Is Islam, the birth of which dates back to the 7th century and is associated with the name of the prophet Muhammad, who professed monotheism. Under his influence, a community of co-religionists was formed in Hadjiz - on the territory of Western Arabia. Further conquests by Muslims of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran and a number of other states led to the emergence of an Arab caliphate - a powerful Asian state. It included whole line conquered lands.

Caliphate: what is it?

The very word "caliphate" in translation from Arabic has two meanings. This is the name of that huge state created after the death of Muhammad by his followers, and the title of the supreme ruler under whose rule the countries of the Caliphate were. The period of existence of this state formation, marked by a high level of development of science and culture, went down in history as the Golden Age of Islam. Conventionally, it is considered to be its borders in 632-1258.

After the death of the caliphate, there are three main periods. The first of them, which began in 632, was due to the creation of the Righteous Caliphate, headed by four caliphs in turn, whose righteousness gave the name to the state they ruled. The years of their reign are marked by a number of major conquests, such as the capture of the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus, the Levant and large parts of North Africa.

Religious disputes and territorial conquests

The emergence of the Caliphate is closely connected with the disputes about his successor that began after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. As a result of numerous debates, a close friend of the founder of Islam, Abu Bakr al-Saddik, became the supreme ruler and religious leader. He began his reign with a war against apostates who departed from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad immediately after his death and became followers of the false prophet Musailima. Their forty thousandth army was defeated in the battle of Arkaba.

The subsequent ones continued the conquest and expansion of the territories subject to them. The last of them, Ali ibn Abu Talib, became the victim of rebellious apostates from the main line of Islam, the Kharijites. This put an end to the election of the supreme rulers, since Muawiyah I, who seized power and became caliph by force, appointed his son as the successor at the end of his life, and thus a hereditary monarchy was established in the state - the so-called Umayyad Caliphate. What it is?

New, second form of caliphate

This period in the history of the Arab world owes its name to the Umayyad dynasty, from which Muawiyah I came. His son, who inherited the supreme power from his father, further pushed the boundaries of the caliphate, winning resounding military victories in Afghanistan, North India and the Caucasus. His troops even captured part of Spain and France.

Only the Byzantine Emperor Leo the Isaurian and the Bulgarian Khan Tervel were able to stop his victorious advance and put a limit to territorial expansion. Europe, however, owes its salvation from the Arab conquerors, first of all, to the outstanding commander of the 8th century, Charles Martel. The Frankish army led by him defeated the hordes of invaders in the famous battle of Poitiers.

Restructuring the consciousness of soldiers in a peaceful way

The beginning of the period associated with the Umayyad Caliphate is characterized by the fact that the position of the Arabs themselves in the territories they occupied was unenviable: life resembled the situation in a military camp, which was in a state of continuous combat readiness. The reason for this was the extremely religious zeal of one of the rulers of those years, Umar I. Thanks to him, Islam acquired the features of a militant church.

The emergence of the Arab caliphate gave rise to a large social group of professional warriors - people whose only occupation was participation in aggressive campaigns. So that their minds would not be rebuilt in a peaceful way, they were forbidden to take possession land plots and get settled. By the end of the reign of the dynasty, the picture had changed in many ways. The ban was lifted, and, having become landowners, many yesterday's warriors of Islam preferred the life of peaceful landowners.

Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty

It is fair to note that if during the years of the Righteous Caliphate for all its rulers political power in its significance gave way to religious influence, now it has taken a dominant position. In terms of its political grandeur and cultural flourishing, the Abbasid Caliphate deservedly acquired the greatest glory in the history of the East.

What it is - knows today the majority of Muslims. Memories of him still strengthen their spirit. The Abbasids are a dynasty of rulers who gave their people a whole galaxy of brilliant statesmen. Among them were generals, and financiers, and true connoisseurs and patrons of art.

Caliph - patron of poets and scientists

It is believed that the Arab caliphate under Harun ar Rashid - one of the most prominent representatives of the ruling dynasty - reached the highest point of its heyday. This statesman went down in history as the patron of scientists, poets and writers. However, having devoted himself entirely to the spiritual development of the state he headed, the caliph turned out to be a poor administrator and a completely useless commander. By the way, it was his image that was immortalized in the collection that survived the centuries. oriental tales"Thousand and One Nights".

“The golden age of Arab culture” is an epithet that the caliphate headed by Harun ar Rashid deserved the most. What it is can be fully understood only by becoming familiar with the stratification of Old Persian, Indian, Assyrian, Babylonian and partly Greek cultures, which contributed to the development of scientific thought during the reign of this enlightener of the East. All the best that was created by the creative mind ancient world, he managed to unite, making the Arabic language the basic basis for this. That is why expressions such as “Arab culture”, “Arab art” and so on have come into our use.

Development of trade

In the vast and at the same time orderly state, which was the Abbasid Caliphate, the demand for the products of neighboring states increased significantly. This was the result of an increase general level the life of the population. Peaceful relations with neighbors at that time made it possible to develop barter trade with them. Gradually, the circle of economic contacts expanded, and even countries located at a considerable distance began to enter into it. All this gave impetus to further development crafts, arts and navigation.

In the second half of the 9th century, after the death of Harun ar Rashid, in political life Caliphate marked the processes that eventually led to its collapse. Back in 833, the ruler Mutasim, who was in power, formed the Praetorian Turkic Guard. Over the years, it has become such a powerful political force that the ruling caliphs became dependent on it and practically lost the right to make independent decisions.

The growth of national self-consciousness among the Persians subject to the caliphate also belongs to the same period, which caused their separatist sentiments, which later became the reason for the breakaway of Iran. The general disintegration of the caliphate accelerated due to the separation from it in the west of Egypt and Syria. The weakening of centralized power made it possible to declare their claims to independence and a number of other previously controlled territories.

Increasing religious pressure

The caliphs, who lost their former power, tried to enlist the support of the faithful clergy and take advantage of its influence on the masses. The rulers, beginning with Al-Mutawakkil (847), made the fight against all manifestations of freethinking their main political line.

In the state, weakened by the undermining of the authority of the authorities, an active religious persecution of philosophy and all branches of science, including mathematics, began. The country was steadily sinking into the abyss of obscurantism. The Arab caliphate and its collapse were a clear example of how beneficial the influence of science and free thought on the development of the state, and how destructive their persecution.

End of the era of the Arab caliphates

In the 10th century, the influence of the Turkic commanders and emirs of Mesopotamia increased so much that the previously powerful caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty turned into petty Baghdad princes, whose only consolation was the titles left from former times. It got to the point that the Buyid Shiite dynasty, which had risen in Western Persia, having gathered a sufficient army, captured Baghdad and actually ruled it for a hundred years, while representatives of the Abbasids remained nominal rulers. There could be no greater humiliation to their pride.

In 1036, a very difficult period began for all of Asia - the Seljuk Turks began an aggressive campaign, unprecedented at that time, which caused the destruction of Muslim civilization in many countries. In 1055, they drove the Buyids who ruled there from Baghdad and established their dominance. But their power also came to an end when, at the beginning of the 13th century, the entire territory of the once powerful Arab caliphate was captured by countless hordes of Genghis Khan. The Mongols finally destroyed everything that had been achieved Eastern culture for previous centuries. The Arab Caliphate and its collapse have now become only pages of history.

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, the Righteous Caliphate was created. It was headed by four Righteous Caliphs: Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Usman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib. During their reign, the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant (Sham), the Caucasus, part of North Africa from Egypt to Tunisia and the Iranian Highlands were included in the Caliphate.

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

The position of the non-Arab peoples of the Caliphate

By paying a land tax (kharaj) in exchange for providing them with protection and immunity from the Muslim state, as well as a head tax (jizya), the Gentiles had the right to practice their religion. Even the aforementioned decrees of "Umar, it was fundamentally recognized that the law of Muhammad is armed only against pagan polytheists; "People of Scripture" - Christians, Jews - can, by paying a fee, remain in their religion; in comparison with neighboring Byzantium, where any Christian heresy was persecuted, Islamic law, even under Umar, was relatively liberal.

Since the conquerors were not at all prepared for complex forms of state administration, even "Umar was forced to preserve the old, well-established Byzantine and Iranian state mechanism for the newly formed huge state (before Abdul-Malik, even the office was not conducted in Arabic), - and therefore gentiles were not denied access to many government positions.For political reasons, Abd al-Malik considered it necessary to remove non-Muslims from public service, but with complete consistency this order could not be carried out either during his time or after him; -Malik, his courtiers close to him were Christians ( famous example- Father John Damascene). Nevertheless, among the conquered peoples there was a great inclination to renounce their former faith - Christian and Parsi - and voluntarily accept Islam. The new convert, until the Umayyads came to their senses and issued a law in 700, did not pay taxes; on the contrary, under the law of Omar, he enjoyed an annual salary from the government and was completely equalized with the winners; higher government positions were made available to him.

On the other hand, the conquered had to convert to Islam also out of inner conviction; - how else to explain the mass adoption of Islam, for example, by those heretic Christians who before that in the kingdom of Khosrov and in the Byzantine empire could not be deviated from the faith of their fathers by any persecution? Obviously, Islam, with its simple dogmas, spoke to their hearts quite well. Moreover, Islam did not appear to the Christians, or even to the Parsees, as some kind of abrupt innovation: in many points it was close to both religions. It is known that for a long time Europe saw in Islam, highly revering Jesus Christ and the Blessed Virgin, nothing more than one of the Christian heresies (for example, the Orthodox Arab Archimandrite Christopher Zhara argued that the religion of Muhammad is the same Arianism)

The adoption of Islam by Christians and - then - Iranians had extremely important consequences, both religious and state. Islam, instead of indifferent Arabs, acquired in its new followers such an element for which to believe was an essential need of the soul, and since these were educated people, they (Persians much more than Christians) were engaged by the end of this period in the scientific processing of Muslim theology and, combined with to him jurisprudence, subjects which up to that time had been modestly developed by only a small circle of those Moslem Arabs who, without any sympathy from the Umayyad government, remained faithful to the teachings of the prophet.

It was said above that the general spirit that permeated the Caliphate in the first century of its existence was Old Arabic (this fact, much clearer even than in the Umayyad government reaction against Islam, was expressed in the then poetry, which continued to brilliantly develop the same pagan-tribal, cheerful themes that were outlined in the Old Arabic poems). In protest against the return to pre-Islamic traditions, a small group of companions (“ Sahabs”) of the prophet and their heirs (“ Tabiins”) was formed, which continued to observe the precepts of Muhammad, led in the silence of the capital she had left - Medina and in some places in other places of the Caliphate theoretical work on the orthodox interpretation of the Qur'an and on the creation of an orthodox sunna, that is, on the definition of truly Muslim traditions, according to which the impious life of the contemporary Umayyad X would have to be reconstructed. These traditions, which, among other things, preached the destruction of the tribal principle and the equalizing unification of all Muslims in the bosom of the Muhammadan religion, came to the newly converted foreigners, obviously, to the heart more than the arrogant un-Islamic attitude of the ruling Arab spheres, and therefore the Medinan theological school, clogged, ignored by pure Arabs and the government, found active support in the new non-Arab Muslims.

There were, perhaps, well-known disadvantages for the purity of Islam from these new, believing followers: partly unconsciously, partly even consciously, ideas or trends began to creep into it, alien or unknown to Muhammad. Probably, the influence of Christians (A. Müller, “Ist. Isl.”, II, 81) explains the appearance (at the end of the 7th century) of the Murjiites sect, with its teaching on the infinite merciful long-suffering of the Lord, and the Kadarite sect, which is the doctrine of free will man prepared the triumph of the Mu'tazilites; probably, mystical monasticism (under the name of Sufism) was borrowed by Muslims at first from Syrian Christians (A. f. Kremer "Gesch. d. herrsch. Ideen", 57); in the lower In Mesopotamia, Muslim converts from Christians joined the ranks of the republican-democratic sect of the Kharijites, equally opposed to both the unbelieving Umayyad government and the Medinan orthodox believers.

An even more double-edged benefit in the development of Islam was the participation of the Persians, which came later, but more actively. A significant part of them, not being able to get rid of the age-old ancient Persian view that “royal grace” (farrahi kayaniq) is transmitted only through heredity, joined the Shiite sect (see), which stood behind the Ali dynasty (husband of Fatima, daughter of the prophet) ; besides, standing up for the direct heirs of the prophet meant for foreigners to constitute a purely legal opposition against the Umayyad government, with its unpleasant Arab nationalism. This theoretical opposition took on a very real meaning when Umar II (717-720), the only one of the Umayyads devoted to Islam, took it into his head to implement the principles of the Koran that were favorable to non-Arab Muslims and, thus, introduced disorganization into the Umayyad system of government.

30 years after him, the Khorasanian Shia Persians overthrew the Umayyad dynasty (the remnants of which fled to Spain; see related article). True, due to the cunning of the Abbasids, the throne of X. went (750) not to the Alids, but to the Abbasids, also relatives of the prophet (Abbas is his uncle; see the corresponding article), but, in any case, the expectations of the Persians were justified: under the Abbasids, they received an advantage in state and breathed new life into it. Even the capital of X. was moved to the borders of Iran: first - to Anbar, and from the time of Al-Mansur - even closer, to Baghdad, almost to the same places where the capital of the Sassanids was; and for half a century, members of the vizier family of the Barmakids, descended from Persian priests, became hereditary advisers to the caliphs.

Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258)

First Abbasids

In terms of its political, although no longer aggressive, grandeur and cultural flourishing, the age of the first Abbasids is the brightest time in the history of the caliphate, which brought him worldwide fame. Until now, proverbs circulate all over the world: “the times of Harun al-Rashid”, “the luxury of the caliphs”, etc.; many Muslims, even today, strengthen their spirit and body with memories of this time.

The limits of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the surviving Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman I laid the first foundation in Spain () for an independent Cordoba emirate, which since 929 has been officially titled "caliphate" (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the great-grandson of Caliph Ali and therefore equally hostile to both the Abbasids and the Umayyads, founded the Alid dynasty of the Idrisids (-) in Morocco, whose capital was the city of Tudga; the rest of the northern coast of Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost to the Abbasid Caliphate, when the governor of Aghlab, appointed by Harun al-Rashid, was the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty (-) in Kairouan. The Abbasids did not consider it necessary to resume their foreign policy of conquest against Christian or other countries, and although military clashes arose from time to time both on the eastern and northern borders (like Mamun’s two unsuccessful campaigns against Constantinople), however, in general, the caliphate lived peacefully.

Such a feature of the first Abbasids as their despotic, heartless and, moreover, often insidious cruelty is noted. Sometimes, as with the founder of the dynasty, she was an open object of Caliph's pride (the nickname "Bloodshed" was chosen by Abu-l-Abbas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the cunning al-Mansur, who liked to dress himself before the people in hypocritical clothes of piety and justice, preferred, where possible, to act deceitfully and executed dangerous people surreptitiously, first lulling their caution with oaths and favors. With al-Mahdi and with Harun ar-Rashid, cruelty was obscured by their generosity, however, the perfidious and ferocious overthrow of the vizier family of the Barmakids, extremely useful for the state, but imposing a certain bridle on the ruler, is for Harun one of the most disgusting acts of Eastern despotism. It should be added that under the Abbasids, a system of torture was introduced into the legal proceedings. Even the religiously tolerant philosopher Mamun and his two successors are not too free from the reproach of tyranny and hardness of heart towards people unpleasant to them. Kremer finds (Culturgesch. d. Or., II, 61; compare Müller: Historical Isl., II, 170) that the very first Abbasids show signs of hereditary Caesarian madness, which intensifies even more in descendants.

In justification, one can only say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy in which the countries of Islam were located during the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, worried by the adherents of the overthrown Umayyads, bypassed Alids, predatory Kharijites and various Persian sectarians of radical , terrorist measures were, perhaps, a simple necessity. Apparently, Abu-l-Abbas understood the meaning of his nickname "Bloodshed". Thanks to the formidable centralization that the heartless man, but the brilliant politician al-Mansur, succeeded in introducing, the subjects were able to enjoy inner peace, and the state finances were set up in a brilliant way.

Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the caliphate dates back to the same cruel and treacherous Mansur (Masudi: "Golden Meadows"), who, despite his notorious stinginess, treated science with encouragement (meaning, first of all, practical, medical goals) . But, on the other hand, it remains undoubted that the flourishing of the caliphate would hardly have been possible if Saffah, Mansur and their successors ruled the state directly, and not through the talented vizier family of the Persian Barmakids. Until this family was overthrown () by the unreasonable Harun ar-Rashid, burdened by her guardianship, some of its members were the first ministers or close advisers to the caliph in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were in important government positions in the provinces (like Fadl ), and all together managed, on the one hand, to maintain for 50 years the necessary balance between Persians and Arabs, which gave the caliphate its political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the ancient Sasanian life, with its social structure, with its culture, with its mental movement.

"Golden Age" of Arab culture

This culture is usually called Arabic, because the Arabic language has become the organ of mental life for all the peoples of the Caliphate, - therefore they say: "Arabic art", "Arab science”, etc.; but in essence these were mostly the remnants of the Sassanid culture and, in general, the Old Persian culture (which, as is known, also adopted much from India, Assyria, Babylon and, indirectly, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the Caliphate, we observe the development of the remnants of the Byzantine culture, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - the culture of the Roman and Roman-Spanish - and uniformity in them is imperceptible, if we exclude the link that connects them - the Arabic language. It cannot be said that the foreign culture inherited by the caliphate rose qualitatively under the Arabs: the Iranian-Muslim architectural buildings are lower than the old Parsi ones, similarly, Muslim products made of silk and wool, household utensils and jewelry, despite their charm, are inferior to ancient products. [ ]

But on the other hand, in the Muslim, Abbasid period, in a vast, united and orderly state, with carefully arranged communication routes, the demand for Iranian-made items increased, and the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with neighbors made it possible to develop remarkable foreign barter trade: with China through Turkestan and - by sea - through the Indian Archipelago, with the Volga Bulgars and Russia through the kingdom of the Khazars, with the Spanish Emirate, with the whole Southern Europe(except, perhaps, Byzantium), with the eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, ivory and slaves were exported), etc. The main port of the caliphate was Basra.

The merchant and the industrialist are the main characters of Arabian tales; various dignitaries, military leaders, scientists, etc. were not ashamed to add to their titles the nickname Attar (“moskateur”), Heyat (“tailor”), Javhariy (“jeweler”), and so on. However, the nature of the Muslim-Iranian industry is not so much the satisfaction of practical needs as luxury. The main items of production are silk fabrics (muslin, satin, moire, brocade), weapons (sabers, daggers, chain mail), embroideries on canvas and leather, braided works, carpets, shawls, chased, engraved, carved ivory and metals, mosaic works, faience and glassware; less often purely practical items - paper, cloth and camel wool.

The well-being of the agricultural class (for reasons, however, taxable, not democratic) was raised by the restoration of irrigation canals and dams, which were launched under the last Sassanids. But even according to the consciousness of the Arab writers themselves, the caliphs failed to bring the people's ability to pay to such a height as was achieved by the tax system of Khosrov I Anushirvan, although the caliphs ordered the Sasanian cadastral books to be translated into Arabic on purpose for this purpose.

The Persian spirit also takes possession of Arabic poetry, which now, instead of Bedouin songs, gives the refined works of the Basrian Abu Nuwas (“Arabic Heine”) and other court poets Harun al-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockelman: “Gesch. d. arab. Litt.”, I, 134) a correct historiography arises, and after the “Life of the Apostle” compiled by Ibn Ishak for Mansur, a number of secular historians also appear. From Persian, Ibn al-Mukaffa (about 750) translates the Sasanian “Book of Kings”, the Pahlavi adaptation of Indian parables about “Kalila and Dimna” and various Greek-Syro-Persian philosophical works, which Basra, Kufa first of all get acquainted with, then and Baghdad. The same task is performed by people of a language closer to the Arabs, the former Persian subjects of the Aramean Christians of Jondishapur, Harran, etc.

Moreover, Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”) takes care of the translation into Arabic of Greek medical works, and at the same time - mathematical and philosophical ones. Harun gives the manuscripts brought from the Asia Minor campaigns for translation to the Jondishapur doctor John ibn Masaveih (who even engaged in vivisection and was then a life doctor for Mamun and his two successors), and Mamun arranged, already specifically for abstract philosophical purposes, a special translation board in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greek-Syro-Persian philosophy, the commentary work on the interpretation of the Koran turns into scientific Arabic philology (Basrian Khalil, Basrian Persian Sibaveyhi; Mamun's teacher is Kufi Kisviy) and the creation of Arabic grammar, the philological collection of works of pre-Islamic and Umayyad folk literature (Muallaki, Hamasa, Khozeilit poems, etc.).

The age of the first Abbasids is also known as a period of the highest tension of the religious thought of Islam, as a period of strong sectarian movement: the Persians, who were now converting to Islam en masse, took Muslim theology almost completely into their own hands and aroused a lively dogmatic struggle, among which heretical sects, outlined even under The Umayyads, received their development, and the orthodox theology and jurisprudence was defined in the form of 4 schools, or interpretations: under Mansur - the more progressive Abu Hanif in Baghdad and the conservative Malik in Medina, under Harun - the relatively progressive ash-Shafi'i, under Mamun - ibn Hanbal. The attitude of the government towards these orthodoxies has not always been the same. Under Mansur, a supporter of the Mu'tazilites, Malik was flogged to mutilation.

Then, during the next 4 reigns, orthodoxy prevailed, but when Mamun and his two successors raised (since 827) Mutazilism to the level of state religion, the followers of orthodox interpretations were subjected to official persecution for "anthropomorphism", "polytheism", etc., and under al-Mu'tasim was flogged and tortured by the holy imam ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the caliphs could fearlessly patronize the Mu'tazilite sect, because its rationalistic doctrine of the free will of man and the creation of the Koran and its inclination towards philosophy could not seem politically dangerous. To sects of a political nature, such as, for example, the Kharijites, Mazdakites, extreme Shiites, who sometimes raised very dangerous uprisings (the false prophet Moqanna in Khorasan under al-Mahdi, 779, the brave Babek in Azerbaijan under Mamun and al-Mutasim, etc. ), the attitude of the caliphs was repressive and merciless even at the time of the supreme power of the caliphate.

Loss of political power of the caliphs

Witnesses of the gradual disintegration of X. were caliphs: the already mentioned Mutawakkil (847-861), the Arab Nero, highly praised by the orthodox; his son Muntasir (861-862), who ascended the throne, having killed his father with the help of the Turkic guards, Mustain (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Mukhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muktafi I (902-908), Muktadir (908-932), Al-Qahir (932-934), Al-Radi (934-940), Muttaqi (940-944), Mustakfi (944-946). In their person, the caliph from the ruler of a vast empire turned into the prince of a small Baghdad region, at enmity and reconciliation with his sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker neighbors. Inside the state, in their capital Baghdad, the caliphs became dependent on the masterful praetorian Turkic guard, which Mutasim (833) saw fit to form. Under the Abbasids, the national identity of the Persians revived (Goldzier: "Muh. Stud.", I, 101-208). Harun's reckless extermination of the Barmakids, who knew how to rally the Persian element with the Arab, led to discord between the two peoples.

Persecution of free thought

Feeling their weakening, the caliphs (the first - Al-Mutawakkil, 847) decided that they should gain new support for themselves - in the orthodox clergy, and for this - renounce Mutazilite free-thinking. Thus, since the time of Mutawakkil, along with the progressive weakening of the power of the caliphs, there has been an increase in orthodoxy, the persecution of heresies, free thought and heterodoxy (Christians, Jews, etc.), religious persecution of philosophy, natural and even exact sciences. A new powerful school of theologians, founded by Abul-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936), who left Mu'taziliteism, conducts scientific polemics with philosophy and secular science and wins public opinion.

However, in fact, to kill the mental movement of the Caliph, with their more and more falling political power, they were not able to, and the most glorious Arab philosophers (Basri encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and other scientists lived under the auspices of vassal sovereigns just in that era ( - c.), when officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogma and in opinion populace philosophy and non-scholastic sciences were recognized as impious; and literature towards the end of the said epoch produced the greatest free-thinking Arab poet Ma'arri (973-1057); at the same time, Sufism, which had taken root very well in Islam, with many of its Persian representatives passed into complete freethinking.

Cairo Caliphate

The Shiites (c. 864) also became a powerful political force, especially their branch of the Carmatians (q.v.); when in 890 the strong fortress Dar al-Hijra was built in Iraq by the Qarmatians, which became a stronghold for the newly formed predatory state, since then “everyone was afraid of the Ismailis, but they were nobody,” in the words of the Arab historian Noveyria, and the Qarmatians disposed of as they wanted, in Iraq, Arabia and border Syria. In 909, the Qarmatians succeeded in founding the Fatimid dynasty (909-1169) in northern Africa, which in 969 took Egypt and southern Syria from the Ikhshids and proclaimed the Fatimid Caliphate; The power of the Fatimid Kh. was also recognized by northern Syria with its talented Hamdanid dynasty (929-1003), under which free-thinking Arabic philosophy, science, and poetry found patronage. Since in Spain Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman III also managed to take the title of caliph (929), now there were three X ..

The most prosperous state in the Mediterranean throughout the Middle Ages, along with Byzantium, was the Arab Caliphate, created by the prophet Mohammed (Mohammed, Mohammed) and his successors. In Asia, as in Europe, military-feudal and military-bureaucratic public entities, as a rule, as a result of military conquest and annexations. This is how the Mughal empire arose in India, the empire of the Tang dynasty in China, etc. A strong integrating role fell to the Christian religion in Europe, the Buddhist religion in the states of Southeast Asia, and the Islamic religion in the Arabian Peninsula.

The coexistence of domestic and state slavery with feudal-dependent and tribal relations continued in some countries of Asia even during this historical period.

The Arabian Peninsula, where the first Islamic state arose, is located between Iran and Northeast Africa. At the time of the Prophet Mohammed, who was born around 570, it was sparsely populated. The Arabs were then a nomadic people and, with the help of camels and other pack animals, provided trade and caravan links between India and Syria, and then North African and European countries. The Arab tribes were also concerned about ensuring the safety of trade routes with oriental spices and handicrafts, and this circumstance served as a favorable factor in the formation of the Arab state.

1. State and law in the early period of the Arab Caliphate

Arab tribes of nomads and farmers inhabited the territory of the Arabian Peninsula from ancient times. On the basis of agricultural civilizations in the south of Arabia, already in the 1st millennium BC. early states arose similar to the ancient Eastern monarchies: the Sabaean kingdom (VII-II centuries BC), Nabatia (VI-I centuries). In large trading cities, city self-government was formed according to the type of an Asia Minor policy. One of the last early South Arab states - the Himyarite kingdom - fell under the blows of Ethiopia, and then the Iranian rulers at the beginning of the 6th century.

By the VI-VII centuries. the bulk of the Arab tribes were at the stage of supra-communal administration. Nomads, merchants, farmers of the oases (mainly around the sanctuaries) united family by family into large clans, clans into tribes. The head of such a tribe was considered an elder - a seid (sheikh). He was both the supreme judge, and the military leader, and the general leader of the assembly of clans. There was also a meeting of elders - Majlis. Arab tribes also settled outside Arabia - in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the borders of Byzantium, forming temporary tribal unions.

The development of agriculture and animal husbandry leads to the property differentiation of society, to the use of slave labor. The leaders of clans and tribes (sheikhs, seids) base their power not only on customs, authority and respect, but also on economic power. Among the Bedouins (inhabitants of the steppes and semi-deserts) there are salukhs that do not have a means of subsistence (animals) and even taridi (robbers), who were expelled from the tribe.

The religious ideas of the Arabs were not united into some kind of ideological system. Fetishism, totemism and animism were united. Christianity and Judaism were widespread.

In VI Art. on the Arabian Peninsula there were several independent one from one pre-feudal states. The elders of the clans and the tribal nobility concentrated many animals, especially camels. In areas where agriculture was developed, a process of feudalization took place. This process swept the city-states, in particular Mecca. On this basis, a religious and political movement arose - the Caliphate. This movement was directed against tribal cults for the creation of a common religion with one deity.

The caliph movement was directed against the tribal nobility, in whose hands was power in the Arab pre-feudal states. It arose in those centers of Arabia where the feudal system acquired greater development and significance - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib, it also covered Mecca, where Muhammad was one of its representatives.

The nobility of Mecca opposed Muhammad, and in 622 he was forced to flee to Medina, where he found support from the local nobility, which was dissatisfied with the competition from the nobility of Mecca.

A few years later, the Arab population of Medina became part of the Muslim community, which was led by Muhammad. He performed not only the functions of the ruler of Medina, but was also a military leader.

The essence of the new religion was the recognition of Allah as a single deity, and Muhammad as his prophet. It is recommended to pray every day, count the fortieth part of income in favor of the poor, and fast. Muslims must take part in the holy war against the infidels. The previous division of the population into clans and tribes, from which almost every state formation began, was undermined.

Muhammad proclaimed the need for a new order, excluding tribal strife. All Arabs, regardless of their tribal origin, were called upon to form a single nationality. Their head was to be the prophet-messenger of God on earth. The only conditions for joining this community were the recognition of a new religion and the strict observance of its prescriptions.

Mohammed quickly gathered a significant number of adherents and already in 630 managed to settle in Mecca, the inhabitants of which by that time were imbued with his faith and teachings. The new religion was called Islam (peace with God, obedience to the will of Allah) and quickly spread throughout the peninsula and beyond. In dealing with representatives of other religions - Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians - the followers of Mohammed maintained religious tolerance. In the first centuries of the spread of Islam, on Umayyad and Abbasid coins, a saying was minted from the Koran (Sura 9.33 and Sura 61.9) about the prophet Mohammed, whose name means “gift of God”: “Mohammed is the messenger of God, whom God sent with instruction to the right path and with true faith, in order to exalt it above all faiths, even if the polytheists were dissatisfied with this.

New ideas found zealous supporters among the poor. They converted to Islam, as they had long lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from disasters and devastation.

Initially, the movement was popular in nature, which scared away the rich, but this did not last long. The actions of the adherents of Islam convinced the nobility that the new religion did not threaten their fundamental interests. Soon, representatives of the tribal and trading elites became part of the ruling elite of Muslims.

By this time (20–30 years of the 7th century), the organizational formation of the Muslim religious community headed by Muhammad was completed. The military detachments she created fought for the unification of the country under the banner of Islam. The activities of this military-religious organization gradually acquired a political character.

Having first united the tribes of two rival cities - Mecca and Yathrib (Medina) - under his rule, Muhammad led the struggle to unite all Arabs into a new semi-state, semi-religious community (ummah). In the early 630s. a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the authority and authority of Muhammad. Under his leadership, a kind of proto-state was formed with the spiritual and political power of the prophet at the same time, relying on the military and administrative powers of new supporters - the Muhajirs.

By the time of the prophet's death, almost all of Arabia fell under his rule, his first successors were Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, nicknamed righteous caliphs(from "caliph" - successor, deputy), - stayed with him in friendly and family ties. Already under Caliph Omar (634 - 644), Damascus, Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia, and then Egypt, were annexed to this state. In the east, the Arab state expanded through the territory of Mesopotamia and Persia. Over the next century, the Arabs conquer North Africa and Spain, but fail twice in the conquest of Constantinople, and later in France are defeated at Poitiers (732), but in Spain they hold their dominance for another seven centuries.

30 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was divided into three large sects, or currents - into Sunnis (who relied on the theological and legal issues on the Sunnah - a collection of traditions about the words and deeds of the prophet), Shiites (considered themselves to be more accurate followers and exponents of the views of the prophet, as well as more accurate executors of the orders of the Koran) and the Kharijites (who took as a model the policy and practice of the first two caliphs - Abu Bakr and Omar).

With the expansion of the borders of the state, Islamic theological and legal constructions were influenced by more educated foreigners and non-believers. This affected the interpretation of the Sunnah and fiqh (jurisprudence) closely related to it.

The Umayyad dynasty (from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the Abbasid dynasty following them (from the descendants of the prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the X century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.

The emerging state solved one of the most important tasks facing the country - overcoming tribal separatism. By the middle of the 7th century the unification of Arabia was basically complete.

Muhammad's death raised the question of his successors as the supreme head of the Muslims. By this time, his closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From its midst, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs (“deputies of the prophet”).

After the death of Muhammad, the unification of the Arab tribes continued. Power in the union of tribes was transferred to the spiritual heir of the prophet - the caliph. Internal struggles were suppressed. During the reign of the first four caliphs (“righteous ones”), the Arab proto-state, relying on the general armament of nomads, began to expand rapidly at the expense of neighboring states.

The emergence of the caliphate is closely connected with the birth of such a world religion as Islam, which appeared in the 7th century. At the origins of the creation of such a state as the Arab Caliphate, stands the prophet Muhammad, who, professing monotheism, declared himself a prophet and created a community of fellow believers in the city of Hadjiz.

Gradually expanding his sphere of influence, Muhammad managed to lay the foundation for such a powerful state as the Arab Caliphate. Acquiring more and more co-religionists every year, Muslims were able to conquer a number of states, which formed such a powerful Asian state, which was the Arab Caliphate.

Why was the empire called the Caliphate?

The formation of the caliphate went on at an accelerated pace after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The word "Caliphate" itself has several meanings:

• This is the name of the state, headed by the caliph, that is, the patrimony of the caliph;
• Religious-political organization, in which all power belongs to the caliph.

The Arab caliphate existed from 632 to 1258, during its existence, has achieved tremendous success, both in the art of war, and in culture and science. The history of the caliphate has 3 main periods:

1. Began in 632. This period is characterized by the predominance of the so-called "pure Arab spirit" and the righteousness of the reign of 4 caliphs. At that time, the Arabs valued valor, honor and glory most of all. The map of the caliphate increased significantly during this period, as many lands were conquered;
2. period of the Umayyad dynasty. Also characterized by numerous military campaigns;
3. The Rise, Rise, and Fall of the Abbasid Dynasty.

Here is a list of historical caliphates who held real power:

• Arab Caliphate, which lasted until 1258;
• Righteous Caliphate. Existed from 630 to 661;
• Umayyad Caliphate. Its existence lasted from 661 to 750;
• Caliphate of Cordoba. This empire was located on the territory modern states Spain and Portugal. The Caliphate of Cordoba was formed in 929 and lasted until 1031;
• The Abbasid Caliphate was formed in 750 and lasted until 1258. Over the years, this caliphate twice fell under the rule of the conquerors.

Although in essence all these caliphates, except for the Cordoba one, are the same Arab caliphate, nevertheless, it is customary to single them out separately.

The era of the rule of elected caliphs

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the country began to be torn apart by disputes, the essence of which boiled down to who would become the new Caliph of the mighty empire. In the end, the closest person from Muhammad's entourage, Abu Bakr al-Saddik, was chosen. Being a zealous Muslim, he began his reign by declaring war on all infidels who, after the death of Muhammad, went over to the false prophet Musailima. After some time, Caliph Aba Bakr al-Saddik defeated the forty-thousandth army of infidels in the battle of Arkaba, having won vast new territories for his empire. The next elected caliphs continued to expand the borders of their empire, until the last of them, Ali ibn Abu Talib, fell victim to the Kharijites, who were apostates from the main branch of Islam.

The next caliph, Muawiyah I, seized power by force and appointed his son as his successor, initiating a hereditary monarchy.

The development of the Arab empire until the Battle of Poitiers

Caliph Muawiyah I, who appointed his son as successor, mercilessly cracked down on all opponents of Islam. His son Yazid I further pushed the boundaries of the empire, but was condemned by the people for the murder of the grandson of the prophet Muhammad. His son held power for no more than a year, after which a representative of the Marvanid subdynasty became Caliph.

The Arab empire during this period seized vast territories in India, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and even part of France fell into the hands of the Arabs. In Europe, it was only in the 8th century that the great Frankish commander Charles Martel managed to stop the conquerors. His troops were able to defeat the far superior enemy forces at the Battle of Poitiers.

The state structure of the empire during this period is characterized by the appearance of a caste of warriors. Although the Arabs lived in the occupied territories, their life was not much different from life in a military camp - at any moment it was necessary to expect an attack by the enemy. The next caliph Umar I contributed a lot to this. It was he who made a real militant church out of the warriors of Islam. Anyone who did not accept Islam was subject to immediate destruction.

Toward the end of this period, the number of military campaigns decreased. The role of professional warriors decreased, and they gradually began to turn into landlords. Since there used to be a ban on the purchase of land by warriors, they were forced to spend their whole lives in battles. After the lifting of the ban, the number of landlords increased dramatically.

Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty and the weakening of the Caliphate

The caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty is a real "golden age" in the history of the development of the Arab state. The memory of this time is still the pride of all Muslims. In this era, it was not political power that came to the fore, but religious influence.

The Abbasids contributed to the development of the state, during the era of their reign, many world-famous scientists, generals, historians, doctors, poets and merchants appeared. Arab chroniclers and merchants traveled all over the world and compiled many maps.

Already in the 9th century, the Arab Caliphate laid the foundations for those processes that ultimately led to its destruction. This mistake was made by Caliph Mutasim, who, even before coming to power, began to prepare, recruiting for himself a personal guard from the Turks. To do this, he first bought up all the Turkic slaves in Baghdad. After coming to power, he continued to single out his Turkic guard, which over the years became similar to the Roman Praetorian guard. Gradually, the Turkic guards became so influential that they dictated their terms to the caliphs, who actually lost real power.

In the same period, the Persians, sensing the weakness of the Arab caliphate, began to revolt, which ultimately led to the separation of Iran from the empire. Centralized power was so weakened that Egypt and Syria also gained independence. Other states that were part of the Arab Caliphate also declared their rights to independence.

The collapse of the Caliphate

Since the power of the caliphs was seriously weakened, starting from 847, the rulers tried to enlist the support of the clergy so that they would influence the people. A period of persecution began in all branches of science, not even excluding mathematics. Scientists were declared enemies of Islam and ruthlessly destroyed. Nothing good came of it. The smartest people left the caliphate, and those who remained were unable to somehow influence the situation.

Already at the beginning of the 10th century, the Turkic guard completely seized power in the country, leaving the caliphs only Baghdad and high-profile titles. Soon the Buyid dynasty, noticing the weakening of the caliphate, gathered an army and gained power over the empire for almost 100 years, although the former caliphs were still legally considered the rulers of the country.

In the 11th century, the power in the Arab Caliphate was seized by the Seljuk Turks, who practically destroyed the Muslim civilization. After 200 years, the territory of the once powerful state was again plundered by the next invaders. This time it was the Mongols who finally destroyed the Arab Caliphate.

The most famous Arab caliph

The caliph of Baghdad Harun ar Rashid was the most famous caliph in the history of the Arab state. It is believed that it was under him that the Arab caliphate reached the pinnacle of development. The ruler was very fond of various scientists, poets and writers. However, the ruler, who was highly developed in the spiritual realm, was completely unsuitable as a military commander or a tough administrator. Under his rule, the country was left to the hands of officials who were in a hurry to fill their own pockets. It is known for sure that Harun ar Rashid served as a prototype of the caliph from the world-famous book of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”.

Despite all the shortcomings of the ruler, it was he who was able to collect in his country the achievements of the famous world cultures of various eras, combining them on the basis of Arabic. Under Harun ar Rashid, the empire stopped expanding, so trade began to flourish. Since the wealthy state needed many different goods that were not in the Arab state, trade served as an impetus for the development of navigation. Various crafts and arts began to develop. In those days, Arab craftsmen became famous as the best gunsmiths. The famous Damascus sabers and other ornate weapons were worth their weight in gold.

Caliphate of Cordoba, its rise and fall

The Caliphate of Cordoba was founded by one of the descendants of the Umayyads, who was forced to leave the Arab Caliphate. Having lost power, Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 took the title of emir. In an effort to restore his power, he subjugated all the petty rulers in the territory of modern Portugal and Spain. His descendant Abd ar-Rahman III solemnly proclaimed himself caliph in 929. It was during the reign of this caliph and his son that the caliphate of Cordoba reached its highest dawn.

The warriors of the caliphate terrified the whole medieval Europe, and the standard of living of the caliphate far exceeded the European standard of living of that time. Often Europeans laughed at the Caliph's warriors, who observed hygienic procedures, calling them "cleansers".

At the beginning of the 11th century, the caliphate of Cordoba lost its strong centralized power and disintegrated into a number of small emirates.

Arab caliphate today

Today one can observe an attempt to revive the Arab Caliphate. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant group, notorious for its terrorist attacks, has long declared to the whole world that it is creating a new caliphate that will surpass all the achievements of the medieval Arab caliphate with its glory. Taking advantage of the constant squabbles of tribes and religious groups, the bandits captured part of the territory of Syria and Iraq. After announcing the creation of the Islamic State, the group proclaimed its leader as caliph, and invited all devout Muslims to swear allegiance to the new caliph of all Muslims, Abu Bakr Baghdadi. Loudly asserting their rights with terrorist attacks around the world, the group tried to legitimize the seizure of Iraqi territories on political map peace.

However, the claims of the extremist group for absolute power not only in the region, but throughout the world, have generated discontent among other gangster and religious groups. For example, the famous Al-Qaeda, after several attempts to direct the development of the newly-made caliphate in accordance with its interests, completely renounced the Islamic State.

Even such serious states as the UAE and Saudi Arabia took the statements of the Islamic State as a personal insult. The king of Saudi Arabia, who has the title of "Keeper of the Two Holy Mosques", which, in the opinion of many Muslims, is almost equivalent to the title of caliph, shows particular dissatisfaction.

Military action against the Islamic State

US troops, dissatisfied with the aggressive actions of the new caliphate, have long been at war with the Islamic State. It seemed that America was not interested in ending this conflict. How else can one explain the fact that one of the most powerful world powers could not deal with a bunch of bandits who imagined themselves to be the rulers of the world.

Having intervened in this conflict in 2015, Russia launched a series of strikes on the positions and facilities of the Islamic State in Syria. By December 2016 Russian aviation made more than 30,000 sorties, destroying more than 62,000 enemy objects. On December 6, 2017, Deputy Minister of Defense of Russia V. Gerasimov said that the territory of Syria was completely cleared of militants of the Islamic State.

The Arab caliphate made an invaluable contribution to world culture. Until now, people all over the world read the famous poets of that era. The terrorists' attempt to revive the caliphate at the present time, relying on brute force, looks simply ridiculous.

Arab Caliphate

The Arab Caliphate is the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean, which existed there throughout the Middle Ages. The prophet Mohammed (Mohammed, Mohammed) and his successors took part in its creation.The Caliphate, being a medieval state, was formed as a result of the unification of several Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, which is located between Northeast Africa and Iran.The emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the seventh century had such a characteristic feature as the religious coloring of the process, which was accompanied by a new world religion - Islam.

AT political movement for the unification of different tribes there was a slogan in which the rejection of many things was clearly expressed, including: paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the tendencies towards the emergence of a new system (“Hanif”). The search for preachers of a new god and new truths is associated with the name of Muhammad, they took place at that time under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. He personally proclaimed the need to establish the cult of Allah as a single god.In the new social order, tribal strife should be excluded. At the head of the Arabs should be a certain "messenger on earth from Allah" - that is, a prophet.

The calls of the Islamists to establish social injustice included the following points:
1. Limit usury.
2. Establish alms for the poor.
3. Free the slaves.
4. Requirement honest relationship in trade.

This caused great discontent among the representatives of the merchant nobility, as a result, Muhammad was forced to flee with his closest associates to the city of Yathrib (later it was called the "city of the Prophet" - Medina). There he soon enlisted the support of Bedouin nomads and other representatives of various social groups. The first mosque was erected in the city with the definition of the order in which the Muslim worship will be held.Muhammad was the leader: both military and spiritual, and also served as the chief judge.

Thirty years after his death, Islam was divided into three major currents, or rather sects, namely:
- Sunnis, who relied on the Sunnah in matters of justice and theology, where traditions about the actions and words of the prophet were collected;
- Shiites, who considered themselves the exact spokesmen and followers of the views that the prophet adhered to and exactly fulfilled the instructions of the Koran;
- Kharijites, for whom the first two caliphs, Omar and Abu Bakr, were a model of policy and practice.
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In the history of the Arab Caliphate, as a medieval one, there are two different periods:
- Damascus, when the Umayyad dynasty ruled;
- Baghdadi, when the Abbassid dynasty ruled.

Both corresponded to the main stages in the development of the medieval Arab state and society. As for the first stage in the development of the caliphate, it was a relatively centralized theocratic monarchy. In it there was a concentration of two powers: spiritual (Imamat) and secular (Emirate), they were considered unlimited and indivisible.
At the very beginning, the caliphs were chosen by the Muslim nobility, but later the power of the caliph was transferred by testamentary order written by him. The role of the chief adviser and the highest official under the caliph belonged to the vizier.In Muslim law, they were divided into two types. Some had wide power, others only limited powers, ie. they could only carry out the orders of the caliph. AT early period caliphate, as a rule, viziers of the second type were appointed.
The most important officials at the court included the following positions: the head of personal protection, the head of the police, and a special official, who, in turn, oversaw all other officials.
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central authority government controlled Caliph were government special offices, they were office work, postal service and was the function of the secret police. The territory of the caliphate was divided into several provinces under the control of emirs - military governors, who were appointed by the caliph himself.
But the huge medieval empire called the Arab Caliphate was nevertheless abolished by the Mongols in the thirteenth century. Move the residence to Cairo, where the Caliph, even before the sixteenth century, retained spiritual leadership among the Sunnis, later it went to the Turkish sultans.