnamese state. He was replaced by Aulac, who united with another state - Nam Viet (258-111 BC). Its rulers, apparently, managed in the 190-180s BC. unite Tonkin (now the northern part of North Vietnam) with the southern Chinese lands. In 111 BC The army of the Chinese Han Empire overthrew the last monarch of the Vietnamese Chieu dynasty, probably also of Chinese origin. Tonkin then became the Chinese frontier province of Jiaozhi. When the new overlords came into conflict with the feudal structures that existed in Vietnam, there was a rebellion led by the Trung sisters (39–43 AD), which led to a brief end to Chinese rule. The second stage of Chinese dominance began in 44 and was interrupted only after the rebellion of prominent representatives of the Li dynasty (544–602). After 939, when the founder of the Ngo dynasty seized power, Vietnam managed to gain independence, albeit with some elements of Chinese suzerainty, which continued until the period of French colonial rule.

Having achieved independence, the Vietnamese expanded their lands from Tonkin to northern Annam, ousted the Khmers and Chams - farmers, sailors and merchants. Pretenders to the Vietnamese throne often turned to Chinese emperors for help, whose invasions ended, as a rule, in failure. Even the Mongol armies of Khubilai, who undertook campaigns in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, were twice (in 1285 and 1288) defeated by the Vietnamese commander Tran Hung Dao. In 1407, a Chinese invasion temporarily restored the power of the Chan dynasty, which ruled from 1225 to 1400. During the liberation war led by Le Loi, the founder of the Le dynasty, the Chinese imperial troops were finally expelled from Vietnam (1427).

Under the Le dynasty (1428–1789), significant progress was made in administration, improvement of legislation, and development of culture. But since the 16th century Le reigned nominally. Initially, the powerful Mac family appropriated real power. With the move of Nguyen Hoang to the south in 1558, the power of the Nguyen clan was formed, and at the end of the 16th century. in the north of the country, the power of the Chin clan is formalized. Le remained nominally sacred figures until the fall of the dynasty. The Nguyen gradually came to the fore, as they managed to expand their zone of influence, spreading it at the end of the 17th century. to the Mekong valley and then to the whole of Cochin (1757).

The unstable balance of power between the Trinh and Nguyen houses was upset after 1773, when the three Tay Son brothers rebelled against both ruling clans, which led to the split of the country. One of the exiled members of the Nguyen clan, with the support of the French in the 1790s, emerged victorious from internecine battles and subsequently proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long (1802). The Nguyen dynasty gradually weakened due to uprisings in the south and north of Vietnam, which facilitated French expansion in the middle of the 19th century. France subjugated in 1862 three eastern and in 1867 three western provinces of Cochinchina, which in 1874 acquired the status of a colony. Northern (Tonkin) and central (Annam) parts of the country were turned into protectorates. All three regions, together with Laos and Cambodia, formed French Indochina, which the new government sought to consolidate administratively with the help of a common budget and a unified public works program. During the colonial period, a state monopoly on salt, liquor, and opium was introduced, and the construction of bridges, railways, and horse-drawn roads was encouraged.

In 1930, on the initiative of the Vietnamese National Party (Vietnam Quoc Zan Dang), created on the model of the Chinese National Party (Kuomintang), an armed Yenbai uprising broke out in the area northwest of Hanoi. After its suppression, the resistance movement was headed by the Communist Party of Indochina, formed in 1930 by Ho Chi Minh. During the period when the Popular Front was in power in France, the Vietnamese communists, together with the Trotskyists, expanded their influence and even participated in Cochin and Saigon in local government elections. In 1940-1941, the Communists led an unsuccessful uprising in the far south, while the Tai organized unrest in the north.

From July 1941 to August 1945, Japanese troops occupied all of Vietnam. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnam Independence League, known as the Viet Minh.

At the end of World War II, detachments of the Kuomintang Chinese entered the northern part of the country, and the British entered the territory of South Vietnam. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, made Hanoi their base and formed "People's Committees" throughout Vietnam. On September 2, 1945, after the abdication of Emperor Bao Dai (belonging to the Nguyen dynasty), the Viet Minh, who enjoyed China's favor as a result of the August Revolution, announced the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and formed a provisional government, with Ho Chi Minh as chairman.

In accordance with the Vietnamese-French agreements of 1946, France agreed to recognize the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as a "free state" with an army and a parliament, as part of the Indochinese Confederation and the French Union. The first president of the DRV was Ho Chi Minh, who simultaneously headed the government as prime minister. At the end of 1946, France and the Viet Minh accused each other of violating the agreements, and on December 19, Viet Minh detachments attacked French troops. France sought to win over the local population, placing in 1949 the former emperor Bao Dai in charge of a nominally independent government. However, the Việt Minh refused to recognize the new regime, and after 1949 consolidated its position with the support of China. In turn, since 1951 France has received major military and economic aid from the United States. In the spring of 1954, French troops were surrounded and defeated at Dien Bien Phu. This circumstance and the demand of the international community to stop the aggression hastened the conclusion of a peace agreement at the international conference in Geneva.

The meeting was attended by representatives of the United States, France, Great Britain, the USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia and two Vietnamese governments: Bao Dai (South Vietnam) and Viet Minh (Northern Vietnam). The agreement on the cessation of hostilities between France and the Viet Minh, signed in July 1954, provided for the temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel; the holding in July 1956 of elections necessary for the reunification of North and South Vietnam; the withdrawal of French military units from the North and the prohibition of the buildup of armaments in any of the zones; education international commission to oversee the implementation of the agreement. Thus, the existence of two independent states was recognized - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Northern Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). North Vietnam retained for subsequent years the basic state structures that began to take shape as early as 1946 and proclaimed a line of building socialism under the leadership of the Communist Party and President Ho Chi Minh. In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem deposed Bao Dai in 1955 and took the presidency. Diem managed to cope with the opposition of the military elite, the Cao Dai and Hoahao sects and the Dai Viet party, and he was re-elected president in 1961. The Saigon authorities tried to discredit the Viet Minh in the eyes of his supporters who remained in the South, but faced active military confrontation in many rural areas, especially in Cochin. In 1960, opponents of the regime created the pro-communist National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF). In the cities, non-communist opposition groups opposed Diem. Buddhists denounced the regime's discriminatory policies, and several Buddhist monks and nuns even set themselves on fire in protest.

On November 1, 1963, the military overthrew Ngo Din Diem, followed by a series of coups. Unrest among Buddhists, Catholics, and students continued until civil rule was restored in late 1964.

In June 1965, General Nguyen Van Thieu took over as head of state, and General Nguyen Cao Kyi as prime minister. In 1966, a specially elected Assembly adopted a Constitution approved by the military, which entered into force on April 1, 1967. In September, presidential elections. Thieu and Kee were voted president and vice president respectively. Up to a third of the entire population living in the territory under the control of the NLF did not take part in the election campaign. Meanwhile, the scale of hostilities expanded. American military advisers had been in the South since 1960, and yet the NLF was close to victory. In 1965, the United States sent army formations to help the Saigon government, launched the first air strikes on the territory of North Vietnam, and intensified the bombardment of the rebellious regions of South Vietnam. The NLF received military reinforcements from the North, aided by the USSR and China. The American military presence temporarily stabilized the situation, but in early 1968 units of the NLF and North Vietnamese conducted combat operations in almost all major South Vietnamese cities. In April, peace talks began between US and North Vietnamese representatives. Then began a partial evacuation from the South of American troops, whose number at one time reached 536 thousand people. In the summer of 1969, at free democratic elections in the liberated regions of South Vietnam, a people's revolutionary administration was established. On June 6–8, at the Congress of People's Representatives, the Republic of South Vietnam (RSV) was proclaimed and the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) was established. Ho Chi Minh died the same year.

From 1969 to 1971, the South Vietnamese army expanded the area under its control. The United States at that time withdrew its military units from the country, compensating for these steps with air bombardments. In 1971, Thieu was re-elected President of South Vietnam. In the spring and early summer of 1972, the communists organized a major offensive, which proceeded very successfully until it was stopped by the actions of American aircraft and counterattacks by South Vietnamese troops. The United States responded by increasing air raids and carrying out extensive mining of North Vietnamese ports and sea and river routes. At the end of the year, the United States began a massive bombardment of the cities of North Vietnam.

On January 27, 1973, the four parties involved in the war signed a peace agreement in Paris that provided for a ceasefire in the South, the recognition of the 17th parallel as a temporary demarcation line, and the withdrawal of American troops from the country. It was supposed to convene the National Council and elections, which were supposed to decide the fate of the South Vietnamese government.

The last American formations left Vietnam in April 1973, but the political clauses of the treaty were never implemented. The Saigon administration tried to run an election campaign on its own, which was opposed by the PRP, which demanded the creation of a tripartite council. Moreover, the fighting did not stop either. In March 1975, the Saigon army was forced to leave the region of the central plateau (Teinguen), after which it disintegrated. A few weeks later, the armed forces of the PRG and North Vietnam surrounded the southern capital. Thieu resigned on April 21, and on April 30, 1975, the Saigon military units capitulated.

Initially, it seemed that both parts of the country could exist as independent, albeit closely related, state entities. However, the communists were in a hurry with the unification process. In the summer and autumn of 1975 they nationalized the banks and large enterprises of the South. In April 1976, general elections were held for the National Assembly of a united Vietnam. On July 2, 1976, the official reunification of Vietnam and the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place.

During the war, Vietnam was helped by both the USSR and China. In the late 1970s, Vietnam established close ties with the Soviet Union. The socialist transformation of the economy in the South took its toll primarily on the large Chinese community in Vietnam. Its conflicts with the Vietnamese took the form of ethnic strife and had a negative impact on relations between Vietnam and China. In addition, China took the side of the anti-Vietnamese Pol Pot regime in Cambodia. In December 1978, Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia and by the beginning of 1979 had occupied most of its territory. In February 1979 there was an armed conflict on the Vietnamese-Chinese border.

Between 1978 and 1980, at least 750,000 people left the country (more than half of them ethnic Chinese). Many returned to their historical homeland by land, and some went on their way along South China Sea on boats.

The desire of the Vietnamese authorities to carry out socialist transformations already in the late 1970s led to negative consequences. The government in Hanoi concentrated all its efforts on military actions and was entirely dependent on the assistance of the USSR. The South Vietnamese economy, based on private enterprise, was artificially fueled by large cash infusions.

In the 1980s, the government took a more pragmatic course, giving more latitude to local planners, lifting trade restrictions, and allowing farmers to sell some of their produce on the market. However, in the middle of the decade, a huge budget deficit and emission gave rise to rapid inflation. In 1989, the country adopted a long-term program of radical reforms, including measures to suppress inflationary trends, liberalize banking and other legislation, and stimulate the private sector in industry. The adopted state policy of "renovation" ("doi my") was confirmed and received further development at the VII (1991) and VIII (1996) congresses of the CPV.

As part of the economic reforms, in January 1991 a law was passed on the admission of private enterprises. The new constitution adopted in 1992 provided for a clearer division of functions between the party and the state, the introduction of a market economy, the strengthening of the role of the private sector and the possibility of private land use. Nevertheless, the country's leadership stated that the course towards socialism with the leading role of the Communist Party is preserved and multi-party democracy will not be established. At the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party in June 1991, new general secretary Do Muoi was elected, until then the head of government (he was replaced in this post by Wo Van Kiet). The new appointments reflected the balance of power in the party leadership. Before Mooi, a member of the communist movement since 1939, was considered a supporter of the orthodox course, Wo Van Kiet was one of the leading advocates of market reforms. In June 1992, the government announced the release of all members, advisers and supporters of the former South Vietnamese regime. In the July 1992 National Assembly elections, for the first time, more candidates were nominated than there were seats in Parliament. 2 independent candidates were also admitted to the elections. In July 1993, the National Assembly passed a law that allowed peasants to purchase land for use (the state remained the supreme owner of the land).

Viet Nam established links with the International Monetary Fund and began to cooperate with it in the implementation of economic policy. In November 1994, the Vietnamese government and the IMF agreed on a medium-term economic program that provided for real growth in 1994–1996 by 8–8.7% and a reduction in inflation from 10.5 to 7%. In November 1995, Vietnam, international organizations and creditor states agreed to provide this country with assistance in 1996 in the amount of 2.3 billion dollars. Negotiations continued on the payment of debts on loans provided in the 1970s by Japanese banks. In 1996, Vietnam and Western creditors reached an agreement to restructure $900 million in debt. In 1997, Hanoi was to receive $2.4 billion in aid again.

Economic liberalization in the country was not accompanied by the refusal of the Communist Party of a monopoly position in the state. November 1995 Supreme Court sentenced to 15 and 18 months in prison two former high-ranking party officials for "abusing the rights to freedom and democracy to the detriment of national security." Both advocated reform and democratization of the ruling party. The Eighth Congress of the Communist Party in June - July 1996 called for the continuation of cautious reforms while maintaining state control over the economy and the political system.

In 1997, there was a change of leadership in the country. Due to the National Assembly elections in July, all three leading leaders were replaced: general secretary Communist Party Do Myoi, President Le Duc Anh, and Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet. Communist Party candidates received 85% of the votes and took 384 out of 450 seats, 63 seats went to non-partisans, 3 mandates were received by independents. In September 1997, Tran Duc Luong became the new president, Pham Van Hai became the head of government, Le Kha Fieu became the head of the Communist Party in December 1997, and Nong Duc Manh in 2001.

In the late 1990s, the Vietnamese leadership launched an anti-corruption campaign. Within its framework, some of the country's top officials and politicians, including the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Head of Government, etc., were removed from their posts. The bureaucracy was also blamed for the ongoing economic stagnation. Since 1998, 3,000 members have been expelled from the CPV due to corruption, and penalties have been imposed on 16,000.

In general, during the decade of reforms, Vietnam managed to maintain economic growth at the level of 7.6% per year and double the gross domestic product, from 1985–1986 industrial production increased fivefold and food production doubled. But market reforms led to the growth of social differences and the gap between town and countryside, to the discontent of the poorest sections of the population and national minorities. In February 2001, the party leadership was concerned about major unrest among minorities who protested against the placement of large industrial rubber and coffee plantations on their lands (the program was developed with the participation of the International Monetary Fund).

These problems were discussed at the next IX Congress of the CPV in April 2001. It was stated at it that the country is at the stage of a long and difficult "transition to socialism", which preserves the diversity of economic forms and forms of ownership. The CPV characterizes the economic system during this period as a "socialist-oriented market economy", emphasizing, at the same time, the priority role of the public sector. In an attempt to alleviate social tensions, the congress approved amendments to the party charter, banning members of the CPSU from owning their own private businesses. Corruption in the party and the state, “individualism, opportunism, the lust for power, fame and profit, localism” were subjected to sharp and emotional attacks. after a certain age, democratic procedures are expanded.

Nong Duc Manh, 60, former chairman of the National Assembly, became the new general secretary of the CPV. This is the first party leader belonging to a national minority (tai). His choice is considered a compromise between the "reformist" and more "conservative" wing of the party. In the elections to the National Assembly in May 2002, out of 498 seats, the candidates of the Communist Party won the majority, 51 were non-party, 3 were independent. In 2002 and 2003, despite the ban on strikes, labor conflicts broke out in various sectors of the Vietnamese economy.

Vietnam's relations with the US and China improved in the 1990s. In October 1990, the Vietnamese foreign minister visited Washington for the first time and negotiated the fate of 1,700 missing American soldiers. In March 1992, the United States and Vietnam reached an agreement that the American side would provide Vietnam with humanitarian aid in the amount of $ 3 million in exchange for help in the search for missing Americans. In December, the US eased the trade embargo against Hanoi, imposed in 1964. Finally, in August 1994, both countries established diplomatic relations. In April 1997, Vietnam pledged to pay the United States $145 million in debt from the former South Vietnamese government. In June 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright visited Hanoi, and in March 2000, US Secretary of Defense, who officially apologized for the US role during the Vietnam War, which claimed the lives of almost 3 million Vietnamese and 58,000 American soldiers. In 2000, US President Clinton visited Vietnam, which gave a new impetus to relations between the two states.

In the autumn of 1990, for the first time since the freeze of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China in 1979, both countries signed an agreement on citizens' travel in Beijing. In November 1991, China and Vietnam agreed to formally normalize relations, and in February 1992 the Chinese foreign minister traveled to Hanoi. In November-December of the same year, the visit of Chinese Premier Li Peng followed. He discussed with the Vietnamese leaders disputed territorial issues, the situation in Cambodia, and signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of economy, science, technology and culture. Chinese President Jiang Zemin agreed in November 1994 to expand economic ties between the two countries. In turn, the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party, Do Muoi, visited Beijing at the end of 1995 and continued negotiations on border disputes.

Vietnam's relations with Asian as well as Western countries developed. In 1995 Vietnam was admitted to ASEAN. In February 1993, French President François Mitterrand became the first Western head of state to visit Hanoi since 1954. He signed seven cooperation agreements and promised to double financial aid to 360 million francs. In July 1995, Vietnam and the European Union entered into an agreement on trade and cooperation.

Ancient history of Vietnam, Middle Ages, colonization and bloody wars

The history of Vietnam dates back to the 3rd millennium BC, it was at this time that the first written mention of the Viet appeared. Since that time, the country, like a Phoenix, has risen from the ashes many times. Its entire history is a chronicle of endless liberation wars. Most of all, Vietnam has suffered from its vast northern neighbor - China, and this still affects the attitude of the Vietnamese towards the Chinese, despite the more or less peaceful coexistence today. The contrast between feudal, then socialist and modern Vietnam is striking. This people is very similar to us Russians. He was never an aggressor and a conqueror, but only carefully kept what was rightfully his. The whole history of Vietnam testifies to this.

End of III millennium BC. e. Almost the entire territory of modern Vietnam is inhabited by tribes - the ancestral predecessors of the current Khmers and the inhabitants of Malaysia and Indonesia. And those who gave rise to the modern people - the Vietnamese - lived in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, occupying the northern lands. And this people was called Laviet. In the struggle for fertile land in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. they began to rapidly conquer the areas in the Red River Delta from the tribes living there.

A little later in the mountains northern regions the ancestors of modern Thais began to settle. The Laquiet gradually expelled them from there, pushing them to the south. Subsequently, the expelled Thais, mixing with the local population, became the ancestors of some peoples now inhabiting Indochina, primarily the Chams.

The first state to unite the Lakviet tribes was created at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. the leader (vyong) of one of the tribes ─ Hung. Thus began the history of the modern Vietnamese state. The first dynasty of rulers of Vietnam, Hung Bang, begins with him. The state he headed was called Vanlang and stretched across the territory of North Vietnam and South China almost to Hong Kong. The history of the dynasty consisted of 18 kings and its reign lasted until the 3rd century BC. e. and had 18 kings. The main occupations of the Vanlang people were rice growing, cattle breeding (they raised pigs and buffaloes), handicrafts and building dams. Phong Chau was the capital of the states.

In the III century BC. there was a change of dynasty and renaming of the state. The Hungs were overthrown by the northern tribes of Au Viet, who elevated Thuc Phan to the throne and gave him the throne name of An Duong. Thus began the story of a new public education. The new state was called Au Lak and was located on the territory of Northern and partially Central Vietnam. The capital was not far from the present Hanoi, it was the Koloa fortress. But Aulak did not manage to exist for a long time, the state quickly fell into decay and in the middle of the 3rd century BC. joined the state of Nam Viet, which occupied large areas of southern China and northern Vietnam. It was this era, according to historians, that became the final stage in the formation of the culture and statehood of the Laviets in ancient history.

Namviet also did not manage to exist for a long time as an independent state. It was conquered by the then powerful Chinese Han Empire. This marked the beginning of a long history of almost eight hundred years of Chinese rule in Vietnam.

The Vietnamese people did not humbly endure it. The conquered country gradually accumulated strength and gained power, while the Chinese empire weakened and lost control over the conquered territories. It all ended in the 10th century AD, when the hated yoke was thrown off by a powerful popular uprising led by the Vietnamese landowner Ngo Kuyen. The liberation was marked by the birth of a new dynasty - Li and the return of the capital to the city of Koloa. History takes a turn again, the country changes its name again and becomes Dai Viet. There are changes in the administration of the state, and the official religion is established - Confucianism. The first academy is created - Khan Lam, the capital moves again, this time to the city of Thang Long - modern Hanoi.

The strengthened state successfully repels the Mongols' raids and gradually expands at the expense of the northern mountains and southern lands, conquering them from the Chams. Buddhism and Taoism gradually penetrate the country. History has shown that these religions at that time spread only as folk beliefs.

Middle Ages

The history of the beginning of the 15th century was again marked by Chinese aggression against Dai Viet. Taking advantage of the decline in which the country was coming, and the strife caused by the unpopular reforms of the ruler Lee Ho Kyui, the Chinese Ming Dynasty captures it and stays here for a short 20 years. Resisting the Chinese, the united people drive them out. Le Loi, who led the popular uprising, became the head of a new dynasty - the Later Le, who ruled until the end of the 18th century. It was during this period of history that the heyday of medieval Vietnam falls.

The name of this hero is associated with a legendary story that the Vietnamese carefully guard - the legend of the returned sword. While boating on the lake in the center of the capital, Thang Long, Le saw a huge turtle holding a golden sword in her mouth. Le accepted him and considered this a sign that he should lead an uprising for liberation from the Chinese yoke. Subsequently, being already an emperor, he again sailed in a boat on this lake and accidentally dropped his sword into the water. The turtle reappeared above the water and dragged the sword with it to the bottom. This was taken as a sign from above that the sword had served its purpose and should be returned. Since then, the reservoir has gone down in history as the Lake of the Returned Sword, and today is one of the attractions of Hanoi, which is visited by tourists.

In the history of the first third of the 17th century, a split occurs in Dai Viet - two clans begin to compete - Chinh and Nguyen. Trying to attract the Vietnamese nobility to their side, both of them began to distribute land to their supporters, emptying the state treasury. At the same time, the state needed large funds to strengthen its military power. The result was a ruthless taxation of tribute to the common people, who could not stand it and by the end of the 18th century raised an uprising led by three brothers. One of them is Nguyen Hue, who eventually became emperor. In history, the rebellion appears under the name "Taishon Rebellion". The disgraced and deposed king from the Le dynasty made an attempt to resort to the help of the Chinese emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Chinese again invaded Dai Viet, but they were quickly thrown out of the country by the angry Tay Sons. The story of Nguyen Hue in power did not last long, three years later he died suddenly.

Power intercepts the Nguyen clan in the person of the commander Nguyen Phuc Anh. He gathers troops and, with the support of France, suppresses popular unrest, proclaims himself emperor with the throne name Gia Long and transfers the capital to Hue. A new dynasty rules Vietnam from 1802 to 1945. We can say that this is how the history of colonial Vietnam began.

Colonization of Vietnam

In the 16th century, the history of the Europeanization of Vietnam begins. It was connected with the need for modern military technologies, which the feudal authorities of the Asian country did not have. And they did not have a numerical superiority over their long-standing opponents - the Chinese. The Trinh clan made an alliance with the Dutch, while the Nguyen preferred France. The Dutch did not have much interest in Indochina, so they disappeared after three years, but the French increased their attention to Vietnam, taking advantage of the fact that no one in Europe cared about him. Providing support to the Nguyens, they concluded a very favorable agreement with them, according to which France received land in Indochina.

However, their interest in Eastern affairs was cooled by the French Revolution, and the French forgot about Vietnam for a while. During this period of history, Catholic missionaries, who began their penetration as early as the end of the 16th century, were more actively drawn into the country. For a long time, the presence of the French was limited to them and even adventurers who, together with the missionaries, tried to act in Vietnam through intrigue.

The Vietnamese preferred to stick to the policy of " closed doors”And they were in no hurry to let the French again rushing towards them. As well as paying dividends under previously concluded agreements. France understood that a military invasion of Vietnam was not yet possible due to a lack of forces. So about 30 years passed, until the French were lucky in the form of the Opium War won by the Europeans with China. Napoleon III sent a solid army of 2.5 thousand infantrymen and a well-equipped fleet of 13 ships to “open” the locked doors. Spain also decided to participate in the capture. In 1858, the combined forces approached the port of Da Nang in Central Vietnam and stormed it a day later. Another page of the war appeared in the history of Vietnam.

The invasion was not welcome imperial army, nor the people, so the French ran into powerful resistance. Realizing that it would not be possible to split the cohesive Center of the country, the French decided to settle in the south and struck at the Zyadin fortress, located not far from the Mekong Delta and the united settlements that later formed the city of Saigon. The southern provinces suited the French quite well. There were sources of water, food and access to the sea through the Mekong Delta. From here they could influence the course of history and the intractable emperor Tu Duc by capturing the country's main source of food - rice plantations.

The French could not completely take over southern lands for another long 3 years, while the rallied Vietnamese people kept them in a captured fortress. Only in 1861, General Charne, with the help of support from the sea, broke the resistance and forced Ty Duc to sign an agreement on the transfer of three southern provinces to France.

Changes broke out in the south - the almost European Saigon grew and flourished, trade under the leadership of France in the ports of South and Central Vietnam was in full swing. The Indochina Bank was established and a prison for opponents of the regime was built on the southern island of Con Dao. The history of the colonization of Vietnam began.

Further, the process of seizing Vietnamese lands went on increasing. The interest of the French also turned to Tonkin - North Vietnam. It was possible to capture it only during a military operation, and the French undertook it in the late 80s of the 19th century. The capture was quick due to the fact that the current emperor had made many opponents in the northern provinces. It was they who helped the French establish their power here.

France and China agreed, and Beijing abandoned its claims to the unfortunate, war-torn Vietnam. Thanks to this, France was able to take possession of Loas and Cambodia and created the Indochinese Union of three countries on this territory. France got Vietnam at its full disposal by signing the enslaving "Armand Treaty" with the government of Vietnam, according to which South Vietnam - Cochin China - was a colony, and Central Vietnam - Annam - and Tonkin at this stage of history remained under the protectorate of European conquerors.

The Vietnamese people, who never bowed their heads before the invaders, began to create guerrilla detachments in the deep jungle, laying the foundation for a long-term and powerful liberation movement that arose later, in the history of the 20th century. But the French did not know about it yet.

20th century - a country on fire

The 20th century brought Vietnam so much death and destruction that it probably did not know in its entire history. While revolutionary fermentation was slowly going on among the people, the Vietnamese intelligentsia and bureaucratic people were much more loyal to the colonial authorities and wanted only the establishment of a constitutional monarchy for themselves.

Ho Chi Minh and the Communist Party

From the end of the 19th century, the people's liberation detachments began to greatly annoy the French. At the beginning of the 20th century, more advanced, European-educated representatives of the Vietnamese youth joined them. Radical movements, in particular, the communist one in Russia, did not leave them indifferent. It was then that for the first time in history the name of one of these followers ─ Nguyen Ai Quoc, known to the whole world under the name of Ho Chi Minh, was mentioned. In 1922, he organized a party called the Intercolonial Union of Colored Peoples, the forerunner of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

By the 1930s, three organizations were already operating on the territory of the country and the border regions of Laos and Cambodia - the Communist Party of Annam, the Communist Party of Indochina and Communist Union Indochina. And in 1930, these three parties were united into one by the decision of a conference specially convened in Hong Kong. It went down in history under the name of the Communist Party of Indochina. At that time, Ho Chi Minh took an active part in all party affairs.

The year 1940 was marked for Vietnam by a new invasion, this time by the Japanese, who were trying to establish for themselves additional lines of defense from the Chinese in the territory of a small neighboring country. The French did not allow them to roam in the occupied lands. The Japanese did not dare to openly go against France, which signed an agreement with the countries of the Nazi coalition. True, in 1945 they completely removed the colonialists from power, but this did not last long - until the surrender of Japan in World War II in August of that year. This moment becomes a turning point in the history of Vietnam.

Declaration of independence, war with France and the division of Vietnam

All this time, starting in 1941, Ho Chi Minh actively created and supported the League of Struggle for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh). In 1945, after the signing of the surrender of Japan, numerous Viet Minh partisan detachments took control of the entire country within 11 days, and on September 2, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the creation of a new state - Democratic Republic Vietnam.

Three months later, the First Indochina War began, which was destined to last almost 10 years. In the first three years, the communists lost South Vietnam. A new state was created there, headed by the secular emperor Bao Dai.

Unexpected help came from China, already communist at the time, under the rule of Mao Zedong. He helped preserve the remnants of the DRV. Just at this period of history, the United States appears on the political arena of this region. It was they who saved France from inevitable defeat. In 1954, after a 13,000-strong army was completely defeated near Dien Bien Phu, the French finally agreed to negotiations, which resulted in the announcement of a demilitarized zone along the 17th parallel by the Geneva Agreement. She divided the country into two parts - North and South. France was expelled from Vietnam and the colonial regime fell. But history prepared even greater trials for the Vietnamese.

In the South, under the leadership of the nationalist leader Nguyen Dinh Term, who announced the creation of an independent Republic of Vietnam, the regime began to acquire clear signs of a dictatorship. By 1957, an open confrontation unfolded in the country with opponents of the new government ─ partisan groups operating in the South.

In 1959, official Hanoi declared war on the southern Republic in order to unify the state and began illegal supplies of weapons to the southern partisans. Then the "" was laid, along which these deliveries were carried out. She passed through the territory of Laos and Cambodia. With such support, the guerrillas gradually took control of almost a third of southern Vietnam and created the National Liberation Front, known to us as the Viet Cong. The strength of the Viet Cong was such that President Nguyen Dinh Term was unable to cope with it. As a result, he was killed by his own military leaders. Subsequent history showed that the next three presidents made a fatal mistake. In the fight against the communists, they relied on the help of the Americans.

War with America

The communist influence of the USSR and China on Vietnam haunted the West. Therefore, Europe and the United States began to consider South Vietnam as an obstacle to its further expansion. At first, the United States supplied Saigon only with weapons and provided consulting assistance. A small number of American military advisers were sent to Saigon. The first overseas military units appeared here only in 1961. They helped the leadership of the Republic of Vietnam fight the Viet Cong.

The beginning of a large-scale war was laid by the story in the Gulf of Tonki, which later turned out to be a provocation. According to the United States, a Vietnamese warship fired on an American ship. The Vietnamese side claimed that the Americans illegally invaded its territorial waters.

After the incident, US senators gave President Johnson "carte blanche" to conduct full-scale military operations in Vietnam. The bloody meat grinder continued for several years. Moreover, the losses were approximately equal on both sides. Most of all, the local civilians suffered from the cruelty of the belligerents ─ the peasants. Simultaneously with ground operations, American aircraft continuously bombed North Vietnam. The regular troops of Australia, Thailand and South Korea pulled up to help the Americans.

The fierce resistance of the Vietnamese army forced the United States to constantly increase the military contingent in Southeast Asia. The world community has already joined this story, condemning the senseless massacre. A wave of popular indignation swept across America, which did not add to the authority of its then government and president.

The war, which had lasted for three years, did not give an advantage to either side. And in 1968, after a powerful blow from the combined forces of the army of the DRV and the Viet Cong, the American army was demoralized. The operation took place under New Year on lunar calendar and went down in history under the name "Blow on Tet". After this disastrous story, Johnson refused to send new military forces to Vietnam. Influenced by the public, which demanded an immediate halt, he announced the end of the bombing and expressed his desire to sit down at the negotiating table.

But, despite this readiness for 1970, the fire of war still did not subside. The history of the war continued until 1973, although the victory of the Viet Cong, which controlled most of the country, was already obvious. Hostilities also affected neighboring Laos and Cambodia. It was at the end of this war that the Americans used the defoliant ─ dioxin in Vietnam, which received the name "Agent Orange" here. The result was genetic diseases and deformities that are still manifested in local residents from generation to generation.

And only in 1972, when the massive offensive of the North Vietnamese army, armed with the latest Soviet and Chinese weapons and with the support of armored vehicles, ended in victory, the Paris Agreement of 1973 put an end to the history of the presence of American troops in Vietnam.

This inglorious bloody war ended for America, but not for Vietnam. He continues to be torn apart by internal conflicts. The Saigon army significantly outnumbered and outgunned the North Vietnamese. The story of a bloody civil war continued for another two years, until Operation Ho Chi Minh, carried out jointly by the Viet Cong and the troops of the DRV, put an end to it and overthrew the Saigon regime in March 1975. well describe the events of those times.

The mixing of the population of Vanlang with the coming Auviets occurred by the 3rd century BC. Already in 258 BC. Aulac, the state of the Lakviets and Auviets, arises. Coloa became the capital.

King An Duong-vyong became a victim of betrayal by his Chinese commander Zhao Tuo: he stole his son, taking the king's daughter as his wife. The Chinese captured Au Lak, calling himself the king of the new state of Nam Viet.

Chinese era

In 111 BC. The Han Chinese overthrow the last monarch of the Chieu Dynasty. Nam Viet was divided into 3 territories: Gyaoti, Kyuutyan, Nyatnam. The Chinese came to power in Vietnam.

Resistance to the new authorities resulted in a series of uprisings. Warrior women also showed themselves: the sisters Chyng Chak and Chyeng Ni expelled the Chinese from their country for three years. This was not the last female-led uprising in Vietnam. The rebellion under the leadership of Chieu, the national heroine, is also inscribed in the history of the country.

However, all resistance, both men and women, were doomed. By 1-2 centuries AD China has robbed Vietnam of the last vestige of independence. For a long 8 centuries, with interruptions, the Chinese ruled the country. Until the 10th century, the capital was the city of Hoaly. Only in 938 Vietnam gains independence thanks to the uprising that was raised by Ngo Cuyen, a Vietnamese feudal lord.

The Li dynasty is on the throne in the country by the 11th century. The state changes its name to Dai Viet (Great Viet) with the capital Thanglong (Hanoi).

The Chinese were expelled, but their "traces" were visible in Vietnam. In 1017, a temple of Confucius was built in the capital, and the national academy Ham Lam was created. In the 12th century, Confucianism was recognized as the state religion.

In the 13th century, the country was already able to repel the invasion of the Mongols into its territories. From 1257 to 1288, the Mongols encroached on the lands of the Vietnamese three times. Vietnam is joined by areas in the mountains, as well as the territory of the southern Chams. The history of the Cham people can be learned by visiting the Cham Museum, opened in Da Nang.

Emperor Lee Ho Kyui led his country into strife and political crisis. China immediately took advantage of the situation, and since 1407 the Ming dynasty rules in Vietnam. After 20 years, a simple fisherman Le Loy leads an uprising against the invaders. A beautiful legend about the “Lake of the Returned Sword” in Hanoi is associated with it (we talked about Hoan Kiem Lake in one of our articles). The Late Le dynasty (1428-1788) comes to power. The "golden age" of medieval Vietnam begins.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Daviet was shaken by the confrontation between the two clans Chin and Nguyen, although the kings from the Le dynasty formally rule. Clan leaders generously distribute land, spend state money, which leads to an increase in exactions from the population. The result of such a reign was the uprising of the Teyshons (1771), led by three brothers. Nguyen Hue, one of them, proclaims himself emperor in 1788.

A king from the Le dynasty asks his brother for help. And his brother was Qianlongu - the emperor from the Chinese Qing dynasty. The Chinese army attacked Vietnam. The decisive battle near Thang Long (1789) brought victory to the Vietnamese and retained the throne of Nguyen Hue. However, after 3 years, the king suddenly dies. Commander Nguyen Phuc Anh gathers an army and, with the support of France, calms down the rebels. In 1804, he sits on the throne, calling himself Gia Long. The capital is moved to the city of Hue. In the same year, the next name of the state was approved - Vietnam. The dynasty ruled Vietnam until 1945.

Thai Hoa, the Palace of Supreme Harmony, was built in 1805. In the palace, the emperor gathered his subjects for state affairs. The imperial throne made of gold, covered with a veil woven with precious threads, is also kept here.

A brief history of Vietnam, like the history of all ancient countries, is lost in the mists of time, turning into legends. It is clear that in the fertile water meadows of southern China and in the valley of the Red River around Tonkin, the ancestors of the Kinh (as the Vietnamese call themselves) settled 3-4 thousand years ago.

The history of the Vietnamese people and their long struggle for freedom and independence is closely connected with the territorial expansion in the south. Defending themselves against China in the north, the ancient Viet gradually extended their power over the declining kingdoms of Tyampa and Cambodia in the south.

Legendary Rulers

Vietnamese legend says that Emperor Ze Min, a descendant of the Chinese deity - the patron of agriculture, married the daughter of the fairy Wu, and one of their sons, Kinh Duong-duong, became the ancestor of the Viet. He, in turn, married the daughter of a dragon, the lord of Dongting Lake in China, and their son Lac Long Quan became the first ruler of the Vietnamese state.

To maintain peace with powerful Chinese neighbors - a theme recurring throughout Vietnamese history - Lac Long Quan married the mountain fairy Au Co, who bore him one hundred sons. Subsequently, the eldest of them succeeded Lak Long Quan, marking the beginning of the Hung dynasty.

Instead of treating the Hung Dynasty as a historical fact, it should be treated as a heroic legend created to celebrate the ancient history of Vietnam. At this time, both the Han Chinese and the Vietnamese had a need to expand their territories to the south, which marked the beginning of their millennial rivalry.

In 258 BC. e. Thuc Phan, one of the leaders of the hill tribes of the Au Viet, overthrew the 18th king of the Hung dynasty and founded the new Vietnamese state of Au Lak with its capital in Koloa, a little north of modern Hanoi. About half a century later, in 207 BC. BC, the rebellious Chinese commander Zhao Tuo conquered Au Lak and proclaimed his authority over Nam Viet, a state that occupied the territory of modern Guangxi province in South China and the Red River Delta in North Vietnam. Chinese rule over Nam Viet was confirmed in 111 BC. BC, when the heirs of Zhao Tuo formally swore allegiance to the Han emperor Wu Di, which extended the power of China south to the Hai Wang Pass and made Nam Viet the Chinese province of Jiao Shi.

Tran Quoc Pagoda in Hanoi was built during the early Ly dynasty.

Briefly about the history of the millennium of Chinese rule in Vietnam

In the 1st century n. e. the attempts of the Chinese to impose their customs among the population of Jiaoshi caused strong resistance from the Viet. In 40, this led to the first major Vietnamese uprising against the Chinese, led by the Trung sisters, two aristocrats who proclaimed themselves co-rulers of a united Vietnam. The Chung sisters are still regarded as national heroines, but their attempt to free themselves from Chinese rule was short-lived. Three years later, General Ma Yuan regained control over this territory and began to intensively Sinicize the population. And gradually he began to succeed.

For the next 900 years, the Viet remained under the yoke of China, despite a number of major uprisings. In 544, the Vietese leader Li Bong led another rebellion, as a result of which he achieved partial independence after the accession of the Early Li dynasty, but in 603 it was crushed by Chinese armies. The victorious Chinese renamed the country Annam, or the Pacified South. However, this turned out to be an attempt to wishful thinking. In 938, the Viet, under the leadership of Ngo Cuyen, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Chinese at the Battle of the Bakhdang River and restored their independence, putting an end to the thousand-year Chinese rule. They finally gained freedom, but by this time they had become the most sinicized people in Southeast Asia, in contrast to the neighboring Chams, Thais and Khmers, who fell under the cultural influence of India.

The Vietnamese have learned at least one valuable lesson in their centuries of confrontation with China. The Chinese threat did not disappear, but it was necessary to get along with their northern neighbors. And they succeeded thanks to a combination of desperate resistance to Chinese aggression with humble apologies to the Dragon Throne for each of their victories. This cunning tactic was formalized in 968, when Din Bo Lin, founder of the Dinh imperial dynasty, confirmed the independence of Vietnam, but agreed to pay tribute to China every three years.

Vietnam expands south

Starting from the XI century. Vietnam found new ways to imitate China, its neighbor, which aroused both fear and admiration. Firstly, Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, and not Theravada, practiced in other countries of Southeast Asia, became the main religion in the country. Confucianism was also enthusiastically accepted by the Chinese and formed the basis of state administration.

Secondly, the Vietnamese people, sandwiched between the more numerous Chinese in the north and the high Annamite Cordillera in the west, began to spread their influence in the only available direction - to the south. From the new capital of Thang Long, or Dragon Soaring (later renamed Hanoi), began a long history of conquest of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Tjampa.

An example of Hindu culture: the Cham carving of Shiva from My Son

The Viet, having repulsed the Mongol invasion in 1279, in the second battle on the Bakhdang River, continued to hold the north of the country. By the XIV century. all of Central Vietnam, up to the Hai Van Pass, was conquered, and the city of Hue came under the control of the Viet. Then the Chinese again took possession of this territory, but in 1428, as a result of a war of liberation led by Le Loi, the Viet gained independence again. Meanwhile, in the south, Vijaya's Vijaya capital was destroyed by Viet troops, and the Champa kingdom was reduced to a tiny size.

By the beginning of the XVI century. It seemed that nothing threatened the Vietnamese state - Dai Viet, in fact, history presented Vietnam with new tests.

In 1516, the first Europeans (Portuguese sailors) arrived in the country. In addition, in the far south, after the collapse of the Thiampa kingdom, rival claimants to power in Hanoi appeared among the Viet themselves. In 1527, the country was divided into two parts: the Mak dynasty (and later Chin) ruled from Hanoi lands in the Red River Delta, and the Nguyen dynasty, with its capital in Hue, dominated the south of the country.

By the 17th century instead of the Portuguese, the French became the most influential Europeans here, especially in the central and southern regions of the country. They brought with them Catholicism, which gradually spread throughout the country, despite the opposition of the followers of Confucianism and Buddhism. As a result, the Vietnamese Christian community became the second largest in Asia, second only to the Filipino. Finally, the French missionary priest Alexandre de Rode developed the romanized Vietnamese writing system, Quoc Ngy, which is still in use today.

In 1757, Vietnamese settlers bypassed the last fortification of the chams between Phan Rang and Phan Thiet and set about conquering the Mekong Delta, which was under the rule of Cambodia. During this expansion, the Khmer settlement of Preinokor was taken from the Cambodians and renamed Saigon. In the 19th century the last Cham resistance was finally broken, and Vietnam received complete control over the territories that it still controls today.

Hyonnyong Gate in Hue, the capital of the Nguyen Dynasty

Nguyen emperors and French conquest

In 1802, the ruler Nguyen Anh defeated his northern opponents and founded the Nguyen dynasty (1802 - 1945) with its capital in Hue, where he proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long. For the first time in Vietnamese history, the center of power has shifted from the Red River Delta in the south to the center of the country. However, the power of the Nguyen did not remain unchallenged for long. In 1858, France captured Da Nang and Saigon, laying the foundation for its colonies at Annam and Cochin. In 1883, with the support of modern weapons and unshakable faith in their civilizing mission, the French declared Tonky as a colony, and Vietnam became a French protectorate. In 1887, this provision was legally enshrined; The French, having united Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, formed the Indochinese Union (French Indochina).

It is not difficult to guess that the Vietnamese rejected the imperialist ambitions of France. This proud people, who had resisted Chinese rule for two millennia, could not meekly submit to the French.

In 1890, Ho Chi Minh, the future leader of the Vietnamese struggle for independence, was born in the small Vietnamese village of Kimlien. In 1918 he went to Paris, and three years later joined the French Communist Party. In 1930, Ho Chi Minh visited Moscow, became an agent of the Comintern, and founded the Communist Party of Indochina in Hong Kong. The French did not yet know about this, but the threat was already hanging over them.

Ho Chi Minh continued to work with his compatriots during the war years and the Japanese occupation that ended in 1945. Of course, the communists were not the only force opposed to French imperialism - Vietnamese of all political persuasions strove for freedom - but the communists were undoubtedly better organized the rest.

Ho Chi Minh in field uniform

Three Indochinese Wars

After the Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945, events began to develop with increasing speed. On August 23, Bao Dai, the last emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty, abdicated. And just ten days later, on September 2, 1945, in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam.

The First Indochina War began after the French attempted to restore colonial rule. Things did not go well for them, and in 1954 they suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu from Vo Nguyen Giap, the best commander of Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam, with its capital in Saigon, was ruled by the pro-Western Catholic politician Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1955, Diem refused to hold elections, and the Viet Minh troops, with the support of Hanoi, launched an armed offensive in the south. This led to the outbreak of the Second Indochinese War - the Vietnamese call it the American War - which devastated the country for almost twenty years. In 1960, in a poorly calculated attempt to contain the spread of communism, the US sent advisers to support the southern regime. Five years later, in 1965, the US Air Force began regular bombing in the north, and in the south, in Da Nang, they landed troops. By 1968, the number of American troops in Vietnam had increased to 500,000, but that same year, the Tet, or New Year's, Viet Cong offensive undermined Washington's determination to continue the war, and in 1973 the last American soldiers were evacuated from Vietnam. Two years later, in April 1975, the North Vietnamese army captured Saigon, and the country became united again.

French tank abandoned after the First Indochina War

Hanoi's victory led to the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV). There was no major bloodshed, but a strict command economy was established, and for more than a decade the Vietnamese suffered from poverty and political oppression. Added to this was the Third Indochina War (1978-1979), when Vietnam invaded Cambodia to overthrow the deadly Khmer regime, but was itself invaded, as a lesson, by communist China.

History of Vietnam's economic growth

At the 6th Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party, party leaders launched an ambitious social and economic reform program called doi moi (Renewal). Collectivization was revised, more attention was paid to labor productivity and the personal rights of citizens. The pace of agricultural production grew rapidly, as a result, Vietnam became one of the major exporters of rice. For 10 years, the growth of the Vietnamese economy was more than 7% per year, but in 2008 inflation began, and economic development slowed down. Despite these successes, political control remains tight and citizens' personal rights remain limited.

Fisherwoman in Mui Ne

Vietnam War