Byzantium is now what kind of country. Byzantium and the Byzantine Empire - a piece of antiquity in the Middle Ages

One of the greatest state formations antiquity, in the first centuries of our era fell into decay. Numerous tribes, standing on the lower levels of civilization, destroyed much of the heritage of the ancient world. But the Eternal City was not destined to perish: it was reborn on the banks of the Bosphorus and for many years amazed contemporaries with its splendor.

Second Rome

The history of the emergence of Byzantium dates back to the middle of the 3rd century, when Flavius ​​Valery Aurelius Constantine, Constantine I (the Great) became the Roman emperor. In those days, the Roman state was torn apart by internal strife and besieged external enemies. The state of the eastern provinces was more prosperous, and Constantine decided to move the capital to one of them. In 324, the construction of Constantinople began on the banks of the Bosphorus, and already in 330 it was declared the New Rome.

Thus began its existence Byzantium, whose history spans eleven centuries.

Of course, there was no talk of any stable state borders in those days. Throughout its long life, the power of Constantinople then weakened, then again gained power.

Justinian and Theodora

In many ways, the state of affairs in the country depended on the personal qualities of its ruler, which is generally characteristic of states with an absolute monarchy, to which Byzantium belonged. The history of its formation is inextricably linked with the name of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) and his wife, Empress Theodora, a very extraordinary woman and, apparently, extremely gifted.

By the beginning of the 5th century, the empire had turned into a small Mediterranean state, and the new emperor was obsessed with the idea of ​​reviving former glory: he conquered vast territories in the West, achieved relative peace with Persia in the East.

History is inextricably linked with the era of the reign of Justinian. It is thanks to his care that today there are such monuments of ancient architecture as a mosque in Istanbul or the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Historians consider one of the most notable achievements of the emperor to be the codification of Roman law, which became the basis of the legal system of many European states.

Medieval manners

Construction and endless wars demanded huge expenses. The Emperor raised taxes endlessly. Discontent grew in society. In January 532, during the appearance of the emperor at the Hippodrome (a kind of analogue of the Colosseum, which accommodated 100 thousand people), riots broke out, which grew into a large-scale riot. It was possible to suppress the uprising with unheard of cruelty: the rebels were persuaded to gather in the Hippodrome, as if for negotiations, after which they locked the gates and killed everyone to the last.

Procopius of Caesarea reports the death of 30 thousand people. It is noteworthy that the emperor's crown was kept by his wife Theodora, it was she who convinced Justinian, who was ready to flee, to continue the fight, saying that she prefers death to flight: "royal power is a beautiful shroud."

In 565, the empire included parts of Syria, the Balkans, Italy, Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor, and the northern coast of Africa. But the endless wars had an adverse effect on the state of the country. After the death of Justinian, the borders began to shrink again.

"Macedonian Revival"

In 867, Basil I came to power, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, which lasted until 1054. Historians call this era the "Macedonian revival" and consider it the maximum flourishing of the world medieval state, which at that time was Byzantium.

The history of the successful cultural and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire is well known to all states. of Eastern Europe: one of the most characteristic features foreign policy Constantinople was missionary. It was thanks to the influence of Byzantium that the branch of Christianity spread to the East, which after 1054 became Orthodoxy.

Cultural Capital of the European World

The art of the Eastern Roman Empire was closely associated with religion. Unfortunately, for several centuries, political and religious elites could not agree on whether the worship of sacred images was idolatry (the movement was called iconoclasm). In the process, a huge number of statues, frescoes and mosaics were destroyed.

Extremely indebted to the empire, history throughout its existence was a kind of guardian of ancient culture and contributed to the spread of ancient Greek literature in Italy. Some historians are convinced that the Renaissance was largely due to the existence of the New Rome.

During the era of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire managed to neutralize the two main enemies of the state: the Arabs in the east and the Bulgarians in the north. The history of victory over the latter is very impressive. As a result of a sudden attack on the enemy, Emperor Basil II managed to capture 14,000 prisoners. He ordered them to be blinded, leaving only one eye for every hundredth, after which he let the crippled people go home. Seeing his blind army, the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil suffered a blow from which he never recovered. Medieval customs were indeed very severe.

After the death of Basil II, the last representative of the Macedonian dynasty, the history of the fall of Byzantium began.

End rehearsal

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by an unsuccessful campaign in the "promised land", the crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople without a fight, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but this rule was rather miserable. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even plundered church and private property in kind.

Fall of Constantinople

By the beginning, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. Desperate attempts by the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to enlist military support were unsuccessful. On May 29, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II renamed the city Istanbul, and the main Christian temple of the city, the Cathedral of St. Sophia, turned into a mosque. With the disappearance of the capital, Byzantium also disappeared: the history of the most powerful state of the Middle Ages ceased forever.

Byzantium, Constantinople and New Rome

It is a very curious fact that the name "Byzantine Empire" appeared after its collapse: for the first time it is found in the study of Hieronymus Wolf already in 1557. The reason was the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Constantinople was built. The inhabitants themselves called it none other than the Roman Empire, and themselves - the Romans (Romeans).

The cultural influence of Byzantium on the countries of Eastern Europe can hardly be overestimated. However, the first Russian scientist who began to study this medieval state was Yu. A. Kulakovsky. "History of Byzantium" in three volumes was published only at the beginning of the twentieth century and covered the events from 359 to 717. In the last few years of his life, the scientist prepared the fourth volume of the work for publication, but after his death in 1919, the manuscript could not be found.

Constantinople (Tsargrad) is one of the ancient capitals of the world. Constantinople is the disappeared capital of the disappeared state - the Byzantine Empire (Byzantium). The monuments of Byzantine architecture that are located in Istanbul remind of the former grandeur of Constantinople.

Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. Byzantine fortifications in Istanbul. Turkey.

Constantinople (Tsargrad)- the capital of the Roman Empire, then the Byzantine Empire - a state that arose in 395 during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part. The Byzantines themselves called themselves the Romans - in Greek "Romans", and their power "Romean".

Where is Constantinople located? In May 1453, Turkish troops captured the capital of Byzantium. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul and became the capital Ottoman Empire. Thus, the ancient capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, disappeared from the political map of the world, but the city did not cease to exist in reality. On the political map Constantinople was replaced by Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire (until 1923).

Mosaic of the palace of the Byzantine emperors in Constantinople. Grand Palace Mosaic Museum. Istanbul.

Founding of Constantinople. Constantinople (Tsargrad of medieval Russian texts) was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (306-337) in 324-330. on the site that arose around 660 BC. e. on the European coast of the Bosphorus Strait of the Megarian colony of Byzantium (hence the name of the state, introduced by humanists after the fall of the empire).

Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople. The transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople, which took place officially on May 11, 330, was due to its proximity to the rich eastern provinces, favorable trade and military-strategic position, and the lack of opposition to the emperor from the Senate. Constantinople, a major economic and cultural center, did not escape mass popular uprisings (the most significant was Nika, 532).

Hagia Sophia in Constantinople - Hagia Sophia Mosque in Istanbul. Architects Anthimius of Tral and Isidore of Miletus. 537

Rise of Constantinople. Constantinople under Justinian I (527 - 565). Statues of Justinian in Constantinople. The heyday of Constantinople is associated with Emperor Justinian I. There were many statues dedicated to him in the capital, but they have not survived and are known only from descriptions. One of them represented the emperor on horseback in the form of Achilles (543-544, bronze). The statue itself and raised right hand Justinian were turned to the East as a "challenge" and warning to the Persians; in the left, the emperor held a ball with a cross - one of the attributes of the power of the basileus, a symbol of the power of Byzantium. The statue was located in the Forum Augusteon, between the gates of the Grand Palace and the church of St. Sofia.

Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The meaning of the name of the temple. Hagia Sophia in Constantinople - the most famous temple of Byzantium - was built by the architects Anthimius from Tral and Isidore from Miletus on the orders of Justinian I in five years, and on December 26, 537, the temple was consecrated. “Hagia Sophia” means “holy wisdom”, which according to theological terminology means “holy spirit”. The temple was not dedicated to a saint named Sophia, it is a synonym for "divine wisdom", "word of God".

Mosaic of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Aya Sophia Mosque in Istanbul).

Architecture of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The interior decoration of the temple. Mosaics of Hagia Sophia. The architectural image of Hagia Sophia symbolically brings it closer to the image of the universe. Like the firmament, it seems to “hang” down from an invisible point outside the world. According to the Byzantine writer Procopius of Caesarea (5th-6th centuries), the dome of the Hagia Sophia "seems ... like a golden hemisphere descended from the sky." Wonderful interior decoration of the temple. In 867, the apse of the Hagia Sophia was decorated with the figure of a seated Mother of God with a baby and two archangels. The face of the Mother of God is imbued with ancient sensuality, not Byzantine asceticism, and at the same time with spirituality. The entrance to the temple was preceded by a mosaic scene (end of the 11th century), in which Emperor Leo VI the Wise (866-912) was shown kneeling before Christ. So he fell prostrate every time during the ceremony of his entrance to the cathedral. The ritual character of the scene is expressed in its very idea - to convey the connection between the emperor and God. The emperor bowed before Christ as his earthly successor.

Hippodrome of Constantinople. Istanbul. Turkey.

An interesting fact about the Hagia Sophia mosaic. The mosaics of the Hagia Sophia are a source for studying the daily history of the Byzantine imperial court. On a 12th century mosaic Empress Irina looks impassive, depicted according to the fashion of that time, her face is covered with a thick layer of makeup, her eyebrows are shaved, her cheeks are heavily rouged.

Constantinople in the 7th - 11th centuries. Hippodrome in Constantinople. Bronze quadriga of the imperial box at the hippodrome. Despite the economic decline that Byzantium experienced from the end of the 7th century, the economic importance of the capital increased. Since most of the Byzantine cities were agrarianized, trade and craft activities were concentrated mainly in Constantinople. Until the end of the 11th century. he dominated the country politically and economically. Basileusses decorated their capital with numerous statues in the squares, memorable triumphal arches and columns, temples and entertainment facilities. So, the imperial box at the hippodrome (length - 400 m, width about 120 m, accommodated up to 120 thousand spectators) was decorated with a bronze quadriga, later transported to Venice, where it still stands above the portal of the Cathedral of St. Mark. Arab geographer 11th c. Idrizi reports that on the hippodrome, in addition to the famous quadriga, there were also two rows of very lively bronze statues of people, bears and lions, there were also two obelisks. And the Europeans "looked at the imperial Playground as a miracle when they saw it."

Quadriga. Sculpture brought to Venice after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. Cathedral of San Marco in Venice. Italy.

Capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 In 12 st. the decline of the craft and trade of the city began, due to the penetration of Italian merchants into Constantinople, who settled in one of its districts - Galata. In April 1204, Constantinople was taken and plundered by the participants of the IV Crusade (1202 - 1204). Only from the church of Hagia Sophia, according to an eyewitness to the events, were taken out "sacred vessels, objects of extraordinary art and extreme rarity, silver and gold, which were lined with chairs, vestibules and gates." Having entered the excitement, the crusaders, the knights of Christ, forced naked women to dance on the main throne, writes an eyewitness, and brought mules and horses into the church to take out the loot.

Constantinople is the capital of the Latin Empire. In the same year, 1204, the city became the capital of the Latin Empire created by the crusaders (1204 - 1261), economic dominance in it passed to the Venetians.

Constantinople in 1261 - 1453 The perception of Islam by the Byzantines. In July 1261, the Byzantines, supported by the Genoese, retook the city. Until the middle of the 14th century. Constantinople remained a major trading center, then gradually fell into disrepair, key positions in it were captured by the Venetians and Genoese.

From the end of the 14th century The Turks tried to capture the capital more than once. And at the same time, the Byzantines were reserved about Islam. Mosques and Islamic mausoleums were erected in Constantinople and under its walls. Yes, and the Byzantines themselves at first thought that Islam was a kind of Christian heresy, that it was not much different from Nestorianism and Monophysitism, ideological currents in the eastern provinces of the empire.

Forum of Constantine in Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. Istanbul. Turkey.

Capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 Architectural monuments of the Byzantine period in Istanbul - the former Constantinople. In May 1453, after a long siege, Turkish troops occupied the city. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul (the capital of the Ottoman Empire until 1923). From the Byzantine period in modern Istanbul, the remains of fortress walls, fragments of imperial palaces, a hippodrome, and underground cisterns have been preserved. Most of the places of worship were converted into mosques: the Hagia Sophia today is the Hagia Sophia Mosque, the Basilica of St. John the Studite (Emir Akhor-Jamisi, 5th century). Churches of St. Irene (532, rebuilt in the 6th-8th centuries), St. Sergius and Bacchus (Kyuchuk Hagia Sophia, 6th century), St. Andrew (Khoja Mustafa-jami, 7th century), St. Theodosius (Gul-dzhami, second half of the 9th century), Mireleion (Budrum-dzhami, first half of the 10th century), St. Fedor (Kilise-jami, second half of the 11th - 14th centuries), the temple complex of Pantokrator (Zeyrek-jami, 12th century), the church of the Chora monastery (“outside the city walls”) - Kahriye-jami (rebuilt in the 11th century, mosaics early 14th century).

With the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, its history, like the history of Byzantium, was over, the history of Istanbul and the Ottoman Empire was just beginning.

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The end has come. But at the beginning of the 4th c. the center of the state moved to the calmer and richer eastern, Balkan and Asia Minor provinces. Soon Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, became the capital. True, the West also had its own emperors - the administration of the empire was divided. But it was the sovereigns of Constantinople who were considered elders. In the 5th century The Eastern, or Byzantine, as they said in the West, the empire withstood the attack of the barbarians. Moreover, in the VI century. its rulers conquered many lands of the West occupied by the Germans and held them for two centuries. Then they were Roman emperors, not only in title, but also in essence. Having lost by the IX century. a large part of the western possessions, Byzantine Empire nevertheless continued to live and develop. She existed before 1453., when the last stronghold of her power - Constantinople fell under the pressure of the Turks. All this time, the empire remained in the eyes of its subjects as a legitimate successor. Its inhabitants called themselves Romans, which in Greek means "Romans", although the main part of the population were Greeks.

The geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes extended power to the regions of Africa, made this empire, as it were, a link between East and West. The constant bifurcation between the eastern and western worlds became the historical destiny of the Byzantine Empire. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions left its mark on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went on its own historical way, in many respects different from the fate of the countries of both the East and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

Map of the Byzantine Empire

History of the Byzantine Empire

The culture of the Byzantine Empire was created by many nations. In the first centuries of the existence of the Roman state, all the eastern provinces of Rome were under the rule of its emperors: Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, southern Crimea, Western Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northeast Libya. The creators of the new cultural unity were the Romans, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptian Copts and the barbarians who settled within the borders of the empire.

The most powerful cultural layer in this cultural diversity was the ancient heritage. Long before the emergence of the Byzantine Empire, thanks to the campaigns of Alexander the Great, all the peoples of the Middle East were subjected to the powerful unifying influence of ancient Greek, Hellenic culture. This process is called Hellenization. Adopted Greek traditions and immigrants from the West. So the culture of the renewed empire developed as a continuation of the mainly ancient Greek culture. Greek language already in the 7th century. reigned supreme in the written and oral speech of the Romans (Romans).

The East, unlike the West, did not experience devastating barbarian raids. Because there was no terrible cultural decline. Most of the ancient Greco-Roman cities continued to exist in the Byzantine world. In the first centuries of the new era, they retained their former appearance and structure. As in Hellas, the agora remained the heart of the city - a vast square where public meetings were previously held. Now, however, people increasingly gathered at the hippodrome - a place of performances and races, announcements of decrees and public executions. The city was decorated with fountains and statues, magnificent houses of local nobility and public buildings. In the capital - Constantinople - the best masters erected monumental palaces of emperors. The most famous of the early ones - the Great Imperial Palace of Justinian I, the famous conqueror of the Germans, who ruled in 527-565 - was erected over the Sea of ​​Marmara. The appearance and decoration of the capital's palaces reminded of the times of the ancient Greek-Macedonian rulers of the Middle East. But the Byzantines also used the Roman urban planning experience, in particular the plumbing system and baths (terms).

Most of the major cities of antiquity remained centers of trade, crafts, science, literature and art. Such were Athens and Corinth in the Balkans, Ephesus and Nicaea in Asia Minor, Antioch, Jerusalem and Berytus (Beirut) in Syro-Palestines, Alexandria in ancient Egypt.

The collapse of many cities in the West led to the shift of trade routes to the east. At the same time, barbarian invasions and conquests made land roads unsafe. Law and order were preserved only in the possessions of the emperors of Constantinople. Therefore, the "dark" centuries filled with wars (V-VIII centuries) became sometimes heyday of Byzantine ports. They served as transit points for military detachments sent to numerous wars, and as stations for the strongest Byzantine fleet in Europe. But the main meaning and source of their existence was maritime trade. The commercial relations of the Romans stretched from India to Britain.

Ancient crafts continued to develop in the cities. Many products of early Byzantine masters are real works of art. The masterpieces of Roman jewelers - made of precious metals and stones, colored glass and ivory - aroused admiration in the countries of the Middle East and barbarian Europe. Germans, Slavs, Huns adopted the skills of the Romans, imitated them in their own creations.

Coins in the Byzantine Empire

For a long time, only Roman coins circulated throughout Europe. The emperors of Constantinople continued to mint Roman money, making only minor changes to their appearance. The right of the Roman emperors to power was not questioned even by fierce enemies, and the only mint in Europe was proof of this. The first in the West to dare to start minting his own coin was the Frankish king in the second half of the 6th century. However, even then the barbarians only imitated the Roman model.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The Roman heritage of Byzantium is even more noticeable in the system of government. Political figures and the philosophers of Byzantium did not get tired of repeating that Constantinople is the New Rome, that they themselves are Romans, and their state is the only empire protected by God. The branched apparatus of the central government, the tax system, the legal doctrine of the inviolability of the imperial autocracy remained in it without fundamental changes.

The life of the emperor, furnished with extraordinary splendor, admiration for him were inherited from the traditions of the Roman Empire. In the late Roman period, even before the Byzantine era, palace rituals included many elements of Eastern despotisms. Basileus, the emperor, appeared before the people only accompanied by a brilliant retinue and an impressive armed guard, who followed in a strictly defined order. They prostrated before the basileus, during the speech from the throne he was covered with special curtains, and only a few received the right to sit in his presence. Only the highest ranks of the empire were allowed to eat at his meal. The reception of foreign ambassadors, whom the Byzantines tried to impress with the greatness of the emperor's power, was especially pompously arranged.

The central administration was concentrated in several secret departments: the Shvaz department of the logotheta (steward) of the genikon - the main tax institution, the department of the military cash desk, the department of mail and external relations, the department for managing the property of the imperial family, etc. In addition to the staff of officials in the capital, each department had officials sent on temporary assignments to the provinces. There were also palace secrets that controlled the institutions that directly served the royal court: food, dressing rooms, stables, repairs.

Byzantium retained Roman law and foundations of Roman judiciary. In the Byzantine era, the development of the Roman theory of law was completed, such theoretical concepts of jurisprudence as law, law, custom were finalized, the difference between private and public law was clarified, the foundations for regulating international relations, the norms of criminal law and process were determined.

The legacy of the Roman Empire was a clear tax system. A free citizen or peasant paid taxes and duties to the treasury from all types of his property and from any kind of labor activity. He paid for land ownership, and for a garden in a city, and for a mule or sheep in a barn, and for a room for rent, and for a workshop, and for a shop, and for a ship, and for a boat. Practically not a single product on the market passed from hand to hand, bypassing the watchful eye of officials.

Warfare

Byzantium also preserved the Roman art of waging a "correct war." The empire carefully kept, copied and studied ancient strategons - treatises on martial arts.

Periodically, the authorities reformed the army, partly because of the emergence of new enemies, partly to meet the capabilities and needs of the state itself. The basis of the Byzantine army became the cavalry. Its number in the army ranged from 20% in late Roman times to more than one third in the 10th century. An insignificant part, but very combat-ready, became cataphracts - heavy cavalry.

navy Byzantium was also a direct inheritance of Rome. The following facts speak of his strength. In the middle of the 7th century Emperor Constantine V was able to send 500 ships to the mouth of the Danube to conduct military operations against the Bulgarians, and in 766 - even more than 2 thousand. capital ships(dromons) with three rows of oars took on board up to 100-150 warriors and about the same number of rowers.

An innovation in the fleet was "greek fire"- a mixture of oil, combustible oils, sulfur asphalt, - invented in the 7th century. and terrified enemies. He was thrown out of the siphons, arranged in the form of bronze monsters with open mouths. Siphons could be turned in different directions. The ejected liquid spontaneously ignited and burned even on water. It was with the help of "Greek fire" that the Byzantines repulsed two Arab invasions - in 673 and 718.

Military construction was excellently developed in the Byzantine Empire, based on a rich engineering tradition. Byzantine engineers - builders of fortresses were famous far beyond the borders of the country, even in distant Khazaria, where a fortress was built according to their plans

seaside big cities in addition to the walls, they were protected by underwater breakwaters and massive chains that blocked the entry of the enemy fleet into the bays. Such chains closed the Golden Horn in Constantinople and the Gulf of Thessaloniki.

For the defense and siege of fortresses, the Byzantines used various engineering structures (ditches and palisades, tunnels and embankments) and all kinds of tools. Byzantine documents mention rams, movable towers with bridges, stone-throwing ballistas, hooks for capturing and destroying enemy siege devices, cauldrons from which boiling tar and molten lead were poured onto the heads of the besiegers.

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Less than 80 years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium the historical, cultural and civilizational successor of Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The name "Byzantine" Eastern Roman Empire received in the writings of Western European historians after its fall, it comes from the original name of Constantinople - Byzantium, where the Roman emperor Constantine I transferred the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city to "New Rome". The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek "Romeans", and their power - "Roman (" Roman ") Empire" (in the Middle Greek (Byzantine) language - Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Romaíon) or briefly "Romania" (Ῥωμανία, Romania) . Western sources throughout most of Byzantine history referred to it as the "Empire of the Greeks" due to the predominance of Greek, Hellenized population and culture. In Ancient Russia, Byzantium was usually called the "Greek Kingdom", and its capital - Tsargrad.

The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities in the medieval world. The empire controlled the largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. In the future, under the onslaught of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost land.

After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some strengthening in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the 11th century, during the invasion of the Seljuks, and the defeat at Manzikert, strengthening during the first Komnenos, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatatzes, restoration empire by Michael Palaiologos, and, finally, the final death in the middle of the 15th century under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks.

Population

The ethnic composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely diverse: Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, southern Slavs. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the end of the 6th century), part of the peoples remained outside its borders - at the same time, new peoples invaded and settled here (the Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, the Arabs in the 7th-9th centuries, Pechenegs, Cumans in the XI-XIII centuries, etc.). In the VI-XI centuries, the population of Byzantium included ethnic groups, from which the Italian nationality was later formed. dominant role in the economy, political life and the culture of Byzantium in the west of the country was played by the Greek population, and in the east by the Armenian population. The state language of Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries is Latin, from the 7th century until the end of the existence of the empire - Greek.

State structure

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head. From the 7th century The head of state was often referred to as an autocrator (Greek: Αὐτοκράτωρ - autocrat) or basileus (Greek. Βασιλεὺς ).

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - the East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetoria of the East and the prefect of the praetoria of Illyricum. Constantinople was singled out as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople.

For a long time, the former system of state and financial management was preserved. But from the end of the VI century, significant changes begin. The reforms are mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and predominantly Greek culture of the country (introduction of the positions of logothete, strategist, drungaria, etc.). Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the approval of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop.

The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry and the chief of the cavalry, these positions were later merged; in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia). In addition, there was a master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strateg of Anatolika), a master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, a master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

Byzantine emperors

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for nearly a thousand years; in historiography, from that time on, it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. So, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse rider in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, she became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.

On the other hand, a military command and control system was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, various technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance at sea. The Sassanids adopted a fully armored cavalry - cataphracts. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistas and catapults, replaced by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the theme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability. The recruiting system was changed to a typically feudal one, where the nobility was required to supply military contingents for the right to own land.

In the future, the army and navy fall into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the existence of the empire they are purely mercenary formations. In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, was able to field only a 5,000-strong army and 2,500 mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Russ and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 11th century, ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads.

After the Viking Age came to an end in the early 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and were defeated during the capture of the city.

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Start date: 395

Expiration date: 1453

Helpful information

Byzantine Empire
Byzantium
Eastern Roman Empire
Arab. لإمبراطورية البيزنطية or بيزنطة
English Byzantine Empire or Byzantium
Hebrew האימפריה הביזנטית

Culture and Society

Of great cultural significance was the period of the reign of emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexios I Comnenus (867-1081). The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the work of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet appeared - Glagolitic, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).

In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by unusual fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. In collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved.

Economy

The state included rich lands with large quantity cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to a class was not a duty, but a privilege; joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the eparch.

Despite the corrupt system of government, very high taxes, the slave economy and court intrigues, the Byzantine economy long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east. Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the wealth of the country caused strong envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

Science, medicine, law

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire. At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in a severe decline, but later Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.

In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in Italy during the early Renaissance. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

Right

The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great influence on the development of jurisprudence. Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Russia.

Much of this tone was set by the eighteenth-century English historian Edward Gibbon, who devoted at least three-quarters of his six-volume History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire to what we would unhesitatingly call the Byzantine period.. And although this view has not been the mainstream for a long time, we still have to start talking about Byzantium as if not from the beginning, but from the middle. After all, Byzantium has neither a founding year nor a founding father, like Rome with Romulus and Remus. Byzantium imperceptibly sprouted from within Ancient Rome, but never broke away from it. After all, the Byzantines themselves did not think of themselves as something separate: they did not know the words “Byzantium” and “Byzantine Empire” and called themselves either “Romans” (that is, “Romans” in Greek), appropriating the history of Ancient Rome, or “ by the race of Christians”, appropriating the entire history of the Christian religion.

We do not recognize Byzantium in early Byzantine history with its praetors, prefects, patricians and provinces, but this recognition will become more and more as emperors acquire beards, consuls turn into hypats, and senators into synclitics.

background

The birth of Byzantium will not be clear without a return to the events of the 3rd century, when the most severe economic and political crisis broke out in the Roman Empire, which actually led to the collapse of the state. In 284, Diocletian came to power (like almost all emperors of the 3rd century, he was just a Roman officer of humble origin - his father was a slave) and took measures to decentralize power. First, in 286, he divided the empire into two parts, entrusting the administration of the West to his friend Maximian Herculius, while keeping the East for himself. Then, in 293, wanting to increase the stability of the system of government and ensure the turnover of power, he introduced a system of tetrarchy - a four-part government, which was carried out by two senior Augustus emperors and two junior Caesar emperors. Each part of the empire had an August and a Caesar (each of which had its own geographical area of ​​​​responsibility - for example, the August of the West controlled Italy and Spain, and the Caesar of the West controlled Gaul and Britain). After 20 years, the Augusts were to transfer power to the Caesars, so that they would become Augusts and elect new Caesars. However, this system turned out to be unviable, and after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305, the empire again plunged into the era civil wars.

Birth of Byzantium

1. 312 - Battle of the Mulvian Bridge

After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, the supreme power passed to the former Caesars - Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, they became Augusts, but under them, contrary to expectations, neither the son of Constantius Constantine (later Emperor Constantine I the Great, considered the first emperor of Byzantium), nor Maximian's son Maxentius. Nevertheless, both of them did not leave imperial ambitions and from 306 to 312 alternately entered into a tactical alliance in order to jointly oppose other contenders for power (for example, Flavius ​​Severus, appointed Caesar after the abdication of Diocletian), then, on the contrary, entered the struggle. Final victory Constantine over Maxentius in the battle on the Milvian bridge over the Tiber River (now within the boundaries of Rome) meant the unification of the western part of the Roman Empire under the rule of Constantine. Twelve years later, in 324, as a result of another war (now with Licinius - Augustus and the ruler of the East of the empire, who was appointed by Galerius), Constantine united East and West.

The miniature in the center depicts the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. From the homily of Gregory the Theologian. 879-882 ​​years

MS grec 510 /

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in the Byzantine mind was associated with the idea of ​​the birth of the Christian empire. This was facilitated, firstly, by the legend of the miraculous sign of the Cross, which Constantine saw in the sky before the battle - Eusebius of Caesarea tells about this (albeit in completely different ways). Eusebius of Caesarea(c. 260-340) - Greek historian, author of the first church history. and Lactants lactation(c. 250---325) - Latin writer, apologist for Christianity, author of the essay "On the Death of the Persecutors", dedicated to events era of Diocletian., and secondly, the fact that two edicts were issued at about the same time Edict — normative act, decree. about religious freedom, legalized Christianity and equalized all religions in rights. And although the issuance of edicts on religious freedom was not directly related to the fight against Maxentius (the first was published in April 311 by the emperor Galerius, and the second - already in February 313 in Milan by Constantine together with Licinius), the legend reflects the internal connection of seemingly independent political steps of Constantine, who was the first to feel that state centralization is impossible without the consolidation of society, primarily in the sphere of worship.

However, under Constantine Christianity was only one of the candidates for the role of a consolidating religion. The emperor himself was for a long time an adherent of the cult of the Invincible Sun, and the time of his Christian baptism is still the subject of scientific disputes.

2. 325 - I Ecumenical Council

In 325 Constantine summoned representatives of the local churches to the city of Nicaea. Nicaea- now the city of Iznik in Northwestern Turkey. to resolve a dispute between Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and Arius, a presbyter of one of the Alexandrian churches, about whether Jesus Christ was created by God Opponents of the Arians briefly summarized their teaching thus: "There was [such a time] when [Christ] did not exist.". This meeting was the first Ecumenical Council - an assembly of representatives of all local churches, with the right to formulate a doctrine, which will then be recognized by all local churches. It is impossible to say exactly how many bishops participated in the council, since its acts have not been preserved. Tradition calls the number 318. Be that as it may, it is possible to speak about the “ecumenical” nature of the cathedral only with reservations, since in total at that time there were more than 1,500 episcopal sees.. The First Ecumenical Council is a key stage in the institutionalization of Christianity as an imperial religion: its meetings were held not in the temple, but in the imperial palace, the cathedral was opened by Constantine I himself, and the closing was combined with grandiose celebrations on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of his reign.

First Council of Nicaea. Fresco from the monastery of Stavropoleos. Bucharest, 18th century

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The Councils of Nicaea I and the Councils of Constantinople that followed it (meeting in 381) condemned the Arian doctrine about the created nature of Christ and the inequality of the hypostases in the Trinity, and the Apollinarian one, about the incomplete perception of human nature by Christ, and formulated the Nicene-Tsargrad Creed, which recognized Jesus Christ not created, but born (but at the same time eternal), but all three hypostases - possessing one nature. The creed was recognized as true, not subject to further doubt and discussion The words of the Nicene-Tsargrad Creed about Christ, which caused the most fierce disputes, in the Slavonic translation sound like this: Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, uncreated, consubstantial with the Father, Whom all was.”.

Never before has any direction of thought in Christianity been condemned by the fullness of the universal church and imperial power, and no theological school has been recognized as heresy. The era of the Ecumenical Councils that has begun is the era of the struggle between orthodoxy and heresy, which are in constant self- and mutual determination. At the same time, the same doctrine could alternately be recognized either as heresy or right faith, depending on the political situation (this was the case in the 5th century), however, the very idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of protecting orthodoxy and condemning heresy with the help of the state was questioned in Byzantium has never been set.

3. 330 - transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople

Although Rome always remained the cultural center of the empire, the Tetrarchs chose cities on the periphery as their capitals, from which it was more convenient for them to repel external attacks: Nicomedia Nicomedia- now Izmit (Turkey)., Sirmium Sirmium- now Sremska Mitrovica (Serbia)., Milan and Trier. During the reign of the West, Constantine I transferred his residence to Milan, then to Sirmium, then to Thessalonica. His rival Licinius also changed the capital, but in 324, when a war broke out between him and Constantine, the ancient city of Byzantium on the banks of the Bosphorus, also known by Herodotus, became his stronghold in Europe.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror and the Serpent Column. Miniature of Naqqash Osman from the manuscript "Khyuner-name" by Seyid Lokman. 1584-1588 years

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During the siege of Byzantium, and then in preparation for the decisive battle of Chrysopolis on the Asian coast of the strait, Constantine assessed the position of Byzantium and, having defeated Licinius, immediately began a program to renew the city, personally participating in the marking of the city walls. The city gradually took over the functions of the capital: a senate was established in it and many Roman senatorial families were forcibly transported closer to the senate. It was in Constantinople that during his lifetime Constantine ordered to rebuild a tomb for himself. Various curiosities of the ancient world were brought to the city, for example, the bronze Serpentine Column, created in the 5th century BC in honor of the victory over the Persians at Plataea Battle of Plataea(479 BC) — one of the most important battles of the Greco-Persian wars, as a result of which the land forces of the Achaemenid Empire were finally defeated..

The chronicler of the 6th century, John Malala, tells that on May 11, 330, Emperor Constantine appeared at the solemn ceremony of consecrating the city in a diadem - a symbol of the power of the Eastern despots, which his Roman predecessors avoided in every possible way. The shift in the political vector was symbolically embodied in the spatial displacement of the center of the empire from west to east, which, in turn, had a decisive influence on the formation of Byzantine culture: the transfer of the capital to territories that had been speaking Greek for a thousand years determined its Greek-speaking character, and Constantinople itself turned out to be in the center of the mental map of the Byzantine and identified with the entire empire.

4. 395 - division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western

Despite the fact that in 324 Constantine, having defeated Licinius, formally united the East and West of the empire, ties between its parts remained weak, and cultural differences grew. No more than ten bishops arrived at the First Ecumenical Council from the western provinces (out of about 300 participants); most of the arrivals were not able to understand Constantine's welcome speech, which he delivered in Latin, and it had to be translated into Greek.

Half silicone. Flavius ​​Odoacer on the obverse of a coin from Ravenna. 477 year Odoacer is depicted without the imperial diadem - with an uncovered head, a shock of hair and a mustache. Such an image is uncharacteristic for emperors and is considered "barbaric".

The Trustees of the British Museum

The final division occurred in 395, when Emperor Theodosius I the Great, who for several months before his death became the sole ruler of East and West, divided the state between his sons Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West). However, formally the West still remained connected with the East, and at the very decline of the Western Roman Empire, in the late 460s, the Byzantine emperor Leo I, at the request of the Senate of Rome, made a last unsuccessful attempt to elevate his protege to the western throne. In 476, the German barbarian mercenary Odoacer deposed the last emperor of the Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, and sent the imperial insignia (symbols of power) to Constantinople. Thus, from the point of view of the legitimacy of power, parts of the empire were again united: the emperor Zeno, who ruled at that time in Constantinople, de jure became the sole head of the entire empire, and Odoacer, who received the title of patrician, ruled Italy only as his representative. However, in reality, this was no longer reflected in the real political map of the Mediterranean.

5. 451 - Chalcedon Cathedral

IV Ecumenical (Chalcedon) Council, convened for the final approval of the doctrine of the incarnation of Christ in a single hypostasis and two natures and the complete condemnation of Monophysitism Monophysitism(from the Greek μόνος - the only one and φύσις - nature) - the doctrine that Christ did not have a perfect human nature, since his divine nature, during the incarnation, replaced it or merged with it. The opponents of the Monophysites were called dyophysites (from the Greek δύο - two)., led to a deep split, not overcome christian church to this day. The central government continued to flirt with the Monophysites under the usurper Basiliscus in 475-476, and in the first half of the 6th century, under the emperors Anastasius I and Justinian I. Emperor Zeno in 482 tried to reconcile supporters and opponents of the Council of Chalcedon, without going into dogmatic issues . His conciliatory message, called the Enoticon, ensured peace in the East, but led to a 35-year split with Rome.

The main support of the Monophysites were the eastern provinces - Egypt, Armenia and Syria. In these regions, religious uprisings regularly broke out and an independent Monophysite hierarchy and its own church institutions parallel to the Chalcedonian (that is, recognizing the teachings of the Council of Chalcedon) formed, gradually developing into independent, non-Chalcedonian churches that still exist today - Syro-Jacobite, Armenian and Coptic. The problem finally lost its relevance for Constantinople only in the 7th century, when, as a result of the Arab conquests, the Monophysite provinces were torn away from the empire.

Rise of early Byzantium

6. 537 - completion of the construction of the church of Hagia Sophia under Justinian

Justinian I. Fragment of the church mosaic
San Vitale in Ravenna. 6th century

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Under Justinian I (527-565), the Byzantine Empire reached its peak. The Code of Civil Law summarized the centuries-old development of Roman law. As a result of military campaigns in the West, it was possible to expand the borders of the empire, including the entire Mediterranean - North Africa, Italy, part of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily. Sometimes people talk about the "Justinian Reconquista". Rome became part of the empire again. Justinian launched extensive construction throughout the empire, and in 537 the construction of a new Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completed. According to legend, the plan of the temple was suggested personally to the emperor by an angel in a vision. Never again in Byzantium was a building of such magnitude built: a grandiose temple, in the Byzantine ceremonial called the "Great Church", became the center of power of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

The era of Justinian at the same time and finally breaks with the pagan past (in 529 the Academy of Athens was closed Athens Academy - philosophical school in Athens, founded by Plato in the 380s BC. e.) and establishes a line of succession with antiquity. Medieval culture opposes itself to early Christian culture, appropriating the achievements of antiquity at all levels - from literature to architecture, but at the same time discarding their religious (pagan) dimension.

Coming from the bottom, seeking to change the way of life of the empire, Justinian met with rejection from the old aristocracy. It is this attitude, and not the personal hatred of the historian for the emperor, that is reflected in the vicious pamphlet on Justinian and his wife Theodora.

7. 626 - Avaro-Slavic siege of Constantinople

The reign of Heraclius (610-641), glorified in court panegyric literature as the new Hercules, accounted for the last foreign policy successes. early Byzantium. In 626, Heraclius and Patriarch Sergius, who was directly defending the city, managed to repel the Avar-Slavic siege of Constantinople (the words that open the akathist to the Mother of God tell precisely about this victory In the Slavic translation, they sound like this: “To the chosen Voivode, victorious, as if we had got rid of the evil ones, with thanksgiving, we will describe Thy servants, the Mother of God, but as if having an invincible power, free us from all troubles, let us call Ty: rejoice, Bride of the Bride.”), and at the turn of the 20-30s of the 7th century during the Persian campaign against the power of the Sassanids Sasanian Empire — Persian state centered on the territory of present-day Iraq and Iran, which existed in 224-651. the provinces in the East lost a few years earlier were recaptured: Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine. The Holy Cross stolen by the Persians was solemnly returned to Jerusalem in 630, on which the Savior died. During the solemn procession, Heraclius personally brought the Cross into the city and laid it in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

Under Heraclius, the last rise before the cultural break of the Dark Ages is experienced by the scientific and philosophical Neoplatonic tradition, coming directly from antiquity: a representative of the last surviving ancient school in Alexandria, Stephen of Alexandria, comes to Constantinople at the imperial invitation to teach.

Plate from a cross with images of a cherub (left) and the Byzantine emperor Heraclius with the Shahinshah of the Sassanids Khosrow II. Valley of the Meuse, 1160-70s

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All these successes were brought to naught by the Arab invasion, which wiped out the Sassanids from the face of the earth in a few decades and forever wrested the eastern provinces from Byzantium. Legends tell how the prophet Muhammad offered Heraclius to convert to Islam, but in the cultural memory of the Muslim peoples, Heraclius remained precisely a fighter against the emerging Islam, and not with the Persians. These wars (generally unsuccessful for Byzantium) are described in the 18th-century epic poem The Book of Heraclius, the oldest written monument in Swahili.

Dark Ages and iconoclasm

8. 642 Arab conquest of Egypt

The first wave of Arab conquests in the Byzantine lands lasted eight years - from 634 to 642. As a result, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt were torn away from Byzantium. Having lost the most ancient Patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, the Byzantine Church, in fact, lost its universal character and became equal to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, which within the empire had no church institutions equal to it in status.

In addition, having lost the fertile territories that provided it with grain, the empire plunged into a deep internal crisis. In the middle of the 7th century, there is a reduction monetary circulation and the decline of cities (both in Asia Minor and in the Balkans, which were no longer threatened by the Arabs, but by the Slavs) - they turned into either villages or medieval fortresses. Constantinople remained the only major urban center, but the atmosphere in the city changed and the ancient monuments brought there back in the 4th century began to inspire irrational fears in the townspeople.

Fragment of a papyrus letter in the Coptic language of the monks Victor and Psan. Thebes, Byzantine Egypt, circa 580-640 Translation of a fragment of a letter into English at the Metropolitan Museum of Art website.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Constantinople also lost access to papyrus, which was produced exclusively in Egypt, which led to an increase in the cost of books and, as a result, a decline in education. Many literary genres disappeared, the previously flourishing genre of history gave way to prophecy - having lost their cultural connection with the past, the Byzantines lost interest in their history and lived with a constant feeling of the end of the world. The Arab conquests, which caused this breakdown of the worldview, were not reflected in the literature of their time, their events are brought to us by the monuments of later eras, and the new historical consciousness reflects only an atmosphere of horror, not facts. The cultural decline lasted for more than a hundred years, the first signs of a revival occur at the very end of the 8th century.

9. 726/730 year According to 9th-century icon-worshipping historians, Leo III issued an edict of iconoclasm in 726. But modern scientists doubt the reliability of this information: most likely, in 726, talks about the possibility of iconoclastic measures began in Byzantine society, the first real steps date back to 730.- start of iconoclastic controversy

Saint Mokios of Amphipolis and the angel killing the iconoclasts. Miniature from the Psalter of Theodore of Caesarea. 1066

The British Library Board, Add MS 19352, f.94r

One of the manifestations of the cultural decline of the second half of the 7th century is the rapid growth of disordered practices of icon veneration (the most zealous, scraped off and ate the plaster from the icons of saints). This caused rejection among some of the clergy, who saw in this a threat of a return to paganism. Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741) used this discontent to create a new consolidating ideology, taking the first iconoclastic steps in 726/730. But the most fierce disputes about icons fell on the reign of Constantine V Copronymus (741-775). He carried out the necessary military and administrative reforms, significantly strengthening the role of the professional imperial guard (tagm), and successfully contained the Bulgarian threat on the borders of the empire. The authority of both Constantine and Leo, who repelled the Arabs from the walls of Constantinople in 717-718, was very high, therefore, when in 815, after the teaching of icon worshipers was approved at the VII Ecumenical Council (787), new round war with the Bulgarians provoked a new political crisis, the imperial power returned to the iconoclastic policy.

The controversy over icons gave rise to two powerful strands of theological thought. Although the teachings of the iconoclasts are much less well known than those of their opponents, indirect evidence suggests that the thought of the iconoclasts of Emperor Constantine Copronymus and the Patriarch of Constantinople John Grammaticus (837-843) was no less deeply rooted in the Greek philosophical tradition than the thought of the iconoclast theologian John Damaskin and the head of the anti-iconoclastic monastic opposition Theodore the Studite. In parallel, the dispute developed in the ecclesiastical and political plane, the boundaries of the power of the emperor, patriarch, monasticism and episcopate were redefined.

10. 843 - The triumph of Orthodoxy

In 843, under Empress Theodora and Patriarch Methodius, the dogma of icon veneration was finally approved. It became possible thanks to mutual concessions, for example, the posthumous forgiveness of the iconoclast emperor Theophilus, whose widow was Theodora. The feast of the "Triumph of Orthodoxy", arranged by Theodora on this occasion, ended the era of the Ecumenical Councils and marked a new stage in the life of the Byzantine state and church. AT Orthodox tradition he manages to this day, and anathemas against the iconoclasts, named by name, sound every year on the first Sunday of Great Lent. Since then, iconoclasm, which became the last heresy condemned by the entirety of the church, began to be mythologized in the historical memory of Byzantium.

Empress Theodora's daughters learn to read icons from their grandmother Feoktista. Miniature from the Madrid Codex "Chronicle" of John Skylitzes. XII-XIII centuries

Wikimedia Commons

Back in 787, at the VII Ecumenical Council, the theory of the image was approved, according to which, in the words of Basil the Great, “the honor given to the image goes back to the prototype,” which means that worship of the icon is not an idol service. Now this theory has become the official teaching of the church - the creation and worship of sacred images from now on was not only allowed, but made a duty for a Christian. Since that time, an avalanche-like growth of artistic production began, the habitual appearance of an Eastern Christian church with iconic decoration was taking shape, the use of icons was built into liturgical practice and changed the course of worship.

In addition, the iconoclastic dispute stimulated the reading, copying and study of sources to which the opposing sides turned in search of arguments. Overcoming the cultural crisis is largely due to philological work in the preparation of church councils. And the invention of the minuscule Minuscule- letter lower case, which radically simplified and cheapened the production of books., perhaps, was due to the needs of the icon-worshipping opposition that existed under the conditions of “samizdat”: icon-worshippers had to quickly copy texts and did not have the means to create expensive uncial Uncial, or majuscule,- writing in capital letters. manuscripts.

Macedonian era

11. 863 - the beginning of the Photian schism

Dogmatic and liturgical differences gradually grew between the Roman and Eastern churches (primarily with regard to the Latin addition to the text of the Creed of the words about the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from the Father, but “and from the Son”, the so-called Filioque filioque- literally "and from the Son" (lat.).). The Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Pope fought for spheres of influence (primarily in Bulgaria, southern Italy and Sicily). The proclamation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West in 800 dealt a severe blow to the political ideology of Byzantium: the Byzantine emperor found a rival in the person of the Carolingians.

The miraculous salvation of Constantinople by Photius with the help of the robe of the Mother of God. Fresco from the Dormition Knyaginin Monastery. Vladimir, 1648

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Two opposing parties within the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the so-called Ignatians (supporters of Patriarch Ignatius, who was deposed in 858) and the Photians (supporters of Photius, who was erected - not without scandal - instead of him), sought support in Rome. Pope Nicholas used this situation to assert the authority of the papal throne and expand his spheres of influence. In 863, he withdrew the signatures of his envoys who approved the erection of Photius, but Emperor Michael III considered that this was not enough to remove the patriarch, and in 867 Photius anathematized Pope Nicholas. In 869-870, a new council in Constantinople (to this day recognized by Catholics as the VIII Ecumenical) deposed Photius and restored Ignatius. However, after the death of Ignatius, Photius returned to the patriarchal throne for another nine years (877-886).

Formal reconciliation followed in 879-880, but the anti-Latin line laid down by Photius in the District Epistle to the episcopal thrones of the East formed the basis of a centuries-old polemical tradition, the echoes of which were heard during the rupture between the churches in, and during the discussion of the possibility of a church union in XIII and fifteenth centuries.

12. 895 - the creation of the oldest known codex of Plato

Manuscript page E. D. Clarke 39 with the writings of Plato. 895 The rewriting of the tetralogy was commissioned by Aretha of Caesarea for 21 gold coins. It is assumed that the scholia (marginal comments) were left by Aretha himself.

At the end of the 9th century, there is a new discovery of the ancient heritage in Byzantine culture. A circle developed around Patriarch Photius, which included his disciples: Emperor Leo VI the Wise, Bishop Aref of Caesarea and other philosophers and scientists. They copied, studied and commented on the works of ancient Greek authors. The oldest and most authoritative list of Plato's writings (it is stored under the cipher E. D. Clarke 39 in the Bodleian Library of Oxford University) was created at this time by order of Arefa.

Among the texts that interested the scholars of the era, especially high-ranking church hierarchs, there were also pagan works. Aretha ordered copies of the works of Aristotle, Aelius Aristides, Euclid, Homer, Lucian and Marcus Aurelius, and Patriarch Photius included in his Myriobiblion "Myriobiblion"(literally "Ten thousand books") - a review of the books read by Photius, which, however, in reality were not 10 thousand, but only 279. annotations to Hellenistic novels, evaluating not their seemingly anti-Christian content, but the style and manner of writing, and at the same time creating a new terminological apparatus of literary criticism, different from that used by ancient grammarians. Leo VI himself created not only solemn speeches on church holidays, who personally spoke (often improvising) after the services, but also wrote Anacreontic poetry in the ancient Greek manner. And the nickname Wise is associated with the collection of poetic prophecies attributed to him about the fall and reconquest of Constantinople, which were remembered back in the 17th century in Russia, when the Greeks tried to persuade Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to campaign against the Ottoman Empire.

The era of Photius and Leo VI the Wise opens the period of the Macedonian Renaissance (named after the ruling dynasty) in Byzantium, which is also known as the era of encyclopedism or the first Byzantine humanism.

13. 952 - completion of work on the treatise "On the management of the empire"

Christ blesses Emperor Constantine VII. Carved panel. 945

Wikimedia Commons

Under the patronage of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), a large-scale project was implemented to codify the knowledge of the Byzantines in all areas of human life. The measure of Constantine's direct participation cannot always be determined with accuracy, however, the personal interest and literary ambitions of the emperor, who knew from childhood that he was not destined to rule, and most life forced to share the throne with a co-ruler, are beyond doubt. By order of Constantine, the official history of the 9th century was written (the so-called Successor of Theophanes), information was collected about the peoples and lands adjacent to Byzantium (“On the management of the empire”), on the geography and history of the regions of the empire (“On the themes Fema- Byzantine military-administrative district.”), about agriculture (“Geoponics”), about the organization of military campaigns and embassies, and about court ceremonial (“On the ceremonies of the Byzantine court”). At the same time, the regulation of church life takes place: the Synaxarion and the Typicon of the Great Church are created, which determine the annual order of commemoration of the saints and the holding of church services, and a few decades later (about 980), Simeon Metaphrastus begins a large-scale project to unify hagiographic literature. Around the same time, a comprehensive encyclopedic Dictionary Suda, which includes about 30 thousand articles. But the largest encyclopedia of Constantine is an anthology of information from ancient and early Byzantine authors about all spheres of life, conventionally called "Excerpts" It is known that this encyclopedia included 53 sections. Only the section “On Embassies” has reached its full extent, and partially – “On Virtues and Vices”, “On Conspiracies against Emperors”, and “On Opinions”. Among the missing chapters: “On the peoples”, “On the succession of emperors”, “On who invented what”, “On Caesars”, “On exploits”, “On settlements”, “On hunting”, “On messages”, “ About speeches, About marriages, About victory, About defeat, About strategies, About morals, About miracles, About battles, About inscriptions, About public administration”, “On Church Affairs”, “On Expression”, “On the Coronation of Emperors”, “On the Death (Deposition) of Emperors”, “On Fines”, “On Holidays”, “On Predictions”, “On Ranks”, “On cause of wars”, “On sieges”, “On fortresses”..

The nickname Porphyrogenitus was given to the children of reigning emperors, who were born in the Crimson Chamber of the Grand Palace in Constantinople. Constantine VII, son of Leo VI the Wise from his fourth marriage, was indeed born in this chamber, but formally was illegitimate. Apparently, the nickname was to emphasize his rights to the throne. His father made him his co-ruler, and after his death, the young Constantine ruled for six years under the tutelage of regents. In 919, under the pretext of protecting Constantine from the rebels, the military leader Roman I Lekapenus usurped power, he intermarried with the Macedonian dynasty, marrying his daughter to Constantine, and then was crowned co-ruler. By the time the independent reign began, Constantine had been formally considered emperor for more than 30 years, and he himself was almost 40.

14. 1018 - the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom

Angels lay the imperial crown on Vasily II. Miniature from Basil's Psalter, Marchian Library. 11th century

Ms. gr. 17 / Biblioteca Marciana

The reign of Basil II the Bulgar Slayers (976-1025) is the time of an unprecedented expansion of the church and political influence of Byzantium on neighboring countries: the so-called second (final) baptism of Russia takes place (the first, according to legend, took place as early as the 860s - when the princes Askold and Dir with the boyars were allegedly baptized in Kyiv, where Patriarch Photius sent the bishop specially for this); in 1018, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom leads to the liquidation of the autonomous Bulgarian Patriarchate, which had existed for almost 100 years, and the establishment of the semi-independent Archdiocese of Ohrid in its place; as a result of Armenian campaigns, Byzantine possessions in the East were expanding.

In domestic politics Basil was forced to take tough measures to limit the influence of large landowning clans, who actually formed their own armies in the 970-980s during the civil wars that challenged Basil's power. He tried by harsh measures to stop the enrichment of large landowners (the so-called dinats Dinat ( from the Greek δυνατός) - strong, powerful.), in some cases even resorting to direct land confiscation. But this brought only a temporary effect, centralization in the administrative and military spheres neutralized powerful rivals, but in the long run made the empire vulnerable to new threats - the Normans, Seljuks and Pechenegs. The Macedonian dynasty, which ruled for more than a century and a half, formally ended only in 1056, but in reality, already in the 1020s and 30s, people from bureaucratic families and influential clans gained real power.

The descendants awarded Vasily with the nickname Bulgar Slayer for cruelty in the wars with the Bulgarians. For example, after winning the decisive battle near Mount Belasitsa in 1014, he ordered 14,000 captives to be blinded at once. When exactly this nickname originated is not known. It is certain that this happened before the end of the 12th century, when, according to the 13th century historian George Acropolitan, the Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) began to ravage the Byzantine cities in the Balkans, proudly calling himself a Romeo fighter and thereby opposing himself to Basil.

Crisis of the 11th century

15. 1071 - Battle of Manzikert

Battle of Manzikert. Miniature from the book "On the misfortunes of famous people" Boccaccio. 15th century

Bibliothèque nationale de France

The political crisis that began after the death of Basil II continued in the middle of the 11th century: clans continued to compete, dynasties constantly replaced each other - from 1028 to 1081, 11 emperors changed on the Byzantine throne, there was no such frequency even at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries . From the outside, Pechenegs and Seljuk Turks pressed on Byzantium The power of the Seljuk Turks in just a few decades in the 11th century conquered the territories of modern Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan and became the main threat to Byzantium in the East.- the latter, having won the battle of Manzikert in 1071 Manzikert- now the small town of Malazgirt on the easternmost tip of Turkey near Lake Van., deprived the empire of most of its territories in Asia Minor. No less painful for Byzantium was the full-scale rupture of church relations with Rome in 1054, which later became known as the Great Schism. Schism(from the Greek σχίζμα) - gap., because of which Byzantium finally lost ecclesiastical influence in Italy. However, contemporaries almost did not notice this event and did not attach due importance to it.

However, it was precisely this era of political instability, the fragility of social boundaries and, as a result, high social mobility that gave rise to the figure of Michael Psellos, unique even for Byzantium, an erudite and official who took an active part in the enthronement of emperors (his central work, Chronography, is very autobiographical) , thought about the most complex theological and philosophical issues, studied the pagan Chaldean oracles, created works in all conceivable genres - from literary criticism to hagiography. The situation of intellectual freedom gave impetus to a new typical Byzantine version of Neoplatonism: in the title of "hypata of philosophers" Ipat philosophers- in fact, the main philosopher of the empire, the head of the philosophical school in Constantinople. Psellus was replaced by John Italus, who studied not only Plato and Aristotle, but also such philosophers as Ammonius, Philopon, Porphyry and Proclus and, at least according to his opponents, taught about the transmigration of souls and the immortality of ideas.

Komnenoska revival

16. 1081 - coming to power of Alexei I Komnenos

Christ blesses Emperor Alexei I Komnenos. Miniature from "Dogmatic Panoply" by Euthymius Zigaben. 12th century

In 1081, as a result of a compromise with the Duk, Melissene and Palaiologoi clans, the Komnenos family came to power. It gradually monopolized all state power and, thanks to complex dynastic marriages, absorbed former rivals. Beginning with Alexei I Komnenos (1081-1118), the aristocratization of Byzantine society takes place, social mobility, intellectual freedoms are being curtailed, the imperial power is actively interfering in the spiritual sphere. The beginning of this process is marked by the church-state condemnation of John Ital for "Palatonic ideas" and paganism in 1082. Then follows the condemnation of Leo of Chalcedon, who opposed the confiscation of church property to cover military needs (at that time Byzantium was at war with the Sicilian Normans and Pechenegs) and almost accused Alexei of iconoclasm. Massacres against the Bogomils take place Bogomilstvo- a doctrine that arose in the Balkans in the 10th century, in many respects ascending to the religion of the Manichaeans. According to the Bogomils, the physical world was created by Satan cast down from heaven. Human body was also his creation, but the soul is still the gift of the good God. The Bogomils did not recognize the institution of the church and often opposed the secular authorities, raising numerous uprisings., one of them, Basil, was even burned at the stake - a unique phenomenon for Byzantine practice. In 1117, the commentator of Aristotle, Eustratius of Nicaea, appears before the court on charges of heresy.

Meanwhile, contemporaries and immediate descendants remembered Alexei I rather as a ruler who was successful in his foreign policy: he managed to conclude an alliance with the crusaders and inflict a sensitive blow on the Seljuks in Asia Minor.

In the satire "Timarion" the narration is conducted on behalf of the hero who made a journey to the afterlife. In his story, he also mentions John Ital, who wanted to take part in the conversation of ancient Greek philosophers, but was rejected by them: “I also witnessed how Pythagoras sharply pushed away John Ital, who wanted to join this community of sages. “Scum,” he said, “having put on the Galilean robe, which they call the divine holy robes, in other words, having been baptized, you seek to communicate with us, whose life was devoted to science and knowledge? Either throw off this vulgar dress, or leave our brotherhood right now! ”” (translated by S. V. Polyakova, N. V. Felenkovskaya).

17. 1143 - coming to power of Manuel I Comnenus

The trends that emerged under Alexei I were developed under Manuel I Comnenus (1143-1180). He sought to establish personal control over the church life of the empire, sought to unify theological thought, and himself took part in church disputes. One of the questions in which Manuel wanted to have his say was the following: what hypostases of the Trinity accept the sacrifice during the Eucharist - only God the Father or both the Son and the Holy Spirit? If the second answer is correct (and this is exactly what was decided at the council of 1156-1157), then the same Son will be both the one who is sacrificed and the one who receives it.

Manuel's foreign policy was marked by failures in the East (the most terrible was the defeat at Miriokefal in 1176 at the hands of the Seljuks, which plunged the Byzantines into despondency) and attempts at diplomatic rapprochement with the West. Manuel saw the ultimate goal of Western policy as unification with Rome based on the recognition of the supreme power of a single Roman emperor, which Manuel himself was to become, and the unification of churches that were officially divided in. However, this project was not implemented.

In the era of Manuel, literary creativity becomes a profession, literary circles arise with their own artistic fashion, elements of the folk language penetrate into court aristocratic literature (they can be found in the works of the poet Theodore Prodrom or the chronicler Constantine Manasseh), the genre of the Byzantine love story is born, the arsenal expands means of expression and the measure of the author's self-reflection is growing.

Sunset of Byzantium

18. 1204 - the fall of Constantinople at the hands of the crusaders

During the reign of Andronicus I Komnenos (1183-1185) there was a political crisis: he pursued a populist policy (reduced taxes, severed relations with the West and severely cracked down on corrupt officials), which restored a significant part of the elite against him and aggravated the foreign policy position of the empire.

Crusaders attack Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle of the Conquest of Constantinople by Geoffroy de Villehardouin. Approximately 1330, Villardouin was one of the leaders of the campaign.

Bibliothèque nationale de France

An attempt to establish a new dynasty of Angels did not bear fruit, the society was deconsolidated. To this were added failures on the periphery of the empire: an uprising rose in Bulgaria; the crusaders captured Cyprus; Sicilian Normans ravaged Thessalonica. The struggle between pretenders to the throne within the family of Angels gave the European countries a formal reason to intervene. On April 12, 1204, members of the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople. The brightest artistic description of these events we read in the "History" by Nikita Choniates and the postmodern novel "Baudolino" by Umberto Eco, who sometimes literally copies the pages of Choniates.

On the ruins of the former empire, several states arose under Venetian rule, only to a small extent inheriting the Byzantine state institutions. The Latin empire, centered in Constantinople, was rather a feudal formation of the Western European type, and the duchies and kingdoms that arose in Thessalonica, Athens and the Peloponnese had the same character.

Andronicus was one of the most eccentric rulers of the empire. Nikita Choniates says that he ordered to create in one of the churches of the capital his portrait in the guise of a poor farmer in high boots and with a scythe in his hand. There were also legends about the bestial cruelty of Andronicus. He arranged public burnings of his opponents at the hippodrome, during which the executioners pushed the victim into the fire with sharp peaks, and who dared to condemn his cruelty, the reader of Hagia Sophia George Disipat threatened to fry on a spit and send to his wife instead of food.

19. 1261 - the reconquest of Constantinople

The loss of Constantinople led to the emergence of three Greek states that equally claimed to be the full heirs of Byzantium: the Nicaean Empire in northwestern Asia Minor under the rule of the Laskar dynasty; Empire of Trebizond in the northeastern part Black Sea coast Asia Minor, where the descendants of the Komnenos settled - the Great Komnenos, who took the title of "emperors of the Romans", and the Kingdom of Epirus in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula with the dynasty of Angels. The revival of the Byzantine Empire in 1261 took place on the basis of the Nicaean Empire, which pushed aside competitors and skillfully used the help of the German emperor and the Genoese in the fight against the Venetians. As a result, the Latin emperor and patriarch fled, and Michael VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople, was re-crowned and proclaimed "the new Constantine."

In his policy, the founder of the new dynasty tried to reach a compromise with the Western powers, and in 1274 he even agreed to a church union with Rome, which set the Greek episcopate and the Constantinopolitan elite against him.

Despite the fact that the empire was formally revived, its culture lost its former “Constantinopolecentricity”: the Palaiologians were forced to put up with the presence of the Venetians in the Balkans and the significant autonomy of Trebizond, whose rulers formally renounced the title of “Roman emperors”, but in reality did not leave imperial ambitions.

A vivid example of the imperial ambitions of Trebizond is the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia of the Wisdom of God, built there in the middle of the 13th century and still making a strong impression today. This temple simultaneously contrasted Trebizond with Constantinople with its Hagia Sophia, and at the symbolic level turned Trebizond into a new Constantinople.

20. 1351 - approval of the teachings of Gregory Palamas

Saint Gregory Palamas. Icon of the master of Northern Greece. Early 15th century

The second quarter of the 14th century saw the beginning of the Palamite controversy. St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1357) was an original thinker who developed the controversial doctrine of the difference in God between the divine essence (with which man can neither unite nor cognize it) and uncreated divine energies (with which connection is possible) and defended the possibility contemplation through the "intelligent feeling" of the Divine light, revealed, according to the Gospels, to the apostles during the transfiguration of Christ For example, in the Gospel of Matthew, this light is described as follows: “After six days, Jesus took Peter, James and John, his brother, and brought them up to a high mountain alone, and was transformed before them: and His face shone like the sun, and his clothes They became as white as the light” (Matt. 17:1-2)..

In the 40s and 50s of the XIV century, the theological dispute was closely intertwined with political confrontation: Palamas, his supporters (Patriarchs Kallistos I and Philotheus Kokkinos, Emperor John VI Kantakuzen) and opponents (later converted to Catholicism, the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria and his followers Gregory Akindin, Patriarch John IV Kalek, philosopher and writer Nicephorus Gregory) alternately won tactical victories, then suffered defeat.

The Council of 1351, which approved the victory of Palamas, nevertheless did not put an end to the dispute, the echoes of which were heard in the 15th century, but forever closed the way for the anti-Palamites to the highest church and state power. Some researchers following Igor Medvedev I. P. Medvedev. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries. SPb., 1997. they see in the thought of the anti-Palamites, primarily Nikifor Grigora, tendencies close to the ideas of the Italian humanists. Even more total reflection humanistic ideas were found in the work of the Neoplatonist and ideologist of the pagan renewal of Byzantium, George Gemist Plethon, whose works were destroyed by the official church.

Even in serious scholarly literature one can sometimes see that the words "(anti)palamites" and "(anti)hesychasts" are used interchangeably. This is not entirely true. Hesychasm (from the Greek ἡσυχία [hesychia] - silence) as a hermit prayer practice, which makes it possible to directly experience communication with God, was substantiated in the works of theologians of earlier eras, for example, Simeon the New Theologian in the X-XI centuries.

21. 1439 - Ferrara-Florence Union

Union of Florence by Pope Eugene IV. 1439 Compiled in two languages ​​- Latin and Greek.

British Library Board/Bridgeman Images/Fotodom

By the beginning of the 15th century, it became clear that the Ottoman military threat called into question the very existence of the empire. Byzantine diplomacy actively sought support in the West, negotiations were underway on the unification of churches in exchange for military aid Rome. In the 1430s, a fundamental decision on unification was made, but the venue of the cathedral (on Byzantine or Italian territory) and its status (whether it would be designated as “unifying” in advance) became the subject of bargaining. In the end, the meetings took place in Italy - first in Ferrara, then in Florence and in Rome. In June 1439, the Ferrara-Florence Union was signed. This meant that formally the Byzantine Church recognized the correctness of the Catholics on all controversial issues, including the issue. But the union did not find support from the Byzantine episcopate (Bishop Mark Eugenicus became the head of its opponents), which led to the coexistence in Constantinople of two parallel hierarchies - Uniate and Orthodox. 14 years later, immediately after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottomans decided to rely on the anti-Uniates and installed a follower of Mark Eugenicus, Gennady Scholarius, as patriarch, but formally the union was abolished only in 1484.

If in the history of the church the union remained only a short-lived failed experiment, then its trace in the history of culture is much more significant. Figures like Bessarion of Nicaea, a disciple of the neo-pagan Plethon, a Uniate metropolitan, and then a cardinal and titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople, played a key role in the transmission of Byzantine (and ancient) culture to the West. Vissarion, whose epitaph contains the words: “Through your labors, Greece moved to Rome,” translated Greek classical authors into Latin, patronized Greek emigrant intellectuals, and donated his library to Venice, which included more than 700 manuscripts (at that time the most extensive private library in Europe), which became the basis of the Library of St. Mark.

The Ottoman state (named after the first ruler Osman I) arose in 1299 on the ruins of the Seljuk Sultanate in Anatolia and during the 14th century increased its expansion in Asia Minor and the Balkans. A brief respite for Byzantium was given by the confrontation between the Ottomans and the troops of Tamerlane at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, but with the coming to power of Mehmed I in 1413, the Ottomans again began to threaten Constantinople.

22. 1453 - the fall of the Byzantine Empire

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Painting by Gentile Bellini. 1480

Wikimedia Commons

The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, made unsuccessful attempts to repel the Ottoman threat. By the early 1450s, Byzantium retained only a small region in the vicinity of Constantinople (Trapezund was actually independent from Constantinople), and the Ottomans controlled both most of Anatolia and the Balkans (Thessalonica fell in 1430, Peloponnese was devastated in 1446). In search of allies, the emperor turned to Venice, Aragon, Dubrovnik, Hungary, the Genoese, the Pope, but real help (and very limited) was offered only by the Venetians and Rome. In the spring of 1453, the battle for the city began, on May 29 Constantinople fell, and Constantine XI died in battle. About his death, the circumstances of which are not known to scientists, many incredible stories were composed; in Greek folk culture for many centuries there was a legend that the last Byzantine king was turned into marble by an angel and now rests in a secret cave at the Golden Gate, but is about to wake up and drive out the Ottomans.

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror did not break the line of succession with Byzantium, but inherited the title of Roman Emperor, supported the Greek Church, stimulated the development Greek culture. The time of his reign is marked by projects that at first glance seem fantastic. The Greek-Italian Catholic humanist George of Trebizond wrote about building a world empire led by Mehmed, in which Islam and Christianity would unite into one religion. And the historian Mikhail Kritovul created a story in praise of Mehmed - a typical Byzantine panegyric with all the obligatory rhetoric, but in honor of the Muslim ruler, who, nevertheless, is not called the sultan, but in the Byzantine manner - the basil.