According to the mode of existence, being is divided into two worlds:

1. The world of physical phenomena, or material natural world . This one exists objectively regardless of the will and consciousness of people. This is the world of living nature, the world of inanimate nature, society as a material system;

The world of human consciousness, or spiritual world . This world, in turn, can also be divided into objective and subjective . subjective spirit - this is the inner mental world of a person, it is the property of an individual. At the same time, the joint activity of people in society gives rise to such spiritual formations that are the property of not individual individuals, but of society as a whole. Objective Spiritual Reality - this is public consciousness and its forms (science, philosophy, morality, art, religion, etc.).

The question of the relationship between these two modes of existence of being is fundamental question of philosophy . Depending on the answer to it, the main philosophical directions are distinguished: materialism, idealism, dualism .

The specificity of a person's being lies in the fact that he simultaneously belongs to the natural, bodily world as its organic part, and to the spiritual world, belonging to which makes him a man. The human being and the world of human culture demonstrate the unity of the objective and the subjective in being.

4. The idea of ​​the unity of the world in philosophy.

Being is manifested in an infinite number of objects, phenomena, processes.

[Modern science knows: - about 30 thousand types of minerals,

- 500 thousand plant species,

- 2 million species of animals;

- there are many beds, countries;

- there are more than 100 billion stars in our Galaxy,

- there are about 10 billion galaxies in the part of the Universe accessible to research, etc.]

The question arises: is it possible to assert that, despite this diversity, there is a unity of the world?

Most thinkers in the history of philosophy, regardless of philosophical direction, answered positively the question of the unity of the world. However, in each specific historical epoch, the foundations of this unity were defined differently, depending on the dominant principle of culture.

AT antiquity the unity of the world was seen through the principle cosmocentrism . The world is a spiritualized whole, where nature is a part of the Cosmos, and man is a part of nature. The world is one, because represents cosmic harmony.

AT Middle Ages the unity of the world was determined through the principle theocentrism : the unity of the world was personified by God the Creator.

In the era Renaissance the unity of being was determined by the principle anthropocentrism : Man was the integral basis of the world.

In the era new time the principle that determines the unity of the world has become mechanism : the world is one, because is an integral system functioning according to the laws of mechanics.

modern science the unity of the world connects with its materiality : the world is one, because it is material and exists in a single space-time dimension.

The problem of the unity of the world is one of the main ones in ontology. The key category for its solution is substance(lat. substantia - basis) - the fundamental principle of being, which is the cause and source of the whole variety of natural and social phenomena. The concept of "substance" characterizes reality from the point of view of its internal unity, the interconnection of all forms of its existence.

In resolving the issue of the substance of being as the basis of the unity of the world, the main philosophical directions are distinguished.

Philosophical pluralism recognizes the existence of several or many independent foundations of being. Some of the torments of the Ancient East and antiquity were of this nature (for example, Empedocles reduced the whole variety of things to four “roots”: earth, water, air, fire). In modern times, a striking example of pluralism is the system of G. Leibniz. He believed that everything consists of absolutely simple, indivisible spiritual particles - monads (they form an intelligible world, and the world of things - the "physical cosmos" - is derived from it). According to G. Leibniz, the number of monads is infinite, they do not physically interact with each other, but at the same time they form a single developing world; this unity is due to the existence of the highest monad - God. Those. pluralistic teachings do not contradict the idea of ​​the unity of the world.

Dualism proceeds from the recognition of two principles equal in rights and irreducible to each other - material and spiritual. The largest representative of this trend in the philosophy of modern times was R. Descartes, who claimed the existence of two equal and independent substances: spiritual (its main attribute is thinking) and material (its main attribute is extension). these two substances intersect and actively interact, but their relationship is only mechanical. ( A vivid example of such interaction is a person - the unity of the bodily and spiritual). The basis of the unity of the world is the absolute infinite substance - God, who is the Creator of the whole world and, in essence, the only substance (the concept of “substance” can be applied to the spiritual and material only conditionally, since they appear only in the world created by God).

Monism recognizes one substance as the basis of the world, which leads to the statement about the internal unity of the world. There is a difference between materialistic and idealistic monism. Idealistic monism in various forms it is represented in the philosophy of Plato (the fundamental principle of being is the world of ideas), religious and philosophical systems (divine principle), in the teachings of Hegel (Absolute Idea), etc. Materialistic monism characteristic of most elemental-materialistic teachings of antiquity; in modern times, it manifests itself in the teachings of T. Hobbes, B. Spinoza (recognition of the eternal and infinite substance in which God and nature are united and which is the cause of itself); in the teachings of the French materialists; in the philosophy of L. Feuerbach; in Marxism (here the idea of ​​the material unity of the world received scientific justification and is supplemented by the dialectical concept of development); in Russian philosophy - in the teachings of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky, etc.

The first philosophical school arose in the city of Miletus - a coastal city of Greece, one of the centers of trade (7-6 in BC). Representatives: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. The main idea of ​​the Milesian school is the unity of all being. This idea appeared in the form of a single material basis identical to all things - the root cause of "arche".

Thales considered water to be the fundamental principle - "everything comes from water and everything returns to it." Water in the understanding of Thales is "physis" (liquid state of matter). Thales is known not only as a philosopher, but also as a scientist - he explained the cause of a solar eclipse, divided the year into 365 days, measured the height of the pyramids of Cheops. The most famous thesis of Thales is "know thyself".

Anaximander is a student of Thales. Wrote a treatise "On Nature". As "arche" Anaximander considered "operon" - "that which is in addition to elements", abstract, something in between, intermediate, boundless. The operon contains opposites - hot and cold, dry and wet, and so on. The presence of opposites in it allows it to generate various things. The operon cannot be seen. The operon is eternal (has no beginning or end in time).

Anaximander was the first to propose a non-mythological theory of the origin of the universe and a primitive evolutionary theory of the origin of life from water. At the beginning of everything was the Infinite Beginning, which included all the elements in a mixed form. Then, from the Infinite Beginning, the primary elements were formed - fire, water, earth, air.

Anaximenes is a student of Anaximander. He believed that all things arose from the air and represent its modifications due to condensation and rarefaction. Air is a substance with opposite qualities. It is related to the human soul. "The soul sets in motion the human body, and the air - the Universe."

The thinkers of the Milesian school considered nature as the beginning and were monists (they believed that everything arose from one beginning).

Thales as a philosopher. Aristotle was the first to write about Thales as a philosopher. The Metaphysics says: “Of those who were the first to study philosophy, the majority considered the beginning of all things to be only the beginnings in the form of matter: that of which all things consist, from which they first arise and into which they ultimately go, and the main remains , but changes in its properties, they consider this an element and the beginning of things, And therefore they believe that nothing arises and does not perish, since such a basic nature is always preserved ... Not everyone indicates the quantity and form for such a beginning in the same way, but Thales, the ancestor of this kind of philosophy, considers it to be water" 1 / Aristotle. Metaphysics, book. I, ch. 3./. In this way, Aristotle comprehended the essence of the teachings of the first philosophers, whom we call spontaneous materialists.

Water - a philosophical rethinking of the Ocean, Nun, Abzu (Apsu). True, the title of his work "On the Beginnings" admits that Thales rose to the concept of the beginning, otherwise he would not have become a philosopher. Thales, understanding water as a beginning, naively makes the earth float on it - in this form he also represents the substantiality of water, it is under everything, everything floats on it.

On the other hand, it is not just water, but "reasonable", divine water. The world is full of gods (polytheism). However, these gods are forces acting in the world, they are also souls as sources of self-movement of bodies. So, for example, a magnet has a soul because it attracts iron. The sun and other celestial bodies feed on water vapor. What has been said can be summed up by the words of Diogenes Laertes about Thales: "He considered water to be the beginning of everything, and considered the world animated and full of deities" 2 / Diogenes Laertes. About the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers. M., 1979, p. 71./.

F. Engels emphasizes that the elemental materialism of Thales contained the "seed of a later split" 3 /Marx K., Engels F. Soch, 2nd ed., vol. 20, p. 504./. The deity of the cosmos is the mind. Before us here is not only the anti-mythology of Thales, who put in the place of Zeus the mind, logos, the son of Zeus, who denied his father, but also the possibility of idealism inherent in the proto-philosophical teaching.

The ontological monism of Thales is connected with his epistemological monism: all knowledge must be reduced to one single basis. Thales said: "Verbosity is not at all an indicator of a reasonable opinion." Here Thales spoke out against mythological and epic verbosity. "Look for one thing wise, choose one thing good, so you will stop the idle talk of talkative people."

2. The problem of movement and universal variability in the philosophy of Heraclitus.

Heraclitus (c. 530-470 BC) was a great dialectician, he tried to understand the essence of the world and its unity, based not on what it is made of, but on how this unity manifests itself. He singled out the property-variability as the main feature (his phrase: “You cannot enter the same river twice”). The epistemological problem of cognition arose: If the world is changeable, then how to cognize it? (The basis of everything is fire, it is also an image of perpetual motion).

It turns out that there is nothing, everything just becomes. It is impossible even to imagine that something in existence, suddenly numb, would freeze completely in absolute muteness. Only one fluid wave remains in sensation, which is difficult to grasp with the tentacles of the mind: it always escapes. This leads to the extreme skepticism of Cratylus: nothing can be asserted about anything, because everything flows; you say something good about a person, and he has already flowed into the mud of the bad.

According to the views of Heraclitus, the transition of a phenomenon from one state to another is accomplished through the struggle of opposites, which he called the eternal universal Logos, i.e. by a single law common to all existence: listening not to me, but to the Logos, it is wise to recognize that everything is one. According to Heraclitus, fire and the Logos are “equivalent”: “fire is rational and is the cause of the control of everything,” and that “it controls everything through everything,” he considers reason. Heraclitus teaches that the world, one of everything, was not created by any of the gods and none of the people, but was, is and will be an ever-living fire, naturally igniting and naturally extinguishing.

Fire as the soul of the Cosmos presupposes rationality and divinity. But the mind has the power to control everything that exists: it directs everything and gives form to everything. Mind, i.e. The Logos rules everything through everything. At the same time, the objective value of the human mind is determined by the degree of its adequacy to the Logos, i.e. general world order.

Heraclitus and the law of contradiction of motion

The problem of the natural connection of all phenomena in the philosophy of Heraclitus and Democritus.

Philosophical views of Democritus. Democritus on two levels of knowledge.

DEMOCRITES from Abder (460 - about 370 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, scientist-encyclopedist, student of Lev-kipn. Founder of the first historical type of philosophical and scientific atomism in the West. Traveled to Egypt, Babylon, Persia, Arabia, Ethiopia, India. Seventy works by D. are known by their titles (On the Nature of Man, The Small World Construction, On Ideas, On Purpose, and others), of which numerous (about 300) fragments have been preserved. D. contribution to the development of philosophical ideas is very great, but the most important is, of course, his doctrine of atoms. D. introduced the idea of ​​plurality and multiplicity into the conception of the beginning, traditional for antiquity, declaring as this beginning extremely small material particles that cannot be directly felt with the help of the senses. D. sets a kind of limit to this smallest beginning of division, which at a certain stage becomes no longer possible. It is from here that the name of the particle atomos (Greek) comes from - indivisible. The idea of ​​a plural, multiple, infinitely small, not perceived by the senses and having a division limit allowed D. to solve a number of problems of science and philosophy of that time: in particular, to answer the question of the causes of the plurality and diversity of things, the unity and materiality of the world, the unity of the bodily and material, as well as to explain the essence of the process of cognition. The absence of atoms, according to D., is emptiness (non-existence), an infinite space, thanks to which and in which the chaotic movement of atoms is carried out. Atoms are indivisible (due to hardness), have no qualities, differ in size, shape, shape and weight, location and order (shape, rotation and contact), are in empty space and perpetual motion. As a result of their connection and separation, worlds and things arise and perish. (The cosmogony of D. is similar to the views of Leucippus on cosmic vortexes that give rise to countless worlds). D.'s time has no beginning. According to D., everything happens according to some obscure and incomprehensible necessity (fate) and for a person it is actually identical to chance. Knowledge of the causes of phenomena is the meaning of true philosophical knowledge. According to D., it is preferable to "find one causal explanation than to become a Persian king." The soul - the embodiment of the element of fire - consists of special tiny round and smooth atoms distributed throughout the body. D. first used the term "microcosm", drawing an analogy between the cosmos and the organization of the human body. The gods exist in the form of compounds of fiery atoms and live longer than people without being immortal. The organ of thought is exclusively the brain. Sensations arise due to the penetration into the soul of the "images" ("idols") emanating from things. From the objects that people see, D. believes, small, invisible particles are separated and (connected in a certain way) pass through the void, falling in the form of an imprint on the retina of the eye, and then the work of the mind begins. The highest blessing is bliss, achieved by curbing desires and moderation in lifestyle. D., apparently, was the first to distinguish between applied arts, which involve learning, and artistic creativity, which requires rationally inexplicable inspiration. The atomistic concept of dynamism had a great influence on the history of philosophical and scientific thought, making the atom a kind of principle for explaining the existence, movement, birth, and death of material bodies.

Two levels of knowledge:

Man for Democritus is not only the soul and body, it is a whole microcosm. Outwardly, we know a person, however, we must understand what is not clear to us in him. In the search for an answer to this question, Democritus saw the meaning of the life of any philosopher. The process of human cognition consists of sensations and rational cognition. The first, sensory knowledge, Democritus considers "dark", since it is obscured by the deception of sensations. The second, rational knowledge, he calls "bright", since it penetrates deeper into the essence of things. These two ways of cognition, through sensations and reason, appear in Democritus as two levels of cognition, the highest and the lowest. And they complement each other. This suggests that Democritus, although unconsciously, operated on the concept of the threshold of sensation. In his opinion, for example, there is no sharp taste in nature, but it arises only in “opinion”, when the sense organs are affected by a substance whose atoms are sharp, angular in shape. Thus, all sensations (warm and cold, color, taste, smell) exist only “in opinion”, and “in truth” there are atoms and emptiness. This is the difficulty of knowledge - the mind cannot find the truth without feelings, and feelings cannot be trusted. The difficulty of cognition also determines the individual feelings of a person. Democritus, realizing the complexity of the relationship of the subject to the object, posed an important problem, which in the philosophy of modern times was called the problem of “primary and secondary qualities”. The primary qualities are the shape, order and position of the atoms. They exist and are comprehended by the mind. Secondary qualities are the properties of things perceived by the senses (heat, cold, smell, etc.). They exist "in the mind".

6. Philosophical views of Pythagoras and his school. Laws of the world and mathematics.

In contrast to the Ionian thinkers, who considered individual substances - water, air, fire - to be the fundamental principle of natural phenomena - Pythagoras considered numbers to be the basis of all things, which, in his opinion, are the foundation that forms order in the Universe and society. Therefore, knowledge of the world should consist in knowledge numbers that govern this world.This was the great merit of Pythagoras, who, in fact, first raised the question of the significance of the quantitative side of the surrounding world.Pythagoras did a lot in the development of geometry.
Pythagoras is credited with the formulation of the so-called Pythagorean theorem (the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs). Pythagoras divided all numbers into even and odd. He recognized the unit as the basis of all numbers, which was considered as an even-odd number. The unit is a sacred monad, which acted as the origin and basis of the world around. Numbers thus acted as the real essence of all things. Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans laid the foundations of number theory and the principles of arithmetic. At the same time, giving the dominant value to the number led to the absolutization of the number, to the mysticism of numbers. Here is how Diogenes Laertes describes the views of the Pythagoreans: “The beginning of everything is a unit, the unit as a cause is subject to an indefinite binary as a substance, numbers come from the unit and an indefinite binary, points come from numbers, points-lines from them are flat figures, from flat ones are three-dimensional figures, of which are sensually perceived bodies, in which the four bases are water and fire, earth and air, moving and transforming as a whole, they give rise to an animated, rational, spherical, in the middle of which is the earth, and the earth is also spherical and inhabited from all sides "[Diogenes Laertius. About life ... S. 338-339].
The Pythagoreans also dealt with music theory, sculpture, and architecture. They made a significant contribution to the theory of fine arts in relation to the problem of the "golden section" - the correct ratio of individual parts of buildings and sculptural groups (the "golden section" rule: if segment AC is divided at point B, then the ratio of segment AB to BC should be such as well as the ratio of the entire segment AC to BC).
With the theory of numbers, Pythagoras is associated with his doctrine of opposites, which consisted in the fact that all things are opposites: right - left, male - female, peace - movement, straight - curved, light - darkness, good - evil, etc. . Of particular importance for Pythagoras was the opposition "limit - limitless": the limit is fire, and the limitless is air. In his opinion, the world consists of the interaction of fire and air (emptiness).
A special area in the views of Pythagoras is represented by his religious, political and ethical concepts, his ideas about the soul and body. He believed that the human soul is immortal, it temporarily inhabits a mortal body, and then after death this soul moves to another body, reincarnates (metempsychosis). At the same time, it is believed that a person remembers all his incarnations that occurred in the past. Pythagoras believed that the highest ethical goal is catharsis - purification, which for the body occurs through vegetarianism, and for the soul - through the perception of the harmonic structure of the cosmos, expressed in basic musical intervals.
Pythagoreanism has existed since the 6th century. BC according to W.

7. The problem of man in the philosophy of Socrates. Socrates on meaning and generalized concepts in the knowledge of the world and the principles of human life.

Socrates is the principal enemy of the study of nature. The work of the human mind in this direction, he considers an impious and fruitless interference in the business of the gods. The world appears to Socrates as the creation of a deity, “so great and omnipotent that it sees and hears everything at once, and is present everywhere, and has care for everything.” Divination is needed, not scientific research, to get the guidance of the gods as to their will. And in this respect Socrates was no different from any ignorant Athenian. He followed the instructions of the Delphic oracle and advised his students to do this. Socrates carefully made sacrifices to the gods and generally diligently performed all religious rites. Socrates recognized the substantiation of the religious and moral worldview as the main task of philosophy, while the knowledge of nature, natural philosophy, was considered unnecessary and godless. Doubt (“I know that I know nothing”) should, according to the teachings of Socrates, lead to self-knowledge (“know thyself”). Only in such an individualistic way, he taught, can one come to an understanding of justice, right, law, piety, good and evil. Materialists, studying nature, came to the denial of the divine mind in the world, the sophists questioned and ridiculed all previous views - therefore, according to Socrates, it is necessary to turn to the knowledge of oneself, the human spirit, and in it to find the basis of religion and morality. Thus, Socrates solves the main philosophical question as an idealist: the primary for him is the spirit, consciousness, while nature is something secondary and even insignificant, not worth the attention of the philosopher. Doubt served Socrates as a prerequisite for turning to his own Self, to the subjective spirit, for which the further path led to the objective spirit - to the divine mind. The idealistic ethics of Socrates develops into theology.

Developing his religious and moral teaching, Socrates, in contrast to the materialists, who call to “listen to nature”, refer to a special inner voice that allegedly instructed him in the most important issues - the famous “demon” of Socrates. Socrates opposes the determinism of the ancient Greek materialists and outlines the foundations of a teleological worldview, and here the starting point for him is the subject, because he believes that everything in the world has as its goal the benefit of man. The teleology of Socrates appears in an extremely primitive form. The sense organs of a person, according to this doctrine, have as their goal the fulfillment of certain tasks: the goal of the eyes is to see, the ears are to listen, the nose is to smell, etc. In the same way, the gods send the light necessary for people to see, the night is intended by the gods for the rest of people, the light of the moon and stars has the purpose of helping to determine time. The gods take care that the earth produces food for man, for which the corresponding order of the seasons is introduced; moreover, the movement of the sun occurs at such a distance from the earth that people do not suffer from excessive heat or excessive cold, etc. Socrates did not clothe his philosophical doctrine in writing, but spread it through oral conversation in the form of a peculiar, methodologically directed to a specific goal dispute. Not limited to a leading role within his philosophical and political circle, Socrates wandered around Athens and everywhere - in the squares, on the streets, in places of public meetings, on a country lawn or under a marble portico - conducted "conversations" with the Athenians and visiting strangers, put before philosophical, religious and moral problems with them, led lengthy disputes with them, tried to show what, in his opinion, really moral life consisted of, opposed materialists and sophists, and conducted tireless oral propaganda of his ethical idealism.

The development of idealistic morality is the main core of the philosophical interests and activities of Socrates.

Socrates attached particular importance to the knowledge of the essence of virtue. A moral person should know what virtue is. Morality and knowledge coincide from this point of view; in order to be virtuous, it is necessary to know virtue as such, as the “universal” that serves as the basis of all particular virtues. According to Socrates, the task of finding the "universal" was to be facilitated by his special philosophical method. The “Socratic” method, which had as its task the discovery of “truth” through conversation, dispute, polemic, was the source of idealistic “dialectics”. “In ancient times, dialectics was understood as the art of achieving truth by revealing contradictions in the opponent’s judgment and overcoming these contradictions. In ancient times, some philosophers believed that the disclosure of contradictions in thinking and the clash of opposing opinions is

the best means of discovering the truth."

While Heraclitus taught about the struggle of opposites as the driving force behind the development of nature, focusing mainly on objective dialectics, Socrates, relying on the Eleatic school (Zeno) and the Sophists (Protagoras), for the first time clearly raised the question of subjective dialectics, about the dialectical way of thinking. The main components of the "Socratic" method: "irony" and "maieutics" - in form, "induction" and "definition" - in content. The “Socratic” method is, first of all, the method of consistently and systematically asked questions, with the aim of bringing the interlocutor to a contradiction with himself, to the recognition of his own ignorance. This is the Socratic "irony". However, Socrates set as his task not only an “irynical” disclosure of contradictions in the statements of the interlocutor, but also overcoming these contradictions in order to achieve “truth”. Therefore, the continuation and addition of "irony" was "maieutics" - "midwife" of Socrates (a hint at his mother's profession). Socrates wanted to say by this that he helps his listeners to be born into a new life, to the knowledge of the “universal” as the basis of true morality.

The main task of the "Socratic" method is to find the "universal" in morality, to establish the universal moral basis of individual, particular virtues. This problem must be solved with the help of a kind of "induction" and "definition". The conversation of Socrates proceeds from the facts of life, from concrete phenomena. He compares individual ethical facts, extracts common elements from them, analyzes them in order to discover contradictory moments that prevent their unification, and, ultimately, reduces them to a higher unity on the basis of the essential features found. In this way he arrives at a general concept. So, for example, the study of individual manifestations of justice or injustice opened up the possibility of defining the concept and essence of justice or injustice in general. “Induction” and “determination” in the dialectic of Socrates complement each other. If “induction” is the search for the common in particular virtues by analyzing and comparing them, then “definition” is the establishment of genera and species, their correlation, “subordination”. Here is how, for example, in a conversation with Euthydemus, who was preparing for state activity and wishing to know what justice and injustice are, Socrates applied his “dialectical” method of thinking. First, Socrates suggested that the cases of justice be entered in the “delta” column, and the cases of injustice - in the “alpha” column, then he asked Euthydemus where to enter the lie. Euthydemus proposed to put lies in the column "alpha" (injustice). He proposed the same with regard to deceit, theft and kidnapping for sale into slavery. In the same way, to the question of Socrates whether any of the above can be entered in the column “delta” (justice), Euthydemus answered with a resolute denial. Then Socrates asked Euthydemus a question of this kind: is it fair to enslave the inhabitants of an unjust enemy city. Euthydemus recognized such an act as just. Then Socrates asked a similar question regarding the deceit of the enemy and regarding the theft and robbery of goods from the inhabitants of the enemy city. Euthydemus recognized all these actions as fair, pointing out that he initially thought that Socrates' questions concern only friends. Then Socrates pointed out that all actions originally assigned to the column of injustice should be placed in the column of justice. Euthydemus agreed with this. Then Socrates declared that, therefore, the previous “definition” was wrong and that a new “definition” should be put forward: “In relation to enemies, such actions are just, but in relation to friends they are unjust, and in relation to them, on the contrary, one should be as fairer." However, Socrates did not stop there and, again resorting to "induction", showed that this "definition" is also incorrect and requires its replacement by another. To achieve this result, Socrates again finds contradictions in the position recognized by the interlocutor as true, namely, in the thesis that only the truth should be told in relation to friends. Is it right for a general, Socrates asks, if, in order to raise the morale of the troops, he lies to his soldiers that the allies are approaching. Euthydemus agrees that this kind of deception of friends should be entered in the column “delta”, and not “alpha”, as suggested by the previous “definition”. Similarly, Socrates continues the “induction”, would it not be fair if a father deceives his sick son, who does not want to take medicine, and under the guise of food forces him to take this medicine, and thereby restores his son’s health with his lie. Euthydemus agrees that this kind of deceit should be recognized as a fair deed. Then Socrates asks him what to call the act of that person who, seeing his friend in a state of despair and fearing that he would commit suicide, steal or simply take away his weapon. This theft, or this robbery, Euthydemus is also forced to put in the column of justice, again violating the previous “definitions” and coming to the conclusion prompted by Socrates that one does not have to be truthful in all cases with friends. After that, Socrates moves on to the question of the difference between a voluntary and involuntary act, continuing his “induction” and seeking a new, even more precise “definition” of justice and injustice. Ultimately, a definition of unjust acts is obtained as those that are committed against a friend with the intention of harming them. Truth and morality for Socrates are coinciding concepts. Socrates did not make a distinction between wisdom and morality: he recognized a person as smart and moral at the same time, if a person, understanding what is beautiful and good, is guided by this in his actions and, conversely, knowing what is morally ugly, avoids him. ... Just deeds, and in general all deeds based on virtue, are beautiful and good. Therefore, people who know what such actions consist of will not want to do any other action instead of this one, and people who do not know cannot do them, and even if they try to do them, they fall into error. Thus, only the wise do beautiful and good deeds, but the unwise cannot, and even if they try to do, they fall into error. And since just and, in general, all beautiful and good deeds are based on virtue, it follows from this that both justice and every other virtue are wisdom.

The first philosophical school arose in the city of Miletus - a coastal city of Greece, one of the centers of trade (7-6 in BC). Representatives: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. The main idea of ​​the Milesian school is the unity of all being. This idea appeared in the form of a single material basis identical to all things - the root cause of "arche".

Thales considered water to be the fundamental principle - "everything comes from water and everything returns to it." Water in the understanding of Thales is "physis" (liquid state of matter). Thales is known not only as a philosopher, but also as a scientist - he explained the cause of a solar eclipse, divided the year into 365 days, measured the height of the pyramids of Cheops. The most famous thesis of Thales is "know thyself".

Anaximander is a student of Thales. Wrote a treatise "On Nature". As "arche" Anaximander considered "operon" - "that which is in addition to elements", abstract, something in between, intermediate, boundless. The operon contains opposites - hot and cold, dry and wet, and so on. The presence of opposites in it allows it to generate various things. The operon cannot be seen. The operon is eternal (has no beginning or end in time).

Anaximander was the first to propose a non-mythological theory of the origin of the universe and a primitive evolutionary theory of the origin of life from water. At the beginning of everything was the Infinite Beginning, which included all the elements in a mixed form. Then, from the Infinite Beginning, the primary elements were formed - fire, water, earth, air.

Anaximenes is a student of Anaximander. He believed that all things arose from the air and represent its modifications due to condensation and rarefaction. Air is a substance with opposite qualities. It is related to the human soul. "The soul sets in motion the human body, and the air - the Universe."

The thinkers of the Milesian school considered nature as the beginning and were monists (they believed that everything arose from one beginning).

Thales as a philosopher. Aristotle was the first to write about Thales as a philosopher. The Metaphysics says: “Of those who were the first to study philosophy, the majority considered the beginning of all things to be only the beginnings in the form of matter: that of which all things consist, from which they first arise and into which they ultimately go, and the main remains , but changes in its properties, they consider this an element and the beginning of things, And therefore they believe that nothing arises and does not perish, since such a basic nature is always preserved ... Not everyone indicates the quantity and form for such a beginning in the same way, but Thales, the ancestor of this kind of philosophy, considers it to be water" 1 / Aristotle. Metaphysics, book. I, ch. 3./. In this way, Aristotle comprehended the essence of the teachings of the first philosophers, whom we call spontaneous materialists.

Water - a philosophical rethinking of the Ocean, Nun, Abzu (Apsu). True, the title of his work "On the Beginnings" admits that Thales rose to the concept of the beginning, otherwise he would not have become a philosopher. Thales, understanding water as a beginning, naively makes the earth float on it - in this form he also represents the substantiality of water, it is under everything, everything floats on it.

On the other hand, it is not just water, but "reasonable", divine water. The world is full of gods (polytheism). However, these gods are forces acting in the world, they are also souls as sources of self-movement of bodies. So, for example, a magnet has a soul because it attracts iron. The sun and other celestial bodies feed on water vapor. What has been said can be summed up by the words of Diogenes Laertes about Thales: "He considered water to be the beginning of everything, and considered the world animated and full of deities" 2 / Diogenes Laertes. About the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers. M., 1979, p. 71./.

F. Engels emphasizes that the elemental materialism of Thales contained the "seed of a later split" 3 /Marx K., Engels F. Soch, 2nd ed., vol. 20, p. 504./. The deity of the cosmos is the mind. Before us here is not only the anti-mythology of Thales, who put in the place of Zeus the mind, logos, the son of Zeus, who denied his father, but also the possibility of idealism inherent in the proto-philosophical teaching.

The ontological monism of Thales is connected with his epistemological monism: all knowledge must be reduced to one single basis. Thales said: "Verbosity is not at all an indicator of a reasonable opinion." Here Thales spoke out against mythological and epic verbosity. "Look for one thing wise, choose one thing good, so you will stop the idle talk of talkative people."

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land of struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.

From the second half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands is determined, its importance as one of the main cultural centers is growing. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.

The struggle against the Mongol - Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became the main theme of oral folk art. Many oral folk poetic works on this topic have entered the written literature in a revised form. Among them are legends about the battle on the Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu and the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, about the exploits of Mercury of Smolensk, about the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of Ice, about the Battle of Kulikovo.

The heroic epic epic reached its highest rise. Ancient epics received a new life. The compilers of the epics about the Tatar invasion turned to the samples of the Kyiv heroes, grouped around the old prince Vladimir "Red Sun". They tell how the Tatars approached Kyiv and how the Kyiv heroes drove out the invaders. Kyiv in epics is presented as the embodiment of Russian statehood, as an ideal epic center of the entire Russian land. During this period, the creation of the epic epic cycle associated with Kyiv and Prince Vladimir was completed. It fully manifested the interest in the heroic past of the Russian people, characteristic of the entire Russian culture of that time.

In the 14th century, a new genre of oral folk art took shape - the genre of historical song. Unlike the epic epic, in the historical song, the heroes and events are depicted much closer to reality, the time of action is not conventionally epic, but specifically historical, although the plot and heroes may be fictional. This is a live, immediate response to specific events. A historical song is not a work about the past, but about the present; it becomes historical only for the next generations.

A variation of this genre are songs about the Tatar population, and above all songs about the girls - polonyanka. In the center of them is not the fate of the state, but private human destinies, through which one of the tragic moments of the fate of the people is revealed. The image of a pure and steadfast spirit of a girl who is captured embodies the image of the Russian land suffering under the heavy yoke.

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, laid down in the 11th - 12th centuries, managed to be preserved.

The rise of culture from the second half of the XIV century. accompanied by the development of the book business. The largest centers of literacy were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries, numbering hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity - Sergius, Kirillo - Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time.

The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in the technique of writing. In the XIV century. expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strictly "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-statutes appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand.

Russian book XIV - XV centuries. played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments, and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

Russian literature of the XIV - XV centuries. inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward the most important problems of the political life of Russia. Chronicle writing was especially closely connected with social and political life. Being historical works, chronicles were at the same time political documents that played a large role in the ideological and political struggle.

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was the military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures. Military tales are secular works close to oral folk art, although many of them were reworked in the spirit of church ideology.

The victory over the Mongols - Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under its influence, a series of works arose, which are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy.

In the XIV - XV centuries, hagiographic literature developed greatly, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power.

In hagiographic literature, the rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread. Lengthy and ornate speeches were introduced into the text - monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, arguments of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared.

Painting reached its peak in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century. Here, at this time, the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev.

Cultural development of Russian lands in the XIV - XV centuries. was an extremely important stage in the formation of an all-Russian culture, which absorbed the achievements of local cultures.

From the end of the 15th century, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture. The improvement of urban crafts, the increase in the financial resources of the state were the material prerequisites for the expansion of the scale of stone construction, both in the religious and in the civil sphere. The innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork displaced the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects.

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Only a state united by a single idea can be united. After all, only the state is able to unite the disparate ideas, feelings, emotions of millions of its citizens and express their common will at a rational level through legal policy and the practice of its implementation. An essential factor in ensuring the unity of the Russian people is a single state ideology.

One of the priorities in the development of a democratic legal Russian state at the present stage of its development was the development of common values ​​for all Russians, a common national idea. For such a multinational and multi-confessional country as Russia, this is of particular importance.

According to the results of the All-Russian population census, Russia is one of the most multinational states in the world - representatives of over 200 peoples and ethnic groups live in the country. The seven peoples inhabiting Russia - Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Chechens and Armenians - have a population of more than 1 million people. Russians are the most numerous nationality, their number was 116 million people. As stated in the "Concept of the State National Policy of the Russian Federation", approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation on June 15, 1996: "Thanks to the unifying role of the Russian people, unique unity and diversity, spiritual community and union of various peoples have been preserved." Thus, the Russian element of community, economy, culture, psychology is decisive for other ethnic groups and the entire state.

Russian society, which is at a socio-historical turning point, is in dire need of specific knowledge of the goals of economic and political transformations, as well as ideas that can rally it to achieve these goals.

The development of the Russian state testifies that the imperial ideology of tsarist Russia, and then the communist ideology, failed.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, when there was no unifying idea, nevertheless, it was possible to maintain a single federal state. As rightly noted by R.G. Abdulatipov: "There is no alternative to interethnic interaction and unity, the unification of multinational forces in the Russian Federation" .

After the election of the President of the Russian Federation in 1996, a discussion about the development of a national idea developed with particular acuteness in society. The head of state was also a supporter of this. Speaking at a meeting with his proxies on July 12, 1996, he said that "there were different periods in the history of Russia in the 20th century - monarchism, totalitarianism, perestroika. Each stage had its own ideology. But we don't have it now. And this bad. Think about what national idea, national ideology is the most important for Russia. "

Various ideas were proposed as unifying ideas: national self-affirmation, statehood, religious revival and others. We believe that when it comes to the formation of a single state ideology, one must clearly realize that this should be a universal ideology.

A special role in the formation of state ideology belongs to the constitution. S.A. Avakyan rightly notes that "the constitution simply cannot but be an ideological - in the sense of a worldview - document ... each constitution consolidates its own system of social values ​​... and is aimed at ensuring that the corresponding views of each member of society are formed on its basis" . In the doctrine of the constitution, when considering its essence, its ideological function is singled out separately, which lies in the fact that it is a means of ideological influence. "Constitutional values, being the core of the liberal democratic ideology, are protected and guarded". If we take into account that the Constitution of the Russian Federation has the highest legal force and legitimacy, since it was adopted directly by the people in a referendum, then it can be argued that the Russians recognize the ideological norms enshrined in it, and the state is obliged to ensure their propaganda in society by all legal means.

In general, the views of state scientists regarding the formation of a single state idea were divided into two polar camps.

Supporters of one approach argue that in such a multinational country as Russia, the state idea that ensures the unity of the state must be supranational. We join the opinions of scientists who believe that the formation of a supranational concept of Russian statehood is a prerequisite for the unity of the Russian people. The essence of the supranational concept is seen in the creation of a federation model that would ensure the gradual formation of a single Russian nation.

According to V.A. Tishkov, the cultivation and cultivation of a special ethnically supranational community of the Russian people - the Russian nation can become the ideological basis for ensuring the viability of the Russian state, maintaining its unity, integrity and stability, and achieving national harmony.

Another approach is related to the fact that in a multinational and multi-confessional Russia, the state idea cannot be supranational. According to F.Z. Dzapshba, the civilizational parameters of modern Western federalism are set in many respects by the acting carrier super-concept of "post-national society". In Russia, one way or another, the "multi-ethnic state" acts as a system-forming central super-concept.

Indeed, a characteristic feature of the Russian Federation is that it is one of the largest multinational states in the world.

We believe that the idea of ​​a united and indivisible Russia may well serve as a unifying and reconciling national state idea.

According to analysts, the events of the past year, and especially the tragedy in Beslan, forced the Kremlin to take a fresh look at the slogan of ensuring the country's unity, making it the main and backbone. According to Vladislav Surkov, Deputy Head of the Presidential Administration of the Russian Federation, the thesis of the President of the Russian Federation "Russia must be united" is quite suitable for a new national idea. The message of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation in 2003 was called "Strong Russia - United Russia".

It is the President of the Russian Federation and the Federal Assembly that should develop and approve the state ideology. At the same time, a necessary condition should be the involvement of a wide range of political, religious and scientific communities. As noted by V.I. Kovalenko, E.V. Goloshumov, "without clear scientific support ... it can turn into another monster that has tormented Russia more than once, become a means of political manipulation directed against the country and people" . In addition, we consider it expedient to submit the relevant concept for public discussion.

As part of the formation of a new federal state, a return to the old ideological dogmas is impossible; a new integrating national idea is needed, which should be based on democracy, citizenship, and patriotism. "Achieving not proclaimed, but real unity of the legal, political and socio-economic space will become irreversible if all peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation develop a sense of belonging to Russia not on the basis of blood, but on the basis of historical and cultural community and a single state language"