Historical dictionary. Glossary of terms on the history of Russia

HISTORICAL

HISTORICAL

HISTORICAL, historical, historical.

2. Located within history, documented facts about the past; ant. prehistoric. historical period. Historical time in the life of peoples.

3. Existing in history, being in reality, reliable, not fictional. The novel depicts historical figures. Historical fact.

4. With a plot from history; describing, depicting what was in reality (lit.). Historical novel. historical songs.

5. Based on history as a method of knowledge, research. historical materialism. Historical School of Law.

6. Important for history, significant. Historical date. historical year.

Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

Synonyms:

See what "HISTORICAL" is in other dictionaries:

- (from the word history). Relating to or based on history; of great importance. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. HISTORICAL from the word history. Relating to or based on history. Explanation… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Significant, epochal, important, meaningful, historical, epochal, responsible, significant Dictionary of Russian synonyms. historical, see the important Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language ... Synonym dictionary

HISTORICAL, oh, oh. 1. see history. 2. Relating to the period from which material monuments of everyday life, writing, and culture have been preserved. historical era. 3. Existing in reality, not fictional. I. fact. Historical persons. 4.… … Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

App., use. often Morphology: ad. historically 1. Events, objects, phenomena, etc. are called historical if they existed in the past, were part of the life, life, culture, etc. of former times. Historical figure of the past. |… … Dictionary of Dmitriev

historical- restore the historical justice of existence / creation, repetition shows the historical experience of the subject, demonstration ... Verbal compatibility of non-objective names

App. 1. ratio with noun. history I 1., 2., 4., 5., 6. associated with it 2. Characteristic of history [history I 1., 2., 4., 5., 6.], characteristic of it. ott. Depicting, describing people or events of the past. 3. Based on history [history ... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

Historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, ... ... Word forms

See storico … Five-language dictionary of linguistic terms

historical- historical ... Russian spelling dictionary

historical - … orthographic dictionary Russian language

Books

• , . The "Historical Atlas of the Jewish People" edited by E. Barnavi describes the main events of more than three thousand years of the history of the Jewish people. Richly illustrated edition by...
• Historical Atlas of the Jewish People from the Time of the Forefathers to the Present Day, Barnavi Eli. The "Historical Atlas of the Jewish People" edited by E. Barnavi describes the main events of more than three thousand years of the history of the Jewish people. Richly illustrated edition by...

Historical dictionaries - 1) dictionaries, in which the history of words is given during the described era of the development of a given language. 2) Dictionaries, in which words are explained that are used in the written monuments of a given language, remote from its modern state.
I.'s predecessors with. there were textual dictionaries for written monuments [for example, one of the chapters of Svyatoslav's Izbornik 1073 (see)], alphabet books (see) and lexicons (see) in some of their fragments, commenting on historicisms (see) - ancient realities, mythological and biblical subjects, names, geographical names, historical realities and terms, archaic and ethnographic vocabulary. These dictionaries from ancient times accumulated the features and methodology of the dictionary of the historical genre.
In the 16-17 centuries. ABC books and lexicons commented on the historical contacts of two or more cultures. In the 18th century the ability to compare elements of different languages, as, for example, in the first common Slav. dictionary "Lexicon Slavonicum" by I. G. Sparvenfeld [as a handwritten fact known from the beginning. 18th century; published with comments by Ulla Birgegaard in Sweden (vols. 1-7, 1985-92)], served as an impetus for the development of interest in the etymology of the word (in this dictionary we meet for the first time the interpretation of the word "etymology" - * speech (s) in "any tol "kovashe s \ 2shchee *). In this century, interest is developing in the vocabulary of a high syllable (see Three styles theory) with its high concepts of spirituality, Byzantinisms, Slavicisms (see), archaisms (see) and a low syllable with its historical realities of folk life, "ethnographisms" [for example ., "Dictionary of Russian Superstitions" (1782), "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (parts 1-6, 1789-94; 2nd ed., 1806-22) fully met such requests, the latter was even considered a historical and etymological dictionary in connection with nested arrangement of words, which made it possible to show their historical and etymological connections].
In the 19th century works of ethnographers, historians, archeographers I. s. established themselves as an independent genre associated with ancient realities and based on written monuments. Collectors and publishers of these monuments created historical-terminological dictionaries
[e.g., “Experience of the dictionary of ancient Slavic words of sayings” by A. Petrov (1831), “Explanatory dictionary of objects of the ancient royal treasury and armory” by A. F. Veltman (1844), “Historical, topographical, real and philological index (according to materials of 1632-1682) "P. M. Stroeva (1844)," Dictionary of terms of land surveying in Russia from ancient times to the middle of the XIX century. (1846), “Description of ancient Russian utensils, clothes, weapons, military armor and horse equipment, arranged in alphabetical order” by P. I. Savvaitov (1866), “Reference dictionary of legal terms of the ancient act language of Southwestern Russia” (1871- 72)]. In the 20th century the collection of materials for dictionaries of terms continues, the purpose of which is to take into account all known contexts of the use of the term. These editions are used primarily as indexes of words used in monuments as terms; they can be used as independent industry reference dictionaries or as auxiliary dictionaries when creating I. s. or historical encyclopedia; e.g., “Materials for a terminological dictionary ancient Russia» G. E. Kochina (1937), published in Poland «Materialy do slownika termindw budownictwa staroruskiego X-XV w.» (1962) A. Poppe (A. Rorre), “Dictionary of Russian historical terms from the 11th century to 1917”, compiled by S. G. Pushkarev and published in the USA (1970).
In the 19th century as materials for And. card indexes of extracts from written monuments began to be created (see Card indexes of the vocabulary of the Russian language), as well as word indexes for individual monuments, no longer focused on description
separate groups of words, but on the description of the language as a whole and the fixation of the ways of its development, evolution. So, I. I. Sreznevsky collected a card file of extracts mainly from written monuments of the 11-14 centuries. for the dictionary of the language of other Russian. period. He was the founder of the genre of historical lexicography, although his idea did not include all the parameters of I. s., which ideally should demonstrate the sequence of development of the meanings of the word, starting with the historical (etymological). The dictionary was published after the death of Sreznevsky as "Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language according to written monuments" (vols. 1-3, 1893-1903, additions - 1912; 3rd ed., 1958; 4th ed., 1989). This is a dictionary of contexts relating to past eras, chronologically organized, which to a certain extent characterizes the dynamics in the development of meanings and word forms. Already on the pages of this dictionary, “chronism” (that is, the purely chronological principle of organizing a dictionary entry) began to be overcome.
To the beginning In the 20th century, when the emphasis began to shift to the task of describing the history of a word (any), the history of lexical groups and the language as a whole (V. V. Vinogradov), a special area of ​​lexicography, which is still developing today, has developed - historical lexicography. On the basis of specially created file arrays (in the 1920s, in order to compile an old Russian dictionary, a new card file of extracts from written monuments of the subsequent era - after the 14th century) was laid for different types of dictionaries, combined into a group of dictionaries of the historical cycle, it seeks to solve those tasks that philological science currently sets before it. Starting from the 50-60s. these were the problems of periodization in Russian. language (R. I. Avanesov), the creation of historical lexicology (P. Ya. Chernykh, Yu. S. Sorokin, N. Yu. grammar (V. V. Ivanov, later V. B. Silina,
V. B. Krysko), historical word formation (I. S. Ulukhanov), history of other Russian. culture (Bogatova, O. N. Trubachev). In the 70-90s. relation to I. as a dictionary built on the material of past eras, is replaced by an understanding of the need to describe the history of a word in terms of identifying its evolution, successive stages of development (Sorokin). That is, in Russian. historical lexicography since the 70s. the concept of "chronism" is practically replaced by the concept of "historicism". At this time, in European (including Russian) lexicography, in the group of I. s. certainly the leading place is occupied by dictionaries with a great depth of diachrony, according to which one can trace the history of the Russian language (see), its periodization; e.g., "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries." (v. 1-21, more than 60 thousand words, 1975-95; v. 1-7 - ch. ed.
S. G. Barkhudarov, v. 8-11 -Ch. ed. F. P. Filin, c. 12-14 - Ch. ed. D. N. Shmelev, before c. 14 - also ed. Bogatova; in. 15-21 - Ch. ed. Bogatova; ed. continues, 10 more issues are planned). The dictionary is executed on the basis of the Other-Russian Card Index. dictionary of the 11th-17th centuries, compiled by a continuous and selective method of painting monuments of writing. With the release of new sources, both the issues going into production and the card index are replenished. The main attention of the creators of the dictionary is aimed at solving the problems of historical lexicology.
Among the dictionaries of individual periods is the "Dictionary of the Old Russian Language (XI-XIV centuries)", begun under the editorship of. Avanesov (vols. 1-5, 1988-94; another 5 volumes are planned; the volume of the entire dictionary is 30 thousand words). The dictionary is executed on the basis of a separate card file with a schedule for each occurrence of a word. The card file is processed using statistical methods. The dictionary and card file will provide a lot of data for creating historical grammar and studying historical word formation in Russian. language.
Since 1984, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century has been published (v. 1-8, 1984-95, edited by Sorokin; publication continues) on the basis of a card index of 2 million cards. The dictionary solves the problems of the development of Russian. lit. the language of the new age.
In Russian historical lexicography of the 70-90s. 20th century discussions about the genre of I. s. They are connected with different understanding of the word "history": "knowledge, science in general, information" or "historical science". In this regard, there are two approaches to the principles of compiling I. s: I. s, reflecting only the words fixed in writing, and I. s, also taking into account the etymology of words, their development not only at the written, but also at the pre-written stage of the history of the language ( "The etymology of a word is its history par excellence", Trubachev). In practice, this problem is resolved by separate compilation of etymological and historical dictionaries proper. Besides, in recent times new additional distributions have appeared within the existing range of simultaneously published dictionaries, which can be combined into the so-called. dictionaries of the historical cycle. It includes both I. s proper and historical-terminological, summary etymological ones of one language [for example, “Etymological Dictionary of Rus. language" by M. Fasmer (translated from German, vols. 1-4, 1968-72), "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" (ed. by N. M. Shansky, v. 1-8, 1960-80; ed. continues)] or groups of languages ​​[eg, “Etymological dictionary of Slavic languages. Proto-Slavic Lexical Fund "(ed. Trubachev, v. 1-22, 1974-95; ed. continues)], historical and etymological [for example, "Historical and etymological dictionary of the modern Russian language" by Chernykh (vols. 1-2, 1993)], historical with dialect data [e.g., "Pskov regional dictionary with historical data" (v. 1-7, 1967-86; ed. ongoing)], summary dialect dictionaries [e.g., "Dictionary of Russian folk dialects" (under the editorship of Filin and F. P. Sorokoletov, v. 1-22, 1965-87)1, dictionaries of individual written monuments [for example, "Dictionary-reference book" Words about Igor's Campaign "" (v. 1-6, 1965-84; ed. continues), “Vocabulary and Phraseology of the Prayer by Daniil Zatochnik. Lexicographic description of the monument” (1981)], dictionaries-encyclopedias [for example, “Slavic Antiquities. Ethno-Linguistic Dictionary” (under the editorship of N. I. Tolstoy, vol. 1, 1995; ed. continues)], dictionaries devoted to certain aspects of other Russian. language [for example, "Accentological dictionary of the Old Russian language of the middle of the XIV century." V. D. Ushakov (1982)].

Abaza Alexander Ageevich (1821–1895)

one of the prominent statesmen of the era of "great reforms". Since 1865, member of the Council of Ministries of Finance. In 1874–1881 Chairman of the Department of State Economy of the State Council. In 1880–1881 Minister of Finance. One of the closest associates of M.-T. Loris-Melikova. With the accession of Alexander III, he was retired. In 1884–1893 Chairman of the Department of State Economy.

Abaza Nikolai Savvich (1831–1901)

senator, member of the State Council. Since 1891, Chairman of the Commission on measures to maintain noble land ownership.

a political crisis caused by an attempt by a group of members of the top leadership of the USSR to disrupt the process of signing a new Union Treaty. The GKChP (State Committee for the State of Emergency) was formed, headed by Vice President G.I. Yanaev, who decided to ban a number of political parties and movements, opposition newspapers. Troops were sent to Moscow. Resistance to the actions of the State Emergency Committee was led by the leadership of the RSFSR, headed by President B.N. Yeltsin. On August 22, the performance of the GKChP was liquidated.

Avelon Fedor Karlovich (1839-?)

naval figure, commander of a number of warships. From 1891 admiral. Since 1893, commander of the Mediterranean squadron. Since 1896, the head of the Main Naval Staff. In 1903–1905 Minister of Marine, member of the State Council. Retired after the Tsushima disaster.

Avksentiev Nikolai Dmitrievich (1878–1943)

one of the founders and ideologists of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. After the February Revolution, he returned to Russia, entered the governing bodies of the AKP and from it to the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet. He was a supporter of the participation of the Social Revolutionaries in the coalition government. On July 24, in the second coalition government, he became Minister of the Interior. Since September 2 - retired. Active participant in the Democratic Conference (All-Russian) (September 14–22). Chairman of the Provisional Council of the Russian Republic (Pre-Parliament). Elected Deputy of the Constituent Assembly from the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. In December he was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. In 1918, chairman of the Ufa directory. Then - in exile.

Adashev Alexey Fedorovich (? -1561)

statesman, duma nobleman, okolnichiy, bed-keeper. From the end of the 1540s. leader of the Chosen Council. Initiator of a series of reforms in the field of state building. For a number of years he was the closest associate of Tsar Ivan IV, who combined government posts with court positions. He was the keeper of the sovereign's treasury, his seal. He headed the Petition Order, which directed the activities of almost all state institutions. A supporter of Russia's active foreign policy in the east and south. In 1560 he fell into disgrace and died in Yuriev.

Adashev Daniil Fedorovich (? -1562/63)

military leader, stalker. Member of the siege and capture of Kazan in 1552. Distinguished himself in the suppression of uprisings in the Volga region. In 1559, at the head of a Russian military detachment, he undertook a campaign to the south, during which he landed troops in the Crimea, freed Russian captives and returned to Moscow. In 1560 he was appointed chief of artillery in the Livonian army of Tsar Ivan IV. Soon he was arrested and executed.

Adlerberg Alexander Vladimirovich (1818–1888)

adjutant general (since 1855), member of the State Council (since 1866). Minister of the Imperial Court (1872–1881). As a person close to Alexander II, he took part in the development of a number of reforms.

Adlerberg Vladimir Fedorovich (1790-1884)

participant in the war of 1812, adjutant of the Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich and his confidant. In 1826, he was assistant to the governor of the affairs of the Commission of Inquiry in the case of the Decembrists. In 1841 he was the head of the post office. Since 1842, a member of the State Council. From 1852 to 1872 he was the minister of the imperial court and destinies. Since 1857 he was a member of the Secret Committee on the Peasant Question.

Soviet legislation was applied from the early 1920s to the 1980s. against the "enemies of the Soviet regime". It provided for expulsion from the capitals and large cities and a ban on entry into them, in some cases - a settlement in a city without the right to leave it (for example, the exile of A.D. Sakharov to Gorky).

Azef Evno Fishelevich (1869–1918)

politician, provocateur. Secret police officer. One of the founders and leaders of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, a member of its Central Committee, head of the Combat Organization. In 1901–1908 handed over many members of the party to the police. After being exposed, he fled abroad. Later he was hunted down and killed.

Alexander I (1777–1825)

Russian emperor (1801–1825), son of Paul I and Empress Maria Feodorovna. He was brought up and educated at the court of Catherine II's grandmother. The teachers were N.I. Saltykov and F. Laharpe. Teachers - P.-S. Padlas ( natural Sciences), M.N. Muravyov (Russian literature and history), A.A. Samborsky (the law of God), etc. Since 1793, married to Louise-Maria Augusta of Baden (Elizaveta Alekseevna). According to some evidence, Catherine II made a will in favor of Alexander, bypassing Paul. However, the executor appointed by her handed over the text of the will to Paul. In any case, the change in the order of succession to the throne established by Peter I (according to which each time the heir was appointed by the reigning monarch himself), was changed by Paul I, who approved the principle of succession through the male line (in order of seniority of the sons and brothers of the reigning monarch). Catherine's will (or a rumor about it) greatly complicated the already tense relationship between father and son. Under Paul I, Alexander was only the St. Petersburg military governor-general. Only in November 1799 did he become a senator and then chairman of the War Department. Already in the 1790s. under Alexander, a circle of young like-minded people formed, who immediately after his accession became part of the Unspoken Committee, which became the de facto government of the country. Upon accession to the throne, he announced the revival of Catherine's traditions of government and restored the action of the letters of commendation canceled by his father to the nobility and cities. He returned from disgrace and exile about 12 thousand repressed persons. He reopened the borders for the exit of nobles, allowed subscriptions to foreign publications, abolished the Secret Expedition, and declared freedom of trade. Upon accession to the throne, he announced the termination of grants from state-owned peasants to private hands. In 1803 he signed the Decree on free cultivators, and then began the peasant reform in the Baltic states. Approved the idea of ​​opening new universities and granting university autonomy. In 1811 he opened the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Special attention devoted to the reform of the central government. In 1801 he created the Permanent Council, which was replaced in 1810 by the State Council. In 1802–1811 the college system was replaced by ministries. Alexander's foreign policy was unusually active and fruitful. Under him, Georgia, a significant part of Azerbaijan, Bessarabia, and Finland were included in Russia. At the Congress of Vienna, the kingdom of Poland was included in Russia. With the beginning of the Patriotic War, he was in the army, only at the beginning of July he left for St. Petersburg. At the final stage of the war with Napoleon, he led the Russian army in Europe and entered at the head of it in Paris, receiving the honorary title of Winner in his homeland. The authority of Alexander in Russia contributed to the creation of the "Holy Alliance" (1815). At the same time, Alexander's post-war policy also carried new motives. Fearing the revolutionary impact on Russian society of the ideas of the French Revolution, a more progressive political system established in the West, the emperor banned secret societies in Russia (1822), created military settlements (1812), created a secret police in the army (1821), increased ideological pressure on the university public. Nevertheless, during this period, he does not depart from the ideas of reforming Russia - he signs the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, declares his intention to introduce a constitutional system throughout Russia. On his behalf, N.N. Novoseltsev developed the State charter, which contained certain elements of constitutionalism. With his knowledge, A.A. Arakcheev prepared special projects for the gradual emancipation of the serfs. True, all this did not change the general nature of the political course pursued by Alexander I. In September 1825, during a trip to the Crimea, he fell ill and died in Taganrog. With his death, a dynastic crisis arose, caused by the secret addition (during the life of Alexander I) from his duties as heir to the throne, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich.

Alexander II (1818–1881)

Russian emperor (1855–1881), eldest son of Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna. Since 1825, heir to the throne, since 1831, crown prince. His main tutor was P.P. Ushakov, teachers - M.M. Speransky (legislation), K.I. Arseniev (statistics, history), E.F. Kankrin (finance), F.I. Brunov (foreign policy). V.A. became the mentor of the young heir to the throne. Zhukovsky. From 1834 he was a senator, from 1835 he was a member of the Synod. Since 1836 he was a major general and a member of the imperial retinue. In 1837 he visited 29 provinces of Russia, including Transcaucasia and Siberia. In 1841, he was married to Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt (Maria Alexandrovna), and after her death in 1880 he was in a morganatic marriage with E.M. Dolgoruky (Princess Yurievskaya). Since 1841, a member of the State Council, since 1842, the Cabinet of Ministers. Since 1842, during the absence of the emperor, Alexander was entrusted with the decision of all state affairs. Chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848 During the Crimean War, he commanded all the troops of the capital. Upon accession to the throne, he granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevists, participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. and announced the beginning of an era of reform. In 1856 he personally headed the Special Secret Committee for the abolition of serfdom. In 1857 he liquidated military settlements. The major acts of the era of the reign of Alexander II were a series of legislative documents aimed at the abolition of serfdom (1861), the adoption of a university charter (1863); zemstvo and judicial (1864), urban (1870), military (1864) and other reforms. For these radical steps to reform the country, he was unofficially called the Tsar-Liberator. Under Alexander, the Caucasian War was completed (1864), Turkestan became part of Russia (1865–1881), and the borders of Russia and China along the Amur were fixed. Continuing his father's attempts to solve the "Eastern question", in 1877-1878. waged war with Turkey. In matters of foreign policy, he was guided by Germany. In 1873 he concluded with Germany and Austria the "Union of the Three Emperors". Under the conditions of strengthening revolutionary terror, in 1880 he created the Supreme Administrative Commission. AT last years life, the leading positions under the tsar were taken by M.T. Loris-Melikov, who proposed the continuation of reforms. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Ekaterininsky Canal in St. Petersburg by a bomb from Narodnaya Volya I.I. Grinevitsky.

Here is all the terminology that will be needed when passing the story - there are questions on the terms in parts A and B.

The material is big. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.

Empire - a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, Empire absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.

Anarchists are a political philosophy that embodies theories and views that advocate the elimination of any coercive control and power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different areas of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national question). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.

Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", starting with the third - "anti-Napoleonic". At various times, the coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.

The Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s - bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856) that began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). The great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), military (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.

military settlements - special organization armed forces in 1810-1857, combining military service with housekeeping. Part of the state peasants was transferred to the position of military settlers. The settlers combined agricultural labor with military service. It was supposed to eventually transfer the entire army to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment kits, save the mass of state peasants from recruitment, turning them into essentially free people. Alexander I thus hoped to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. Settlements and A.A. Arakcheev caused general hatred. The villagers rioted repeatedly. The largest performance was the uprising of the Chuguevsky and Taganrog settled regiments in 1819.

The Eastern question is the designation of international contradictions in the 18th - early 20th centuries, accepted in diplomacy and historical literature, associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.

Temporarily liable peasants - peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to perform their former duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.

Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. the redemption by the peasants from the landlords of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the amount of the redemption for the land, and the peasants, who were indebted to the state, had to repay this debt for 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to recover more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, having received about 700 million rubles. income.

Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam, there is a holy war for faith, against the infidels (unbelievers in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).

The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the "Plan of State Transformations" by M. M. Speransky. He did not have a legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budget, ministerial reports, some higher administrative issues and special court cases).

The Decembrists are participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.

Clergy - clergy in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the administration of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. AT Orthodox Church the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the XIX century - the privileged class of Russian society, freed from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.

Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. The Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality”, criticized serfdom and autocracy, put forward a project for the liberation of the peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.

The Zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition public and political activity zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, the holding of illegal meetings and congresses, the publication of brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. The most prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Petr D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of political parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, the Zemstvo movement ceased.

Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the Zemstvo reform of 1864. They were in charge of education, health care, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of the Interior and the governors, who had the right to cancel the decisions of the Zemstvo.

Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of the crop shares. It was a form of transition from the feudal lease of land to the capitalist.

Imamate - common name Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the Murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in con. 20s 19th century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonial policy of tsarism.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.

Counter-reforms in the 1880s - the name of the events of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s: the restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), the introduction of class principles in the initial and high school, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), the introduction of the institution of zemstvo chiefs (1889), the establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.

The gendarme corps is a police force military organization and performing functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. the gendarme corps served as the political police.

Philistines - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917 a taxable class of former townspeople - artisans, small merchants and homeowners. They united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law, they could be subjected to corporal punishment.

Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The aim of the reform was to reorganize the central authorities on the basis of the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Military Ground Forces (since 1815 - Military), Naval Forces (since 1815 - Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also, under Alexander I, there was a Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and public education(1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).

Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e., non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism assumed complete and unquestioning submission of his followers to their mentors - murshids. Muridism was headed by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the highlanders of the Caucasus.

Populists - representatives of the ideological trend among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists). ). Ancestors: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs).

Neo-Russian style is a trend in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. - 1910s, using the motifs of ancient Russian architecture in order to revive the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by the exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by the generalization of motives, the creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style make it possible to consider it as a national-romantic trend within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Cathedral of the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent, 1908-1912) worked in this style.

Nihilism - in the 1860s. a trend in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of a noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. It was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia's refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.

Working off - in post-reform Russia, the system of processing landlords' land by peasants with their own inventory for rented land (mainly for sections), loans with bread, money, etc. A vestige of corvée economy.

Segments - part of the peasant allotments that went to the landlords as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of allotments was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).

The Wanderers are artists who were part of the Russian art association-Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing public order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Wanderers. The main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Wanderers were also artists of Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Wanderers joined the AHRR.

Petrashevsky - participants in the evenings, held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, the problems of restructuring the autocratic policy and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the participants of the circle were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plan by force, for which they create a secret society and arrange the issuance of proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the intended. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of the execution, she was replaced by hard labor. The condemned Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.

Poll tax - in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced the household tax. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore, in a feudal country, it cannot be fully accomplished.

Raznochintsy - come from different classes: the clergy, the peasantry, the merchants, the bourgeoisie - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, carriers of revolutionary-democratic views.

Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in a particular type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes concrete forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the late XVIII - 1st half. 19th century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism opposed the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with aspiration for unlimited freedom, a thirst for perfection and renewal, the idea of ​​personal and civil independence. The painful discord between the fictional ideal and the cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one's own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).

Russian Empire - the name of the Russian state from 1721 to 09/01/1917.

The Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (in other words, neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “exemplary projects” of the churches of Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Ton built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.

The Holy Alliance is an agreement concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this agreement, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.

Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, proceeding from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia's mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They argued both with the Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality”. Unlike the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nikolaev autocracy, and others. The main representatives were the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.

Estates are social groups that have rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The estate organization of society, which usually includes several estates, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia since the second half of the XVIII century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the merchants, and the townspeople was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.

The Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates the transition to a socially just society by reforming the bourgeois one. In the Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became the most popular. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deich, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov) was created in Geneva, the main task of which was to considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), ​​which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RKP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.

Appanage peasants - a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. Duties were carried mainly in the form of dues. In 1863, the main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received part of the appanage lands as property for compulsory redemption.

A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and the division of labor.

“Walking to the People” is a mass movement of radical youth of the populist persuasion in the countryside, aimed at propagating socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of ​​“going to the people” belongs to A. I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell”, addressed this appeal to the student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reached its greatest extent in the spring - summer of 1874 (it covered 37 provinces of Russia). The “Lavrists” set out to promote the ideas of socialism, the “Bakuninists” tried to organize mass anti-government demonstrations. By November 1874, more than 4 thousand people had been arrested, the most active participants were convicted.

Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and mass media in order to suppress undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, since 1804 it was regulated by censorship charters and temporary rules.

Menshevism - arose at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after the opponents of the Leninist principles of building the party were in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the main part of the Mensheviks stood on the positions of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became participants in the struggle against Soviet power.

"World of Art" is a Russian art association. Formed in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers, headed by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine "World of Art" in its original form existed until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. and." was a member of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. and." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the exhibitions of the World of Art.

Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name for trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to reflecting being.

Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.) that is privately owned (individual, group or joint-stock) and exercises control over industries, markets and the economy on the basis of high degree concentration of production and capital in order to establish monopoly prices and extract monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.

The Octobrists are members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17". Formed by 1906. Name - from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number, together with the affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper Slovo, Golos Moskvy, and others, more than 50 in all. The most numerous faction in the 3rd State Duma alternately blocked itself with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 ceased to exist.

Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant economy, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.

The Progressive Bloc was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from the Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) in order to put pressure on the government. The left-wing Octobrist S. I. Shidlovsky headed the association, but the actual leader was the leader of the Cadets, P. N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, the declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published demanding a renewal of the composition of local authorities, an end to religious persecution, the release of certain categories of political prisoners, the restoration of trade unions, etc. the main objective bloc was to create a government of "public confidence" from among the representatives of the administration and the Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself in the conditions of the First World War, to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.

A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of the socio-political conditions for a revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis of the upper classes”, i.e., the impossibility of the representatives of power to maintain their dominance in an unchanged form, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; exacerbation, above the usual, of the needs and calamities of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation in the late 50s and early 60s. 19th century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. It culminated in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the reaction that followed the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. The revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Russian Seasons Abroad - performances by Russian opera and ballet companies organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term has taken root, has become a household name to denote the success of Russian cultural and art workers abroad.

Symbolism - a trend in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focused primarily on artistic expression through the symbol. In an effort to break through the visible reality to the “hidden realities”, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the Symbolists expressed their rejection of bourgeoisness and positivism, a yearning for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world social shifts, trust in centuries-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle. main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Chyurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.

A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. The members of the syndicate retain their industrial independence, but lose their commercial independence.

Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies for directing and coordinating the struggle of workers for their rights in the field. On an incomparably larger scale, the Soviets revived during the February (1917) revolution and until June 1917 acted as a “second” power opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, there were Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and Soviets of Peasants' Deputies. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in the Russian Federation (from 1936 to 1977 - Soviets of Working People's Deputies, from 1977 - Soviets people's deputies) . Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies has become the supreme body of state power (until 1991). hallmark Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive power.

The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian and political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of the Interior and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening of the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and the resettlement policy aimed at eliminating land shortages while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, the creation among the wealthy stratum of peasants of an additional support of power. The reform was thwarted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist-Revolutionary D. Bogrov.

A trust is a form of monopoly in which the participants in an association lose their industrial and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.

The third of June coup - the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and a change in the electoral law. It is considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.

The Triple Alliance is a military-political block of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In 1915, Italy and Turkey joined.

Trudoviks - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program is close to the program of the People's Socialist Party and included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper "Working people". In June 1917 merged with the Popular Socialists

Khutor - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - an economy that separated from the community along with land and a house. Was private property.

The Black Hundreds (from the old Russian “Black Hundred” - hard-pressed townspeople) were members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russian people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the years of the revolution of 1905-1907, they supported the repressive policy of the government, staged pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were banned.

Social Revolutionaries (Social Revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader - V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left SRs - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the SRs). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Natanson. Newspapers "Land and freedom" and "Znamya truda". Participated in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). Since the beginning of 1918, opponents of the Brest peace, the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918, an armed uprising was organized, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left SRs operated in Ukraine, the Far East, and in Turkestan. In 1923 they stopped their activity.

1917–1920

Annexation (from lat. "attachment") - the forcible capture by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.

The White Movement is the collective name of the political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power in the years civil war. The origin of the term is associated with traditional symbolism white color as the colors of law enforcement. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M. V. Alekseev, P. N. Wrangel, A. I. Denikin, A. V. Kolchak, L. G. Kornilov, E. K. Miller, N. N. Yudenich).

White - the name of the opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the years of the Civil War.

The Military Revolutionary Committee is an organ of the Petrograd Soviet for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulation on the PVRK was approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks, but there were also Left Social Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Disbanded December 1917.

The Provisional Government is the central body of state power, formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. It existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7), 1917. It was created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in 1917 and the SR-Menshevik leadership of the Petrosoviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body, and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.

Second coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for the capitalists and 7 for the socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8), 1917

Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government Prince. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) - May 2 (15), 1917

The first coalition Provisional Government of Prince. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for the capitalists and 6 for the socialists) May 5 (18) - July 2 (15), 1917

Third Coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for the socialists and 6 seats for the capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).

After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the deputy capitalist ministers who remained at large, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. On the basis of a forged protocol dated August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against the Soviet government, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, of which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917

The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - Workers', Peasants' and Cossacks' Deputies) - a body that exercised general leadership of the councils during the break between congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Social Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks were elected, 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist-Revolutionaries). Since the 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. From January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, People's Commissariats, to lead individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 - Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 - M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.

VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes by Position; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (decree of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed to reorganize the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By a decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into a State political administration(GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.

Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, should ensure the solution of the main vital issues facing the warring parties.

Dual power - the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation developed in Russia: two authorities were created simultaneously - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Adviсe. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of the dual power. The period of the struggle of two dictatorships for autocracy.

Decree (from Latin “decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees, adopted by the congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical work.”

The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, the necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to crush the resistance of the exploiters and to destroy them completely; then power is used for revolutionary changes in all areas social life: economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of workers and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry, with the leading role of the working class. In 1917, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in Russia in the form of Soviets.

Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Contemporary international law treats intervention as an offence. Intervention can be both military and economic, ideological, carried out in other forms.

“The Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War of persons hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Eliminated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.

Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) – money or other material values ​​collected from the defeated state by the victorious state after the war, as well as forced monetary requisitions levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.

Confiscation (from Latin “to take away to the treasury”) is the seizure by force, without compensation by the state of the property of a private person. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, landowners' lands, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.

The Kornilov revolt is an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.

The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of implementing the socio-economic measures of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of directly expropriating the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legalized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.

Reds - the generalized name of the supporters of the Bolsheviks, the defenders of Soviet power during the years of the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it is applied to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.

Likbez - the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Mass campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign by the end of the 30s. the literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.

Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy to state ownership.

Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (they were part of the Prodarmia), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting and harvesting, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body was the Military Food Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions). Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with committees, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the seized bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.

Prodrazvyorstka - the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism", was established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory surrender by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. Caused the discontent of the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.

Rabfak - working faculty. In 1919-1940. a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (training for 3 years in the daytime, 4 years in the evening).

Reparations - compensation by the defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Sabotage is the deliberate failure to perform duties or their negligent performance.

Council of People's Commissars - the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) is the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, he was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).

Subbotnik communist - voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday, April 12, 1919, at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.

Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.

The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, designed to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of its work it was closed at the request of the guard.

Emigration (from Latin “to move, move out”) is a departure from the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of this state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, with the aim of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow the restoration of citizenship to emigrants.

1920–1930

Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR as autonomies, which would violate their independence and equality.

Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by the complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens, the restriction of the activities of parties and organizations.

Antonovshchina - the peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against the Soviet government and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the forces of the Red Army, sometimes even with the use of gas attacks. In June 1922 Antonov was killed. The abolition of food distribution in 1921 significantly reduced the number of disgruntled peasants.

“Great turning point” is Stalin's expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture launched in the USSR in the late 1920s.

GOELRO (abbreviated from the State Commission for Electrification of Russia) - the first unified state perspective plan restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V. I. Lenin by the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO is the Volkhovskaya HPP in the Leningrad Region.

GULAG - Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Confinement), in 1934-1956, a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of corrective labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the GULAG united many labor camps in different regions of the country: Karaganda labor camp (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD / USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Solovetsky labor camp (USLON), White Sea-Baltic labor camp and the NKVD combine, Vorkuta labor camp, Norilsk labor camp, etc. The hardest conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violations of the regime, mortality from starvation, disease and overwork is extremely high. The prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, the Far East and other regions.

Twenty-five thousand people are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, who went to the countryside at the call of the Bolshevik Party for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people, in fact 27.6 thousand went.

Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has been successfully developing since the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (since the end of the 1920s), industrialization was forcedly carried out by the totalitarian regime by violent methods due to a sharp reduction in the standard of living of the majority of the population, and the exploitation of the peasantry.

Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a program setting for the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st five-year plan (1928/29 - 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was basically completed. By 1936, the collective farm system was fully formed.

A collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the period of collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s. 20th century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for the so-called perpetual use. The supreme governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects the board, headed by the chairman, for the most part a protege of local party bodies, district committees and regional committees of the party. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the K. by that time had been transformed into state farms.

The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of ​​a world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the end of the 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of ​​​​carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, JV Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “has fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Concession (from Lat. “permission, concession”) - an agreement on the transfer to operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement on the delivery of enterprises or land plots with the right to production activities to foreign firms, the enterprise itself, organized on the basis of such an agreement.

The cult of personality is a policy that glorifies one person, is characteristic mainly for a totalitarian regime and promotes the exclusiveness of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.

The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century., an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution called for the eradication of illiteracy, the creation socialist system public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.

The League of Nations is an international organization founded in 1919. The official goal is the development of international cooperation, a guarantee of peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. It was expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.

Peaceful coexistence - a type of relations between states with different social systems, involving the rejection of war as a means of resolving disputes, their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of each people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.

NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed by 1920 in the Soviet republic. highest point dissatisfaction with the current policy of "war communism" was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, the food allocation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: a progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 in kind tax), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, the abolition of the rationing system and rationed supply, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the new economic policy was rolled back.

The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to estimates, program, policy. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and intra-party.

Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 instead of food requisitioning, was the first act of a new economic policy. Charged from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly lower than the surplus appropriation), taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.

The five-year plan is the period for which the central planning of the economy was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, on XXI Congress The CPSU adopted a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965. Subsequently, five-year plans were again adopted. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.

Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of individuals. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of the forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a special scope in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of political crimes. With varying degrees of intensity political repression continued until Stalin's death in March 1953.

Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the work of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.

The Stakhanov movement is a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of the Donbass and then spread to other branches of industry, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.

Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, the comprehensive control of the state over all spheres of society.

Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political currents in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, connected the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921. in the course of the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, stateization, militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagandized was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of intra-party relations, the expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy, proclaimed the slogans of "dictatorship of industry", "super-industrialization". The 13th party conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The 15th Party Congress in 1927 declared belonging to Trotskyism incompatible with being in the Party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political trend in the RCP(b) ceased to exist due to the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, even much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repressions.

Udarnik is a Soviet concept that originated during the years of the first five-year plans, denoting an employee who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the drummers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as an example to follow (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock work and shock workers among the Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities aroused respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative effect on the earnings of others, since the established norms of output naturally increased, and wage rates decreased.

Federation (from Latin “union, association”) - form state structure, in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) bodies of state power are formed, a single citizenship, a monetary unit, etc. are established.

Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on measuring the costs of an enterprise for the production of products with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in the implementation of targets, economical use of resources. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.

1941–1945

The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against an aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The beginning of the creation of the coalition dates back to June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, the USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand, etc. participated in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.

Blitzkrieg - the theory of fleeting war with the achievement of victory in the shortest time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.

Blockade - the encirclement by the armed forces of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base from land, sea or air in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating any state in the political or economic terms to put pressure on him.

The Great Patriotic War - the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name "Great Patriotic War" began to be used in the Russian-speaking tradition after I. Stalin's radio message on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended complete defeat countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as the brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.

The second front is a front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was opened by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (France).

Genocide is the destruction of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons.

Deportation (from Latin “exile”) - during the period mass repression expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others were evicted.

The card system is a system of supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain norms for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called normalized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917 they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was introduced again in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, finally canceled in December 1947. A new and last wave of rationed distribution in the USSR (coupon system) begins in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage . Has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, in connection with the "holiday" of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.

A radical change in the course of the war - strategic and political changes in the course of hostilities, such as: the transfer of strategic initiative from one belligerent to another; ensuring the reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the army in the field the latest species weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena.

Lend-Lease is a system of lending or leasing weapons, ammunition, food, medicines, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US spending on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to 46 billion dollars. The supply of the British Empire amounted to more than 30 billion dollars (% of the loan amounted to 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan amounted to 1.3 billion dollars).

Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany following the results of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet military administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.

Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is a temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.

The partisan movement is a type of struggle of the people for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformations, which is carried out on the territory occupied by the enemy, while the armed core relies on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. Manifested in the form of warfare, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded in the territory of the USSR occupied by the Nazis. Strategic leadership was carried out by the Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were more than 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire regions, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.

Underground - illegal organizations fighting the invaders in the occupied territories. "Young Guard" - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovskoye underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.

"Rail war" - the name of a major operation of the Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy's railway communications in the occupied territory of Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and parts of Ukraine.

Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - the withdrawal of troops, military property or population during the war, natural Disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydraulic construction).

1945–1991

Shareholding is a method of privatization of state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.

Lease contract - forms of organization and remuneration of employees of rental teams within enterprises. A work contract is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, according to which the rental team undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. Products produced in excess of this volume, he has the right to dispose of independently. Form of lease. received significant distribution in the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).

The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in the history of mankind when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and strategically insignificant states that declared their neutrality.

Military-strategic parity - equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.

Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and opportunities. Accusations of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which led to his resignation.

The military-industrial complex is the military-industrial complex, the designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the period “ cold war”an alliance of the military industry, the army and related parts of the state apparatus and science.

Glasnost is a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.

GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of power structures who disagree with the reform policy of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of a new Union Treaty. The GKChP included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasants' Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Objects of Industry, Construction, Transport and Communications of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice-President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were brought into large cities, almost all television programs were stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations that were opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the GKChP showed indecision. In this situation, the President of the Russian Federation Boris N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobedience and a general strike. The White House, the building of the Russian government, became the center of resistance to the GKChP. Within three days it became clear that the society did not support the performance of the GKChP (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to the Crimea to M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason against the Motherland) in the case of the GKChP. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the GKChP accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.

Demilitarization - disarmament, the prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, the withdrawal of troops and military equipment, the conversion of military industries.

Monetary reform- changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, as a rule, aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, a monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same coefficient. The monetary reform of 1991 in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - by the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.

De-Stalinization is the debunking of the personality cult of Stalin and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of governing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the cult of personality I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the process of rehabilitation fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.

Dissidents are "dissenters". The name of the participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. dissidents in different forms advocated for the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, protested against the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were repressed by the authorities.

"Iron Curtain" - after W. Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression "iron curtain" began to be used to denote the "wall" separating capitalism and socialism.

Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In the official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis is an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as threats of American invasion of Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated as a result of the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (headed by N. S. Khrushchev) and the United States (led by President John F. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles. weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the refusal to invade Cuba; the withdrawal of US missiles from Turkey and Italy was also announced confidentially.

Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of institutionalized voluntary associations of mutual assistance of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Share based.

“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Rejection of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. "human values". The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking in ideas, of "servile worship of the West." It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.

“Lysenkoshchina” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and the temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from about the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I. V. Stalin, T. D. Lysenko (who eventually became a symbol of the campaign) and many other people.

Multi-party system - a political system in which there can be many political parties, theoretically having an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It begins to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the III Congress of People's Deputies canceled Article 6 of the Constitution, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU.

New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposite socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; the proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way to resolve international issues not the balance of power of the 2 systems, but the balance of their interests; the rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and the recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, etc. led to the end of the Cold War.

Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum, dominating the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenclature: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.

Scientific and technological revolution (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and a direct productive force. Started in the middle of the 20th century. Dramatically accelerates scientific and technological progress, has an impact on all aspects of society.

“Thaw” is a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult. The “thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive developments in the mid-1950s have not been further developed.

Passport regime - one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons, in the types of protection state security. By monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require them to provide identification, as well as proof that they are not a danger to the peace of the state. official documents, proving the identity of a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, places of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. The Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968 introduced new rules for registration and discharge of citizens in rural areas.

Perestroika - the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, as a result of conflicting efforts, created the prerequisites for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Human rights activists - persons who criticized the vices of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, suggested ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement was active in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal bulletin in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Members of the movement were subjected to severe repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika

A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term, the attempt of the GKChP to remove the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev from power, contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.

Detention of international tension - improvement of relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the years of the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-1970s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA, recognizing inviolable post-war borders in Europe, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed

Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform was aimed at getting rid of the excess money supply that was in cash circulation, and at least partially solving the problem of shortages in the USSR commodity market.

A market economy is a socio-economic system that develops on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. The market economy is based on the principles of freedom of enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of the market economy, largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, a certain degree of state intervention is carried out in the economic systems of developed countries (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, the implementation of social protection measures, etc.).

Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.

CIS, Commonwealth independent states- an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR ceases to exist in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan joined the Agreement, signing together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine in Alma-Ata the Declaration on the goals and principles of the CIS. Georgia later joined the CIS. In 1993, the Charter of the CIS was adopted, which determined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Interstate Economic Council, the Interparliamentary Assembly with the center in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordinating and Consultative Committee in Minsk.

Economic councils - territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.

The shadow economy is a term denoting all types of economic activity, not taken into account by official statistics and not included in GNP.

Commodity deficit - lack, shortage; goods that are not in sufficient quantity.

The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process was initiated by the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)

The Cold War is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 1940s to 1991. The Cold War is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.

The Sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the "sixties" were the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the "thaw".

1992–…

A share is an issuance security that gives the owner the right to receive income, a dividend, depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.

Exchange - an institution where the sale and purchase of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or bulk goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; the building where exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.

The near abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics) that arose in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad, there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states that directly border it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).

Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994 a state security (to bearer) of a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other objects of property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.

Devaluation is the official decrease in the gold content of the monetary unit or the depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or any national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.

Default - The economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in Russian history. The main reasons for the default were: the huge public debt of Russia generated by the collapse of the Asian economies, the liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials that formed the basis of Russian exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously influenced the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar fell more than 3 times in half a year - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The confidence of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. gone bust a large number of small businesses, burst many banks. The banking system was in collapse for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and the standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.

Impeachment (from the English. “Censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for bringing to justice (through the lower house of parliament) senior officials.

Conversion - the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and powers entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of resources of influence. The result of corruption is the degradation of power, increased crime.

Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted in the rejection of state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)

Nanotechnology is the technology of objects, the size of which is about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods for recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.

National projects - a program for the growth of "human capital" in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state identified as priority areas for "investing in people": healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.

A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, the supreme power belongs to the president. The president may be elected by popular vote, parliament, or some institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). After being elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled, re-elected without extraordinary circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after the balance of power in parliament has changed in favor of opposition to the president, his election program and political course as a result of general elections or the prevailing political situation. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy proclaimed by him, the president, on the basis of the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.

Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property into private ownership.

Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

Referendum (lat. referendum - what should be reported) - a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.

Federation Council - according to the Constitution of 1993, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.

The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. It consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

“Shock therapy” is a course towards the recovery of the economy through its accelerated transfer to the rails of a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar's reforms).

Historical dictionary

Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what the "historical dictionary" is in other dictionaries:

historical dictionary- a dictionary containing the history of words (their appearance, development of meanings, changes in the word-formation structure, etc.) ... Explanatory Translation Dictionary

A lexicographic publication that aims to reflect the history of the words of one language throughout their existence in a given language from the time of its formation of the first written monuments) to the present, or limited to a certain ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

German Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz fr. Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse Italian. Dizionario storico della Svizzera ... Wikipedia

- (German Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie) a multi-volume German-language dictionary of philosophical concepts (terms). This ... Wikipedia

A dictionary that provides an explanation of the meaning and use of words (as opposed to an encyclopedic dictionary that provides information about the relevant realities of objects, phenomena, events). Dialect (regional) dictionary. Dictionary containing ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

- "The Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (SSRLA; Big Academic Dictionary, BAS) is an academic normative explanatory historical dictionary of the Russian literary language in 17 volumes, published from 1948 to 1965. Reflects ... ... Wikipedia

Or the materialistic understanding of history, the Marxist philosophy of history and sociology. In the 20th century Them. turned into an ideological doctrine. The very term "I.m." first used by F. Engels in letters of the 1890s. The main ideas were developed by K. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Significant, epochal, important, meaningful, historical, epochal, responsible, significant Dictionary of Russian synonyms. historical, see the important Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language ... Synonym dictionary

HISTORICAL, historical, historical. 1. adj. to history in all meanings except 7 and 8. The historical process. Historical science. historical data. Historical information. 2. Located within history, documented ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

- (from the word history). Relating to or based on history; of great importance. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. HISTORICAL from the word history. Relating to or based on history. Explanation… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Books

• Historical dictionary. More than 2000 articles on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, Georgiev Natalya Georgievna, Orlov Alexander Sergeevich, Georgiev Vladimir Anatolyevich. The publication continues a series of educational books on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, written by the authors of the dictionary ("History of Russia", "Anthology on the history of Russia", "History of Russia in ...