The development of the Urals in the XV-XVII centuries. The history of the settlement of the Urals by Russians
Introduction
The history of human exploration of the Urals is centuries-old. Since ancient times, a few human tribes settled mainly along the banks of rivers, began to develop the foot Ural mountains. The main stage in the development of the Urals can be called the time of the industrial boom in Russia. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Tsar Peter, caring for the glory and greatness of Russia, presciently determined the direction of Russia's development, then the Ural storerooms shone before the eyes of new Russian industrialists with unprecedented strength.
The Strogonov industrialists are considered one of the first developers of the Ural wealth in history. In addition to factories and workshops, they left household buildings (a house, a chapel, the Transfiguration Cathedral) on their ordinary estate Usolye-on-Kama, which today are considered cultural heritage industrial past of the Ural region.
The next stage in the development of the Urals also belongs to the ancient dynasty of industrialists Demidovs. Among the remaining industrial monuments built on the territory of the Demidov patrimony are the remains blast furnaces the famous Nevyanovsky plant, the dam, the famous Nevyanovskaya leaning tower, the master's house, the "Tsar-blast furnace", the building of which has survived to this day.
On site industrial developments cities began to appear in the Urals. One of the first built in the 18th century were the so-called "cities - factories": Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil, Barancha, Kushva, Zlatoust, Alapaevsk and others. These cities, according to the description of Russian writers of that time, were buried in countless branches of the Ural Mountains among dense forests. High mountains, clear water, an impenetrable forest surrounds these human settlements, creating an atmosphere of freshness and solemnity, despite the constantly smoking chimneys of factory workers.
Interestingly, being one of the oldest regions of metallurgical production on the planet, the Urals supply non-ferrous and ferrous metals not only to Russia, but also to Western Asia, and later contributed to the development of machine production in a number of European countries and even America. The Urals played an important role in domestic wars 18-20 centuries. During the First World War and especially the Second, the Urals became the forge of Russia's military power, the main arsenal of the Red Army. In the Urals, during the Second World War, the Soviet nuclear and rocket industry began to be created. The first hail installations under the affectionate name "Katyusha" also come from the Urals. In the Urals, there was also a network of scientific laboratories for the development of new types of weapons.
This paper describes the features of the history of the development of the Urals by Russian people.
The history of the development of the Urals
The intensive development of the Urals began in the turning point in the historical era of the 17th-18th centuries, which opened the beginning of the "imperial civilization" (A. Flier), or a new time in history Russian state. The special place of the Urals in this period is determined by the fact that this frontier region became the historical zone of the first Russian experience in the formation of a new “Russianness” (P.N. Savitsky’s term), as a synthesis of the efforts of two cultures: the new - state-Western and the old - “soil” and "frontier" at the same time.
The 17th century in the history of the development of the Urals can be considered as a period of mass "free" peasant colonization, associated mainly with the agrarian development of the region. Over the course of a century, an old-timer Russian population formed here, reproducing traits in the new habitat. traditional culture in the version of the Russian North. During this period, the "grassroots" element was the leader of the colonization movement. The state barely had time to make its own administrative adjustments to this fleeting process.
In the XVIII century. The Urals, like no other region of the country, experienced all the innovations and costs of "Europeanization", as a result of which the type of specific "Ural" subculture was determined. The mining industry has become its basic element. Construction of more than 170 factories per century, production of pig iron from 0.6 million poods at the beginning of the century to 7.8 million poods by its end, conquest international market metal - all this was the undoubted result of industrial progress. But the industrial phenomenon of Russian Europeanization became possible not only as a result of the active borrowing of Western technologies, but also the creation of a specific system for organizing the mining industry based on feudal local principles and coercion. The free people's colonization is being replaced by the forced resettlement of tens of hundreds of serfs to the Urals, as well as the transformation of the descendants of free settlers from state peasants into "affiliated" ones, who were forced to perform "factory" duties. By the end of the XVIII century. there were more than 200 thousand people. In the Perm province, the most "mining" in nature, "assigned" at that time accounted for over 70% of the state peasants.
By the middle of the XIX century. out of a heterogeneous mass of dependent people, a specific class group is formed - the “mining population”. It was the social substratum that determined the cultural image of the mining Urals with its professional and everyday traditions.
The nature of this young Russian class can be considered intermediate in relation to the classical social patterns - peasants and workers. The forcible detachment of a mass of artisans from their usual peasant habitat determined their marginal condition and created a long-term explosive social atmosphere in the Ural region. permanent manifestation different forms social protest has become feature"Ural" culture.
The economic and economic base of the Ural phenomenon was formed by the mining and district system of industry. Main element of this system - the mining district - represented a diversified economy that functioned on the principle of self-sufficiency. The mining complex provided itself with raw materials, fuel, energy resources and all the necessary infrastructure, creating an uninterrupted closed production cycle. The "natural" nature of the mining industry was based on the monopoly right of the factory owners for everything. Natural resources district, eliminating competition for their production. “Naturality”, “isolation”, “local structure of industry” (V.D. Belov, V.V. Adamov), orientation of production to the state order, weak market ties were the natural features of this phenomenon. Organizational and administrative transformations of the first half of XIX in. “improved” this system, turning the mining Urals into a “state within a state” (V.D. Belov). From the modern point of view, the “original structure” of the Ural industry must be associated with the transitional nature of the Russian economy in the Modern Age. Such an approach (for example, by T.K. Guskova) seems to be fruitful, since it interprets this system as an evolutionary stage from a traditional society to an industrial one.
Established in the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the Ural mining culture retained its features even by the beginning of the 20th century. The Ural mining settlement preserved the atmosphere of a peasant, by nature, social and family life, which was facilitated by the fact that the artisans had their own houses, gardens, land allotments, and livestock farming. The craftsmen preserved the historical memory of the paternalistic foundations of the mining system, which was expressed in the vitality of "obligatory relations". Their social requirements are characterized by an orientation towards patronage from factories and the state. They were distinguished from other groups of Russian workers by low professionalism and low wages. According to I.Kh. Ozerova, Ural worker of the early 20th century. psychologically was aimed at the equalizing principle of wages. Having got used to the current level of factory earnings, if it increased, he irrationally spent money, embarking on a spree. He was not inclined to change his usual working specialty to another, even if it was financially profitable. Cultural influences on the life of the mining environment were extremely scarce, due to the peculiarities social structure mining Urals, remoteness of industrial settlements from cultural centers. Irrational traits social psychology Ural craftsman and other characteristics of his social appearance confirm the version of his belonging to a transitional type of culture.
Thus, the "Ural mining" subculture typologically adjoins transitional intercivilizational phenomena. The Urals most expressively demonstrated their features, which allows us to consider this region as a kind of "classic" of transitional states of modernizing societies.
Judging by the chronicles, the Russians began to penetrate the Urals in the 11th century. In 1092, Gyuryata Rogovich, a Novgorodian, one of the boyars or major merchants, organized a campaign against Pechora and Yugra, i.e. Northern Ural to the places where the ancestors of modern Mansi lived. Campaigns of Novgorodians to the Urals were undertaken in the XII century. There are known raids on the Northern Urals in 1187, a campaign in Yugra in 1193-1194. Probably, there were also campaigns about which there were no records in written monuments.
Novgorodians were attracted to these places primarily as rich in furs and furs. In XI- XII centuries Russians have not yet created settled settlements here. A Russian settled settlement appears in the Upper Kama region only in the 14th-15th centuries.
There is some indirect evidence of the appearance and stay of the ancient Novgorodians in this region. So, during excavations in the basin of the Kolva River of the Iskor settlement, archaeologists discovered traces of Russian pottery, which has analogies with the ceramics of ancient Novgorod of the 14th-15th centuries.
There are other indirect data about the stay of the ancient Novgorodians in the Upper Kama region, for example, the pagan cult of Perun brought here by him and the veneration of thunder arrows - finger icicles formed in the sand from a lightning strike and sand welding. One of the Permian monuments of 1705 speaks of the use of a thunderbolt as a talisman: “At that wedding, Anika Detlev was in his courtesy, Rodion. And for the defense of that wedding, so that third-party people would not spoil him, Rodion, and his wife, he had a thunder arrow and holy grass.
Thus, there are traces of the stay of the ancient Novgorodians on the Upper Kama and Vishera, but there are no convincing grounds to talk about the formation of dialects based on Novgorod only, since, firstly, there were no permanent settlements here until the XIV century and, in - secondly, not only Novgorodians, but also other Russians, in particular Vladimir-Suzdal, begin to penetrate into the Upper Kama region quite early. And Great Perm, as the territory of the Northern Kama region began to be called from the 14th century, becomes a place of rivalry between Novgorodians and Vladimir-Suzdalians.
There was also a way from the north - from Pomorye to Kama, the so-called Pechora portage: from the tributary of the Pechora River Volosnitsa to the Kama basin to the Vogulka River. On Volosnitsa and Vogulka, places with the same name Pechora portage are still preserved. The path was long and difficult: from Vogulka to the Elovka River, then to Berezovka, from it to the vast Chusovskoye Lake, then to Visherka, Kolva, Vishera and, finally, to Kama.
In the 16th - 17th centuries, this was the route of the fishing artels of the Cherdyns, who went to fish on the tributaries of the Pechora, especially on the Shchugor and Ilych rivers. But it was also actively used for resettlement from the Pechora to the Kama region. So, in the Cherdyn documents of 1682, a resident of Ust-Tsilma is mentioned, that is, a person who either came out of Ust-Tsilma himself, or had ancestors who arrived from there.
Novgorodians, Dvintsy, and Pomors penetrated into the Upper Kama region through these routes. In the XV century, as the excavations and written monuments allow us to judge, there were Russian towns under the protection of which Russian peasants began to settle, mainly carriers of Northern Russian dialects.
In 1472, the campaign of Prince Fyodor Pyostroy took place, as a result of which Perm the Great finally became part of the Russian state. His detachment consisted of Ustyuzhans, Belozersk, Vologda and Vychegzhan, that is, residents of the Russian North. Some of them remained to live in the Kamsko-Kolvinsky river region, because. Fyodor Motley was sent here by the governor and created a fortified town in Pokche. From the dialects of the first settlers who came from the north of Russia, Russian dialects originate here.
In emerging cities in the XV - XVI centuries, undoubtedly. The same dialect speech was heard as in the nearby rural settlements. Later, in the 17th century, the linguistic situation in the cities turned out to be more complex. Most of their populations used the same dialects that developed around the cities. But at the same time in the cities colloquial speech was also represented by other varieties, since, in addition to peasants, artisans, merchants, soldiers, representatives of the administration, and the clergy lived there. Along with the speech of the peasants, the speech of the ministers of worship, who knew the church-bookish language, and the clerks, who knew business language. Various professional languages were also represented here: the speech of salt makers, soap makers, metallurgists, blacksmiths, etc. And, of course, the speech of people familiar with business and church texts, although there were few of them relative to all urban residents, made their mark on the emerging urban vernacular. The 16th-17th centuries turn out to be a time not only of active settlement in Perm of the Great - Cherdyn land and the Kama Salt, but also of active resettlement down the Kama up to the Novo-Nikolskaya Sloboda, founded in 1591. It is this period that becomes the time of the emergence of Russian old-timer dialects in the Western Urals. However, the significance of the territory being settled and the unequal conditions for the development of individual regions have led to the fact that differences are found in the Permian dialects of different regions, which results in a multitude of dialects.
Great Perm was settled, as evidenced by the data of scribe books and many Cherdyn documents of the 17th century, by the inhabitants of the Northern Dvina, Mezenia, Pinega, Vym, Vilyadi, Vychegda, Sukhona, South, Pechora, Vologda, Vyatka, where the North Russian dialects had already formed , genetically related to Novgorod. The population that arrived in the Russian North from Moscow, Vladimir, the Volga region, etc., assimilated the local North Russian speech, although it imposed some typos on it, especially in vocabulary. In the second half of the 17th and especially in the 18th century, Old Believers from the Nizhny Novgorod province, from the Volga region, began to arrive in Great Perm. They carry their dialects and settle next to the population already established here.
In the 19th century, migrations of the population within the Kama region continued, leading to the development of new territories. So, there is a stream of Old Believers to Upper Kolva and Upper Pechora. The Old Believers also settled in other areas, settled in the Solikamsk villages, in the Chusovsky towns and the village of Kopalno on Chusovaya, in the western part of the modern Sivensky, Vereshchaginsky and Ochersky districts, in the Yurlinsky district. A certain isolation of the Old Believers, traditionalism in occupations, culture contributed to the preservation of elements brought mainly from the Trans-Volga dialects. However, in those settlements, where the Old Believers settled next to the non-Old Believers, they gradually fully assimilated the old-timer dialects that had developed here.
The history of human exploration of the Urals is centuries-old. Since ancient times, a few human tribes, settled mainly along the banks of the rivers, began to develop the foot of the Ural Mountains. The main stage in the development of the Urals can be called the time of the industrial boom in Russia. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Tsar Peter, caring for the glory and greatness of Russia, presciently determined the direction of Russia's development, then the Ural storerooms shone before the eyes of new Russian industrialists with unprecedented strength.
The Strogonov industrialists are considered one of the first developers of the Ural wealth in history. In addition to factories and workshops, they left household buildings (a house, a chapel, the Transfiguration Cathedral) on their ordinary estate Usolye-on-Kama, which today are considered the cultural heritage of the industrial past of the Ural Territory.
The next stage in the development of the Urals also belongs to the ancient dynasty of industrialists Demidovs. Among the remaining industrial monuments built on the territory of the Demidovs' patrimony are the remains of blast furnaces of the famous Nevyanovsky plant, dams, the famous Nevyanovskaya leaning tower, the master's house, "Tsar-blast furnace", the building of which has survived to this day.
In place of industrial developments, cities began to appear in the Urals. One of the first built in the 18th century were the so-called "cities - factories": Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil, Barancha, Kushva, Zlatoust, Alapaevsk and others. These cities, according to the description of Russian writers of that time, were buried in countless branches of the Ural Mountains among dense forests. High mountains, clear water, impenetrable forest surround these human settlements, creating an atmosphere of freshness and solemnity, despite the constantly smoking chimneys of factory workers.
Interestingly, being one of the oldest regions of metallurgical production on the planet, the Urals supply non-ferrous and ferrous metals not only to Russia, but also to Western Asia, and later contributed to the development of machine production in a number of European countries and even America. The Urals played an important role in the domestic wars of the 18th–20th centuries. During the First World War and especially the Second, the Urals became the forge of Russia's military power, the main arsenal of the Red Army. In the Urals, during the Second World War, the Soviet nuclear and rocket industry began to be created. The first hail installations under the affectionate name "Katyusha" also come from the Urals. In the Urals, there was also a network of scientific laboratories for the development of new types of weapons.
This paper describes the features of the history of the development of the Urals by Russian people.
The history of the development of the Urals
Intensive development of the Urals began in the turning point in the historical epoch of the 17th–18th centuries, which opened the beginning of the “imperial civilization” (A. Flier), or a new time in the history of the Russian state. The special place of the Urals in this period is determined by the fact that this frontier region became the historical zone of the first Russian experience in the formation of a new “Russianness” (P.N. Savitsky’s term), as a synthesis of the efforts of two cultures: the new - state-Western and the old - “soil” and "frontier" at the same time.
The 17th century in the history of the development of the Urals can be considered as a period of mass "free" peasant colonization, associated mainly with the agrarian development of the region. Over the course of a century, an old-timer Russian population formed here, reproducing the features of traditional culture in a variant of the Russian North in a new habitat. During this period, the "grassroots" element was the leader of the colonization movement. The state barely had time to make its own administrative adjustments to this fleeting process.
In the XVIII century. The Urals, like no other region of the country, experienced all the innovations and costs of "Europeanization", as a result of which the type of specific "Ural" subculture was determined. The mining industry has become its basic element. The construction of more than 170 factories per century, the production of pig iron from 0.6 million poods at the beginning of the century to 7.8 million poods by its end, the conquest of the international metal market - all this was the undoubted result of industrial progress. But the industrial phenomenon of Russian Europeanization became possible not only as a result of the active borrowing of Western technologies, but also the creation of a specific system for organizing the mining industry based on feudal local principles and coercion. The free people's colonization is being replaced by the forced resettlement of tens of hundreds of serfs to the Urals, as well as the transformation of the descendants of free settlers from state peasants into "affiliated" ones, who were forced to perform "factory" duties. By the end of the XVIII century. there were more than 200 thousand people. In the Perm province, the most "mining" in nature, "assigned" at that time accounted for over 70% of the state peasants.
By the middle of the XIX century. out of a heterogeneous mass of dependent people, a specific estate group is formed - the “mining population”. It was the social substratum that determined the cultural image of the mining Urals with its professional and everyday traditions.
The nature of this young Russian class can be considered intermediate in relation to the classical social patterns - peasants and workers. The forcible detachment of a mass of artisans from their usual peasant habitat determined their marginal condition and created a long-term explosive social atmosphere in the Ural region. The permanent manifestation of various forms of social protest has become a characteristic feature of the "Ural" culture.
The economic and economic base of the Ural phenomenon was formed by the mining and district system of industry. The main element of this system - the mining district - was a diversified economy that functioned on the principle of self-sufficiency. The mining complex provided itself with raw materials, fuel, energy resources and all the necessary infrastructure, creating an uninterrupted closed production cycle. The "natural" nature of the mining industry was based on the monopoly right of the plant owners to all the natural resources of the district, which eliminated competition for their production. “Naturality”, “isolation”, “local structure of industry” (V.D. Belov, V.V. Adamov), orientation of production to the state order, weak market ties were the natural features of this phenomenon. Organizational and administrative transformations of the first half of the 19th century. “improved” this system, turning the mining Urals into a “state within a state” (V.D. Belov). From the modern point of view, the “original structure” of the Ural industry must be associated with the transitional nature of the Russian economy in the Modern Age. Such an approach (for example, by T.K. Guskova) seems to be fruitful, since it interprets this system as an evolutionary stage from a traditional society to an industrial one.
Established in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. the Ural mining culture retained its features even by the beginning of the 20th century. The Ural mining settlement preserved the atmosphere of a peasant, by nature, social and family life, which was facilitated by the fact that the artisans had their own houses, gardens, land allotments, and livestock farming. The craftsmen preserved the historical memory of the paternalistic foundations of the mining system, which was expressed in the vitality of "obligatory relations". Their social requirements are characterized by an orientation towards patronage from factories and the state. They were distinguished from other groups of Russian workers by low professionalism and low wages. According to I.Kh. Ozerova, Ural worker of the early 20th century. psychologically was aimed at the equalizing principle of wages. Having got used to the current level of factory earnings, if it increased, he irrationally spent money, embarking on a spree. He was not inclined to change his usual working specialty to another, even if it was financially profitable. Cultural influences on the life of the mining environment were extremely scarce, due to the peculiarities of the social structure of the mining Urals, the remoteness of factory settlements from cultural centers. The irrational features of the social psychology of the Ural craftsman and other characteristics of his social appearance confirm the version that he belongs to a transitional type of culture.
Thus, the "Ural mining" subculture typologically adjoins transitional intercivilizational phenomena. The Urals most expressively demonstrated their features, which allows us to consider this region as a kind of "classic" of transitional states of modernizing societies.
Conclusion
It can be said that the Urals, especially those of the second and third generations, have lost their national identity. For the most part, they have ceased to be Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. They ceased to be both Tatars and Bashkirs, i.e. "indigenous" inhabitants of the Urals. This loss, we believe, was the result of a spontaneously formed "strategy" of forming the population of the Urals from exiles. If in Soviet time there were numerous islands of the "Gulag Archipelago", and most importantly - areas of permanent residence of released prisoners and exiled settlers, then the Urals was such a place before the revolution. The Soviet Gulag was preceded here by the tsarist proto-gulag, starting with Anna Ioannovna, and perhaps even with Peter I.
Siberia was also populated by exiles and migrants. But they got there by villages and patriarchal families. The settlers did not break their fundamental ties with their relatives and neighbors - the community environment. Often the settlers were from areas engulfed in unrest. So, the great-grandfather of the author, as a youth, went to hard labor because he had ruined the master to death. He plowed, and the gentleman passing by, walking around and burned with a whip. The great-grandfather could not stand it, pulled the offender from the horse, took away the whip and ... And, having served the exile, he returned home, but only in order to take his relatives and neighbors to Siberia. So the village of Ozhogino arose south of Tyumen, and existed until, in my memory, it became the southern outskirts of the city.
The Urals were populated differently. Even before the revolution, the Urals was a kind of filter that sifted out people of a peculiar nature and specific professions from the stream of forced migrants. And not only craftsmen, but, strange as it may seem, both swindlers and counterfeiters complained here. The local authorities needed competent and quick-witted henchmen.
Today, scientists speak, not without reason, about the fate of the Urals as a cultural monument. industrial development Russia, where, along with old enterprises, new factories of metallurgical and mining industries appear. The Russian metallurgical industry is 300 years old. Scientists, historians, archaeologists consider it a gift for the anniversary - the transformation of the Urals into protected area and the establishment there of museums of art casting, decorative utensils, Russian industrial architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries, original technical improvements, and the history of mining. Unfortunately, all this requires material costs and big human labor. However, the wonderful Ural is patiently waiting in the wings. Expressive portrait mountainous region, craftsmen and their creations should not disappear from human memory.
Literature
1. Alevras N.N. Gornozavodskoy Ural: the specifics of the provincial subculture - Chelyabinsk, 2008.
2. Evsikov E. About the Ural land and about the “verbal master” P.P. Bazhov - Chelyabinsk, 2008.
3. Markov D. Ural region - Yekaterinburg, 2007.
4. Urals as a sub-ethnos // Ural Digest / ed. Sidorkina M.E., Yekaterinburg, 2008.
The history of human exploration of the Urals is centuries-old. Since ancient times, a few human tribes, settled mainly along the banks of the rivers, began to develop the foot of the Ural Mountains. The main stage in the development of the Urals can be called the time of the industrial boom in Russia. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Tsar Peter, caring for the glory and greatness of Russia, presciently determined the direction of Russia's development, then the Ural storerooms shone before the eyes of new Russian industrialists with unprecedented strength.
The Strogonov industrialists are considered one of the first developers of the Ural wealth in history. In addition to factories and workshops, they left household buildings (a house, a chapel, the Transfiguration Cathedral) on their ordinary estate Usolye-on-Kama, which today are considered the cultural heritage of the industrial past of the Ural Territory.
The next stage in the development of the Urals also belongs to the ancient dynasty of industrialists Demidovs. Among the remaining industrial monuments built on the territory of the Demidovs' patrimony are the remains of blast furnaces of the famous Nevyanovsky plant, dams, the famous Nevyanovskaya leaning tower, the master's house, "Tsar-blast furnace", the building of which has survived to this day.
In place of industrial developments, cities began to appear in the Urals. One of the first built in the 18th century were the so-called "cities - factories": Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil, Barancha, Kushva, Zlatoust, Alapaevsk and others. These cities, according to the description of Russian writers of that time, were buried in countless branches of the Ural Mountains among dense forests. High mountains, clear water, impenetrable forest surround these human settlements, creating an atmosphere of freshness and solemnity, despite the constantly smoking chimneys of factory workers.
Interestingly, being one of the oldest regions of metallurgical production on the planet, the Urals supply non-ferrous and ferrous metals not only to Russia, but also to Western Asia, and later contributed to the development of machine production in a number of European countries and even America. The Urals played an important role in the domestic wars of the 18th–20th centuries. During the First World War and especially the Second, the Urals became the forge of Russia's military power, the main arsenal of the Red Army. In the Urals, during the Second World War, the Soviet nuclear and rocket industry began to be created. The first hail installations under the affectionate name "Katyusha" also come from the Urals. In the Urals, there was also a network of scientific laboratories for the development of new types of weapons.
This paper describes the features of the history of the development of the Urals by Russian people.
The history of the development of the Urals
Intensive development of the Urals began in the turning point in the historical epoch of the 17th–18th centuries, which opened the beginning of the “imperial civilization” (A. Flier), or a new time in the history of the Russian state. The special place of the Urals in this period is determined by the fact that this frontier region became the historical zone of the first Russian experience in the formation of a new “Russianness” (P.N. Savitsky’s term), as a synthesis of the efforts of two cultures: the new - state-Western and the old - “soil” and "frontier" at the same time.
The 17th century in the history of the development of the Urals can be considered as a period of mass "free" peasant colonization, associated mainly with the agrarian development of the region. Over the course of a century, an old-timer Russian population formed here, reproducing the features of traditional culture in a variant of the Russian North in a new habitat. During this period, the "grassroots" element was the leader of the colonization movement. The state barely had time to make its own administrative adjustments to this fleeting process.
In the XVIII century. The Urals, like no other region of the country, experienced all the innovations and costs of "Europeanization", as a result of which the type of specific "Ural" subculture was determined. The mining industry has become its basic element. The construction of more than 170 factories per century, the production of pig iron from 0.6 million poods at the beginning of the century to 7.8 million poods by its end, the conquest of the international metal market - all this was the undoubted result of industrial progress. But the industrial phenomenon of Russian Europeanization became possible not only as a result of the active borrowing of Western technologies, but also the creation of a specific system for organizing the mining industry based on feudal local principles and coercion. The free people's colonization is being replaced by the forced resettlement of tens of hundreds of serfs to the Urals, as well as the transformation of the descendants of free settlers from state peasants into "affiliated" ones, who were forced to perform "factory" duties. By the end of the XVIII century. there were more than 200 thousand people. In the Perm province, the most "mining" in nature, "assigned" at that time accounted for over 70% of the state peasants.
By the middle of the XIX century. out of a heterogeneous mass of dependent people, a specific estate group is formed - the “mining population”. It was the social substratum that determined the cultural image of the mining Urals with its professional and everyday traditions.
The nature of this young Russian class can be considered intermediate in relation to the classical social patterns - peasants and workers. The forcible detachment of a mass of artisans from their usual peasant habitat determined their marginal condition and created a long-term explosive social atmosphere in the Ural region. The permanent manifestation of various forms of social protest has become a characteristic feature of the "Ural" culture.
The economic and economic base of the Ural phenomenon was formed by the mining and district system of industry. The main element of this system - the mining district - was a diversified economy that functioned on the principle of self-sufficiency. The mining complex provided itself with raw materials, fuel, energy resources and all the necessary infrastructure, creating an uninterrupted closed production cycle. The "natural" nature of the mining industry was based on the monopoly right of the plant owners to all the natural resources of the district, which eliminated competition for their production. “Naturality”, “isolation”, “local structure of industry” (V.D. Belov, V.V. Adamov), orientation of production to the state order, weak market ties were the natural features of this phenomenon. Organizational and administrative transformations of the first half of the 19th century. “improved” this system, turning the mining Urals into a “state within a state” (V.D. Belov). From the modern point of view, the “original structure” of the Ural industry must be associated with the transitional nature of the Russian economy in the Modern Age. Such an approach (for example, by T.K. Guskova) seems to be fruitful, since it interprets this system as an evolutionary stage from a traditional society to an industrial one.
Established in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. the Ural mining culture retained its features even by the beginning of the 20th century. The Ural mining settlement preserved the atmosphere of a peasant, by nature, social and family life, which was facilitated by the fact that the artisans had their own houses, gardens, land allotments, and livestock farming. The craftsmen preserved the historical memory of the paternalistic foundations of the mining system, which was expressed in the vitality of "obligatory relations". Their social requirements are characterized by an orientation towards patronage from factories and the state. They were distinguished from other groups of Russian workers by low professionalism and low wages. According to I.Kh. Ozerova, Ural worker of the early 20th century. psychologically was aimed at the equalizing principle of wages. Having got used to the current level of factory earnings, if it increased, he irrationally spent money, embarking on a spree. He was not inclined to change his usual working specialty to another, even if it was financially profitable. Cultural influences on the life of the mining environment were extremely scarce, due to the peculiarities of the social structure of the mining Urals, the remoteness of factory settlements from cultural centers. The irrational features of the social psychology of the Ural craftsman and other characteristics of his social appearance confirm the version that he belongs to a transitional type of culture.
Thus, the "Ural mining" subculture typologically adjoins transitional intercivilizational phenomena. The Urals most expressively demonstrated their features, which allows us to consider this region as a kind of "classic" of transitional states of modernizing societies.
Conclusion
It can be said that the Urals, especially those of the second and third generations, have lost their national identity. For the most part, they have ceased to be Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. They ceased to be both Tatars and Bashkirs, i.e. "indigenous" inhabitants of the Urals. This loss, we believe, was the result of a spontaneously formed "strategy" of forming the population of the Urals from exiles. If in Soviet times there were numerous islands of the "Gulag Archipelago", and most importantly - areas of permanent residence for released prisoners and exiled settlers, then the Urals was such a place before the revolution. The Soviet Gulag was preceded here by the tsarist proto-gulag, starting with Anna Ioannovna, and perhaps even with Peter I.
Siberia was also populated by exiles and migrants. But they got there by villages and patriarchal families. The settlers did not break their fundamental ties with their relatives and neighbors - the community environment. Often the settlers were from areas engulfed in unrest. So, the great-grandfather of the author, as a youth, went to hard labor because he had ruined the master to death. He plowed, and the gentleman passing by, walking around and burned with a whip. The great-grandfather could not stand it, pulled the offender from the horse, took away the whip and ... And, having served the exile, he returned home, but only in order to take his relatives and neighbors to Siberia. So the village of Ozhogino arose south of Tyumen, and existed until, in my memory, it became the southern outskirts of the city.
Copper ores on the Vye River became known as early as the end of the 17th century. In 1721, a copper smelter was built here. True, copper melting did not succeed for a long time Demidov, because copper ore was mixed with iron. They also found malachite pieces for sure.
We find the first evidence of Tagil malachite from P. Pallas. Inspecting the old copper mines, which were almost abandoned by his arrival in 1770, he noted that "hefty copper ores were mined between the factory dwellings."
Photo by Vlad Kochurin
After the conquest of Siberia by Yermak, the entire Urals became Russian. Now travelers could safely make trips of any complexity and duration throughout the Urals from north to south. In 1666, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, a group of Russian officers (46 people!) Made the transition from Solikamsk to Verkhoturye along the Babinovskaya road. One of the officers (his name remains unknown) kept a travel diary, which is very interesting to read after almost 350 years.