Lesson summary "political fragmentation in Europe and in Russia." Feudal fragmentation in Europe
Ministry of Sports of the Russian Federation FGBOU VPO "Povolzhskaya GAFKSIT"
ESSAY
in history
SUBJECT:Feudal fragmentation in Western
Europe
Completed:
Abdullin Nurzat Almazovich, student 4213z
Accepted:
Shabalina Yulia Vladimirovna
Kazan
1) Feudal fragmentation is a natural process.
2) Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe
a) Feudal fragmentation in England
b) The development of medieval Germany
c) Growth of Byzantine cities
d) a predatory campaign in Italy
e) Reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe
f) War between feudal lords
g) Feudal staircase
h) Summary
Introduction
With the branching of the ruling dynasty in the early feudal states, the expansion of their territory and the administrative apparatus, whose representatives exercise the power of the monarch over the local population, collecting tribute and troops, the number of contenders for central power increases, peripheral military resources increase, and the control capabilities of the center weaken. The supreme power becomes nominal, and the monarch begins to be elected by large feudal lords from his midst, while the resources of the elected monarch, as a rule, are limited by the resources of his original principality, and he cannot transfer supreme power by inheritance. In this situation, the rule "the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal" works.
The first exceptions are England in the north-west of Europe (the Salisbury oath of 1085, all feudal lords are direct vassals of the king) and Byzantium in its south-east (at about the same time, Emperor Alexei I Komnenos forced the crusaders who seized the lands in the Middle East, recognize vassal dependence on the empire, thereby including these lands in the empire and preserving its unity). In these cases, all the lands of the state are divided into the domain of the monarch and the lands of his vassals, as in the next historical stage, when the supreme power is assigned to one of the princes, it again begins to be inherited and the process of centralization begins (this stage is often called a patrimonial monarchy).
The full development of feudalism became a prerequisite for the end of feudal fragmentation, since the overwhelming majority of the feudal stratum, its ordinary representatives, were objectively interested in having a single spokesman for their interests:
Feudal fragmentation is natural
process
In the history of the early feudal states of Europe in the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. "There is no land without a lord." The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords. Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and the big lords behaved completely independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation. It is known that on the territory that collapsed in the middle of the 9th century. Three new states arose in the empire of Charlemagne: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial seigneurial formations
The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the process
the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves. The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of the craft from Agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade. As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mostly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. To end of XIII in. many cities achieved self-government, became commune cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was important step on the way to the formation of class-representative monarchies in the countries Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France. The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the countryside in this process undermined the subsistence economy and created conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, seeking to increase their income, began to transfer land to the peasants for hereditary holding, reduced the lord's plowing, encouraged internal colonization, willingly accepted fugitive peasants, populated uncultivated lands with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quite quickly this process took place in England, France, Italy. .
Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe
Feudal fragmentation in England
The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king. The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.
The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example in France
Development of medieval Germany
The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries, needed military aid princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. . Moreover, in Germany, despite fast development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.
Growth of Byzantine cities
In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service. The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to enough rapid growth Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities. . Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Plundering campaign in Italy
In the X century, the German feudal lords, led by their king, began to make predatory campaigns in Italy. Having captured part of Italy with the city of Rome, the German king declared himself Roman emperor. The new state was later called the "Holy Roman Empire". But it was a very weak state. The large feudal lords of Germany did not submit to the emperor. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king had to make a campaign for the Alps in order to conquer the country again. For several centuries in a row, German feudal lords plundered and ravaged Italy.
The states of Western Europe were not united. Each of them broke up into large fiefs, which were divided into many small ones. In Germany, for example, there were about 200 small states. Some of them were so small that they jokingly said: “The head of the ruler, when he goes to bed, lies on his land, and his legs have to be pulled into the possessions of a neighbor.” It was a time of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe
Reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe
Why were the states of Western Europe fragmented? Under subsistence farming, there were not and could not be strong trade ties between separate parts country, there were no ties even between individual estates. In each estate, the population lived its own isolated life and had little contact with people from other places. People spent most of their lives in their village. Yes, they had no reason to go anywhere: after all, everything necessary was produced on the spot.
Each fief was almost an independent state. The feudal lord had a detachment of warriors, collected taxes from the population, performed judgment and reprisals on them. He himself could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them. Whoever owned the land had the power.
Large feudal lords - dukes and counts - had little regard for the king. They claimed that the king was only "first among equals", that is, they considered themselves no less noble than the king. Many large feudal lords themselves were not averse to seizing the royal throne.
The dominance of natural economy led to the fragmentation of the states of Western Europe. Royal power in the IX - X centuries. was very weak.
War between feudal lords
In times of fragmentation, the feudal lords continuously fought among themselves. These wars were called internecine wars 
.
Why did internecine wars break out? The feudal lords sought to take away each other's land along with the peasants who lived on it. The more serfs the feudal lord had, the stronger and richer he was, since serfs were liable for the use of land.
Wishing to undermine the strength of his enemy, the feudal lord ruined his peasants: he burned villages, drove cattle, trampled crops.
The peasants suffered the most from internecine wars; the feudal lords could sit behind the strong walls of their castles.
feudal stairs
In order to have his own military detachment, each feudal lord distributed part of the land with serfs to smaller feudal lords. In relation to these feudal lords, the owner of the land was a lord (“senior”), and those who received land from him were his vassals, that is, military servants. Taking possession of the feud, the vassal knelt before the lord and took an oath of allegiance to him. As a sign of the transfer, the feudal lord handed over to the vassal a handful of earth and a tree branch.
The king was considered the head of all feudal lords in the country. He was the lord for dukes and counts.
In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages, they disposed of large detachments of warriors.
A step below stood barons - vassals of dukes and earls. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of warriors.
Barons were lords of petty feudal lords - knights.
Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. Vassals were to obey only their lords. If they were not vassals of the king, then they were not obliged to follow his orders. This order was fixed by the rule: Vassal of my vassal is not my vassal».
Relations between feudal lords resemble a ladder, on the upper steps of which stand the largest feudal lords, on the lower steps - small ones. These relationships are called feudal stairs
The peasants did not enter the feudal ladder. And seigneurs, vassals were feudal lords. All of them - from the petty knight of the king - lived on the labor of serfs.
The vassal was obliged, by order of his lord, to go on a campaign with him and lead a detachment of soldiers. In addition, he had to help the lord with advice and redeem him from captivity.
The lord defended his vassals from the attacks of other feudal lords and from the rebellious peasants. If the peasants rebelled in the village of the knight, he sent a messenger to the seigneur, and he, with his detachment, hurried to his aid.
When a war broke out with another state, the entire feudal ladder, as it were, began to move. The king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, they turned to the barons, who led the detachments of knights. This is how the feudal army was created. But vassals often did not follow the orders of their lords. In such cases, only force could force them to obey.
During the period of fragmentation, the feudal ladder was the organization of the feudal class. With its help, the feudal lords waged wars and helped each other to keep the peasants in subjection.
Conclusion
Feudal fragmentation is a progressive phenomenon in the development of feudal relations. The collapse of the early feudal empires into independent principalities-kingdoms was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society, whether it concerned Russia in Eastern Europe, France in Western Europe, or the Golden Horde in the East. Feudal fragmentation was progressive because it was the result of the development of feudal relations, the deepening of the social division of labor, which resulted in the rise of agriculture, the flourishing of handicrafts, and the growth of cities. For the development of feudalism, a different scale and structure of the state was needed, adapted to the needs and aspirations of the feudal lords.
Bibliography
Textbook. History of the Middle Ages. V.A. Vedyushkin. M "Enlightenment" 2009
2. History of the Middle Ages. M. Boytsov, R Shukurov. M.
"Miros", 1995
3.R.Yu.Viller Brief textbook of the history of the Middle Ages
1-2 parts M. School - Press, 1993
Feudal fragmentation in England
The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king.
The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.
The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example in France
Development of medieval Germany
The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. .
In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.
Growth of Byzantine cities
In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service.
The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities. .
Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, distinctive features feudalism in Russian lands.
The period of feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the progressive development of feudalism. The dismemberment of the early feudal grandiose empires (Kievan Rus or the Carolingian empire in Central Europe) into a number of virtually sovereign states was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society.
Even in the IV century. (395 ᴦ.) The Roman Empire broke up into two independent parts - Western and Eastern. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony Byzantium. Byzantium was able to withstand the storms of the so-called ʼʼgreat migration of peoplesʼʼ and survived after the fall of Rome (in 1410 ᴦ, the Visigoths took Rome after a long siege) as the ʼʼempire of the Romansʼʼ. In the VI century. Byzantium occupied vast territories of the European continent (even Italy was unnecessarily conquered). Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantium maintained a strong centralized state.
The overthrow of Romulus Augustine (1476 ᴦ.) is considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire. Numerous ʼʼbarbarianʼʼ states arose on its ruins: the Ostrogothic (and then Lombard) in the Apennines, the kingdom of the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain, the state of the Franks on the Rhine, etc.
The Frankish leader Clovis and his successors expanded the borders of the state, pushed back the Visigoths and soon became hegemons in Western Europe. The position of the empire was strengthened even more under the Carolingians (VIII-IX centuries). At the same time, behind the external centralization of the empire of Charlemagne, its internal weakness and fragility were hidden. Created by conquest, it was very diverse in its ethnic composition: it included the Saxons, Frisians, Alamans, Thuringians, Lombards, Bavarians, Celts and many other peoples. Each of the lands of the empire had little connection with the others and, without constant military and administrative coercion, did not want to submit to the power of the conquerors.
This form of empire - outwardly centralized, but internally amorphous and fragile political association, gravitating towards universalism - was characteristic of many of the largest early feudal states in Europe.
The collapse of the empire of Charlemagne (after the death of his son Louis the Pious) in the 40s of the IX century. and the formation of France, Germany and Italy on its basis meant the beginning of a new era in the development of Western Europe.
X-XII centuries are a period of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe. There is an avalanche-like process of fragmentation of states: The feudal state in Western Europe in the X-XII centuries. exists in the form of small political entities - principalities, duchies, counties, etc., which had a significant political power over their subjects, sometimes completely independent, sometimes only nominally united under the rule of a weak king.
Many cities of Northern and Central Italy - Venice, Genoa, Siena, Bologna, Ravenna, Lucca, etc.
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- in the IX-XII centuries. became city-states. Many cities in northern France (Amiens, Sussan, Laon, etc.) and Flanders also became self-governing commune states. Οʜᴎ chose the council, its head - the mayor, had their own court and militia, their own finances and taxes. Often, commune cities themselves acted as a collective lord in relation to the peasants who lived in the territory surrounding the city.
In Germany, a similar position was occupied in the XII-XIII centuries. the largest of the so-called imperial cities. Formally, they were subordinate to the emperor, but in reality they were independent city republics (Lübeck, Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, etc.). Οʜᴎ were governed by city councils, had the right to independently declare war, conclude peace and alliances, mint coins, etc.
hallmark development of Germany during the period of feudal fragmentation was the predominance in its political organization territorial principle over tribal. In place of the old tribal duchies, about 100 principalities appeared, of which over 80 were spiritual. The territorial princes took the place of the tribal dukes in the feudal hierarchy as well, forming an estate of imperial princes, the direct feudal lords of the crown. Many German imperial princes in the XII century. found themselves in vassalage from foreign sovereigns (sometimes even from several states).
In general, the period of feudal fragmentation was a period of economic growth in Europe. In the X-XII centuries. the feudal system in Western Europe took on a pan-European character and was experiencing a take-off: the growth of cities, commodity production, an in-depth division of labor turned commodity-money relations into the most important factor public life. Clearing for arable land was accompanied by deforestation and reclamation work (Lombardy, Holland). The secondary landscape has risen; swamp area has been reduced. A qualitative leap was experienced by mining and metallurgical production: in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and England, mining and metallurgical industries grew into independent, separate industries. Construction is also on the rise. In the XII century. the first water pipeline with sewage elements is being built in Troyes. Mirror production begins (Venice). New mechanisms are being created in weaving, mining, construction, metallurgy and other crafts. So, in Flanders in 1131 ᴦ. the first weaving machine appeared modern look etc. There was an increase in foreign and domestic trade.
On the other hand, the increase in the needs of the feudal lords in connection with the development of the market not only led to an increase in the exploitation of the peasantry, but also increased the desire of the feudal lords to seize other people's lands and wealth. This gave rise to many wars, conflicts, clashes. Many feudal lords and states were drawn into them (due to the intricacy and interweaving of vassal ties). State borders are constantly changing. More powerful sovereigns sought to subjugate others, making claims to world domination, trying to create a universalist (comprehensive) state under their hegemony. The main bearers of universalist tendencies were the Roman popes, Byzantine and German emperors.
Only in the XIII-XV centuries. in the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization of the state begins, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ gradually takes the form of an estate monarchy. Here, already relatively strong royal power is combined with the presence of class-representative assemblies. The most rapid process of centralization took place in the following Western European states: England, France, Castile, Aragon.
In Russia, the period of feudal fragmentation begins in the 30s of the XII century. (in 1132 ᴦ. dies Grand Duke Kievan Mstislav, son of Vladimir Monomakh; under 1132 ᴦ. the chronicler wrote: ʼʼAnd the whole Russian land was torn apart...ʼʼ). On the site of a single state began to live independent life sovereign principalities, equal in scale to Western European kingdoms. Novgorod and Polotsk separated themselves earlier than others; after them - Galich, Volyn and Chernihiv, etc. The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia continued until the end of the 15th century.
Within this more than three centuries of time, there was a clear and difficult boundary - Tatar invasion 1237-1241, after which the foreign yoke sharply disrupted the natural course of the Russian historical process, greatly slowed it down.
Feudal fragmentation became new form statehood in conditions of rapid growth of productive forces and was largely due to this development. Tools of labor were improved (scientists count more than 40 types of them only from metal); plowed agriculture was established. large economic power cities became (in Russia there were then about 300). Ties with the market of individual feudal estates and peasant communities were very weak. Οʜᴎ sought to satisfy their needs as much as possible through internal resources. Under the dominance of natural economy, it was possible for each region to separate from the center and exist as independent lands.
Thousands of local boyars received in last years existence Kievan Rus The lengthy Russian Pravda, which determined the norms feudal law. But the book on parchment, kept in the Grand Duke's archive in Kyiv, did not contribute to the real implementation of the boyars' rights. Even the strength of the grand-princely virniki, swordsmen, and governor could not really help the distant provincial boyars on the outskirts of Kievan Rus. Zemsky boyars of the XII century. I needed my own, close, local authority, which would be able to quickly implement the legal norms of the Truth, help in clashes with the peasants, and quickly overcome their resistance.
Feudal fragmentation was (however paradoxical at first glance!) the result not so much of differentiation as of historical integration. There was a growth of feudalism in breadth and its strengthening on the ground (under the dominance of subsistence farming), feudal relations took shape (vassal relations, immunity, the right to inherit, etc.).
The optimal scales for the feudal integration of that time, the geographical limits were worked out by life itself, even on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus - ʼʼunions of tribesʼʼ: glades, drevlyans, krivichi, vyatichi, etc. - Kievan Rus collapsed in the 30s. 12th century into one and a half dozen independent principalities, more or less similar to one and a half dozen ancient tribal unions. The capitals of many principalities were at one time the centers of tribal unions (Kyiv near the glades, Smolensk near the Krivichi, etc.). The unions of tribes were a stable community that took shape over the centuries; their geographical limits were determined by natural boundaries. During the existence of Kievan Rus, cities developed here that competed with Kyiv; tribal and tribal nobility turned into boyars.
The order of taking the throne that existed in Kievan Rus, based on seniority in the princely family, created an atmosphere of instability and uncertainty. The transition of the prince in seniority from one city to another was accompanied by the movement of the entire domain apparatus. Foreigners (Poles, Polovtsy, etc.) were invited by the princes to resolve personal strife. Temporary stay in any land of the prince and his boyars gave rise to increased, "hurried" exploitation of peasants and artisans. New forms of political organization of the state were needed, taking into account the prevailing correlation of economic and political forces. Feudal fragmentation became such a new form of state-political organization. In the centers of each of the principalities, their own, local dynasties developed: Olgovichi - in Chernigov, Izyaslavichi - in Volyn, Yuryevichi - in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, etc. Each of the new principalities fully satisfied the needs of the feudal lords: from any capital of the XII century. it was possible to ride to the border of this principality in three days. Under these conditions, the norms of Russian Truth could be confirmed by the ruler's sword in a timely manner. The calculation was also made on the interest of the prince - to transfer his reign to children in good economic condition, to help the boyars, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ helped to settle here.
Each of the principalities kept its own chronicle; princes issued their statutory charters. On the whole, the initial phase of feudal fragmentation (before the factor of conquest intervened in normal development) is characterized by the rapid growth of cities and the bright flowering of the culture of the 12th - early 13th centuries. in all its manifestations. New political form promoted progressive development, created conditions for the expression of local creative forces (each principality has its own architectural style, its own artistic and literary trends).
Let us also pay attention to negative sides era of feudal fragmentation:
A clear weakening of the overall military potential, facilitating foreign conquest. At the same time, a caveat is needed here. Authors of the book ʼʼHistory of the Russian State. Historical and bibliographic essays ʼʼ raise the question: ʼʼ Could the Russian early feudal state resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer in the affirmative?ʼʼ. The forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - a little later turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the face of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a collision with a qualitatively different enemy.
Internecine wars. But even in a single state (when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand prince's throne, etc.), princely strife was sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. The goal of strife in the era of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not to seize power in the whole country, but to strengthen its principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.
Increasing fragmentation of princely possessions: in the middle of the XII century. there were 15 principalities; at the beginning of the thirteenth century. (on the eve of the invasion of Batu) - about 50, and in the XIV century. (when the unification process of the Russian lands had already begun) the number of great and specific principalities reached about 250. The reason for this fragmentation was the division of the princes' possessions between their sons: as a result, the principalities became smaller, weakened, and the results of this spontaneous process gave rise to ironic sayings among contemporaries (ʼʼIn Rostov land - a prince in every villageʼʼ; ʼʼIn Rostov land, seven princes have one warriorʼʼ, etc.). Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237-1241 gᴦ. found Russia a flourishing, rich and cultured country, but already affected by the "rust" of feudal specific fragmentation.
In each of the separated principalities-lands on initial stage feudal fragmentation, similar processes took place:
the growth of the nobility (ʼʼyouthsʼʼ, ʼʼchildrenʼʼ, etc.), palace servants;
strengthening the positions of the old boyars;
the growth of cities - a complex social organism of the Middle Ages. The association of artisans, merchants in cities in the ʼʼbrotherhoodʼʼ, ʼʼcommunityʼʼ, corporations close to craft workshops and merchant guilds of cities in Western Europe;
the development of the church as an organization (dioceses in the 12th century geographically coincided with the borders of principalities);
strengthening of the contradictions between the princes (the title of ʼʼgrand dukeʼʼ was worn by the princes of all Russian lands) and the local boyars, the struggle between them for influence and power.
In each principality, due to the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces developed; its own, special, combination of the above elements came to the surface.
Thus, the history of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia is characterized by the victory of the grand ducal power over the landed aristocracy by the end of the 12th century. The princes here were able to suppress the separatism of the boyars, the power was established in the form of a monarchy.
In Novgorod (and later in Pskov), the boyars were able to subjugate the princes and established boyar feudal republics.
In the Galicia-Volyn land, there was an extremely heightened rivalry between the princes and local boyars, there was a kind of ʼʼbalance of powerʼʼ. The boyar opposition (moreover, constantly relying on either Hungary or Poland) failed to turn the land into a boyar republic, but significantly weakened the grand ducal power.
A special situation has developed in Kyiv. On the one hand, he became the first among equals. Soon, some Russian lands caught up and even outstripped him in their development. On the other hand, Kyiv remained an "apple of discord" (they joked that there was not a single prince in Russia who did not seek to "sit" in Kyiv). Kyiv ʼʼrecapturedʼʼ, for example, Yuri Dolgoruky - Vladimir-Suzdal prince; in 1154 ᴦ. he achieved the throne of Kyiv and sat on it until 1157 ᴦ. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky sent regiments to Kyiv, and so on. Under such conditions, the Kiev boyars introduced a curious system of ʼʼduumvirateʼʼ (co-government), which lasted the entire second half of the 12th century. The meaning of this original measure was as follows: at the same time, representatives of two warring branches were invited to Kyiv land (an agreement was concluded with them - ʼʼryadʼʼ); thus, a relative balance was established and strife was partly eliminated. One of the princes lived in Kyiv, the other - in Belgorod (or Vyshgorod). They acted jointly on military campaigns and carried out diplomatic correspondence in concert. So, co-rulers duumvirs were Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle - Vyacheslav Vladimirovich; Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Mstislavich.
The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands." 2017, 2018.