The man who won two Nobel Prizes. For everyone and about everything. The Nobel Prize is not a woman's business

18.10.2019

In revenge, the US government did not issue a passport to Linus Pauling, and he could not get to a conference in London, where he planned to declare the helical structure of DNA. Therefore, priority went to Crick and Watson, and not to Pauling. Otherwise, there could have been more Nobel medals.

Linus Carl Pauling - the famous chemist, crystallographer and pacifist is not in vain considered one of the most prominent scientists of the twentieth century. In terms of the significance of his discoveries for science, he stands next to the great Albert Einstein, being, according to studies, one of the two most popular scientists of the 20th century! His merits in science, as well as in the field of struggle for the good of mankind, were awarded two Nobel Prizes - in chemistry in 1954 with the wording "For the study of nature chemical bond and its application to the explanation of the structure of complex molecules "and the Peace Prize in 1962. In 1970, during the "détente", Brezhnev awarded him the international Lenin Prize "For the strengthening of peace among peoples", although until that time Linus Pauling had been pretty badly "in the nuts from Soviet scientists for his "bourgeois" views on science.

February 28, 1901 in the American city of Portland in the family of a poor son of emigrants from Germany Herman Pauling and the daughter of American Irish Lucy Isabelle Darling was born reddish vociferous firstborn. The boy was named Linus. In infancy, he was a rather noisy child, and his father joked that his son had a real Irish throat, although this property of his offspring did not in the least prevent him from acquiring next year daughter, and a year later to give her son another sister.

At the end of 1904, with a wife and three children in his arms, Herman Pauling, who devoted himself to the vain and traveling profession of a traveling salesman for a medical company, decided to change his occupation and settle in a new place. In 1905, he moved to the town, which had a rather sonorous name for the Russian ear, Condon, in the state of Oregon. There he became a pharmacist, opening his own establishment. It must be said that a pharmacy in America is not exactly a pharmacy, but also something like a cafe, although in those days this difference was somewhat less noticeable than now.

Linus Pauling

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The boy grew up a little and went to school. By that time, he knew how to read and write perfectly and literally “swallowed” book after book. The family moved to Portland in 1910, and his father, desiring expert advice on how to make the right library for the child, wrote a letter with this question to the local newspaper. After all, young Linus studied the Bible - and at the same time enthusiastically absorbed the theory of Darwin. The father was afraid that the guy's brains would boil. It was necessary to streamline this process somehow. His father died in the same year quite young, but before that he managed to significantly replenish the library, including books on chemistry, which in many ways predetermined the fate of the boy.

The family had a hard time. The mother was a housewife, and the inheritance she received was rather meager. To feed his family, Linus went to work as a dishwasher in a cafe, and in the evenings sorted and sorted paper in a printing house. He was a closed and thoughtful guy, he could stare for hours at various insects and sort out colorful pebbles so enthusiastically that the sisters predicted a career for Linus as a jeweler. At the age of 13, Pauling entered a chemical laboratory and was so shocked and fascinated by this sight that he decided to immediately become a chemist. He brought kitchen utensils into his room and got his own home survey center.

Due to the need and the need to work, the young man could not continue his studies at school, but this did not become an obstacle to his admission to the free Oregon Agricultural College, which later became a state university. Linus studied so hard that all the teachers paid attention to him. In the last year, he became an assistant at the department, and a year later - already at once at four. In 1922 he became a bachelor in chemical engineering. Pauling is called to the Caltech in Pasadena, and he is writing his dissertation there. Then he marries the pretty Ava Helen Miller, his student, the hope and support of his life, who bore him three sons and a daughter. Ave and Linus lived together for 58 happy years.

Pauling received his doctorate in chemistry in 1925. In a little over five years, he became first an assistant professor, then an associate professor, and in 1931 a professor of chemistry. All this time, Linus Pauling successfully and fruitfully worked in the field of crystallography, X-raying various crystals. He read radiographs with such ease and simplicity that some of the students laughed, saying that he had vision that allowed him to see subatomic structures with his own eyes.

By the way, Pauling, still quite a young man, had an undoubted teaching gift, being able to fully involve the audience in the learning process. He explained his subject so vividly and vividly that the students did not notice the time. At the same time, Pauling had a unique talent: in just a few simple and accessible phrases for average minds, to explain the most complex processes and achieve successful results precisely in the understanding of the subject. For example, the great Einstein, who considered all ordinary doctors of physics to be fools who could not understand his theory of relativity, did not succeed at all. Although, in fact, the brilliant physicist simply did not know how to clearly enough explain it to the audience. It's good that at least Ioffe and Landau were sorted out ...

Pauling receives a scholarship and goes to Europe, where he trains in the laboratories of the major European luminaries of that time - Sommerfeld, Schrödinger, Bohr.

Back in 1928, the scientist formulated his theory of hybridization, or, as it is also called, the theory of resonance. Pauling looked at the molecule as the result of resonance, that is, the superposition of several structures on top of each other. In addition, each structure tells about the individual features of the properties and structure of the molecule. He wrote his famous The Nature of the Chemical Bond, applying quantum theory to solve many scientific problems. This book put him on a par with the greatest scientists on the planet. This work is translated into dozens of languages, and the book becomes a guiding star for the development of world chemical science.

Linus Pauling elucidated a number of immune mechanisms by studying proteins and antibodies. He studied hemoglobin, made discoveries in the field of virology. The outbreak of World War II forced Pauling to take the path of fighting fascism. A staunch pacifist who ignored the past world war, he develops explosives, jet fuel, oxygen generators for aviation and submariners. Military doctors received from him a system for obtaining blood plasma in field conditions. His contribution to the victory was very great and was awarded the medal of the US government. But respect for the scientist was soon replaced by hysteria...

In the USSR, Pauling's theory was met with hostility. It caused an outbreak of state obscurantism and communist indignation. After the massacre of linguists, cyberneticists and geneticists, chemistry became the target of the “red scientists” from the MGB. Pauling's resonance theory, as well as Ingold's related mesomerism theory, became the target of an attack on the "bourgeois worldview". In 1951, a meeting of obscurantists from science was held in the USSR, who "defeated" Pauling's theory. But this did not prevent the world community from appreciating the works of the scientist. In 1954 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

As a member of the US federal security commissions, he recognized the dangers of nuclear weapons and delved deeply into the subject. The result was an anti-war committee formed in 1946, which included prominent nuclear scientists. Pauling proved that tests atomic weapons a priori cannot be safe. The public was dumbfounded. Especially killing the American inhabitants was the fact that because of strontium-90 every year 55,000 children will be born disabled, and 500,000 stillborn, and iodine-131 threatens with cancer thyroid gland literally everyone. Panic and protests began in the country, the government put Linus Pauling on the unreliable list and became interested in his "anti-American activities." As revenge, the US government did not issue a passport to the scientist, and Pauling could not get to London for a scientific conference where he planned to stun the world with a DNA helix. Therefore, priority went to Crick and Watson, and not to him. Otherwise, there could have been more Nobel medals.

Pauling was declared a secret agent of the Kremlin when he published an anti-war proclamation signed by 11,000 of the world's most important scientists from 49 countries; at the same time he released the bestseller No to War. In 1960 he came up with new initiatives against nuclear testing. They tried to intimidate him with prison and a psychiatric hospital, and again and again they accused him of collaborating with the Russians. But then something happened that temporarily shut up the mouths of militaristic mongrels - Linus Pauling receives the Nobel Peace Prize. However, even the award was challenged. The press called him Pisnik: from the English peace and the Russian sputnik, alluding to the Russian rubles for which he sold himself to the communists. The scientist did not pay any attention to the persecution, intently preparing a campaign to ban the testing of atomic weapons. Finally, the USSR, Great Britain and the USA sign an agreement on the refusal of tests. Pauling was not remembered at the same time, but his merit is obvious.

He was completely blocked from funding, and he could no longer work, but did not give up. Three years later, Pauling again annoyed the US government and Congress by signing the Declaration of Civil Disobedience "Conscience Against the Vietnam War." Linus Pauling had to leave the University and move to Stafford.

Kidney problems started. The Irish have kidneys - this is generally sore spot. Moreover, Linus's genetics were not at all like those of a long-liver: his father died at 34, his mother at 45. Nothing helped. Biochemists, including the famous Irving Stone, suggested that he drink vitamin C. Back in those days, people understood that it was not only about viruses and bacteria. A man, like a monkey, does not produce ascorbic acid, and everything else is easy, and up to a gram per day - exactly as much as needed. Pauling calculated his dose of vitamin C. It turned out to be 10 grams per day, as much as 200 times more than you can get from food. I tested the dosage on myself - the colds stopped.

In 1970, he released a new book, Vitamin C and the Common Cold, which was instantly snapped up by the public in all editions. Gray-haired, but incredibly lively and nimble, the 70-year-old professor became a walking advertisement for vitamin C. The Academy of American Sciences recommended 00.6 grams of vitamin C for an adult male, and Pauling recommended 6 to 18 full-weight grams. Pauling proposed to determine the individual dosage by observing the stomach. Increase the dose a little every day. How the stomach will feel - that's your norm. The people washed away all the ascorbic acid in pharmacies, and the evil pharmacists fell into a rage: they stopped taking expensive medicines completely.

There was a sea of reviews of those cured and recovered, although the press imputed to him the destruction of the entire American people. In response, Pauling stated that aspirin, taken randomly, kills 10,000 people every year, half of them children. And no one has died from ascorbic acid yet. Not stopping there, the scientist is studying the effect of vitamin C on cholesterol metabolism. He makes a rather ambiguous conclusion by modern standards that the use of vitamin C protects blood vessels from "bad" cholesterol. At this time, pharmaceutical concerns and individual greedy pharmacists continued to spoil the scientist. He was declared a charlatan, constantly hounded in the newspapers, cut off on the road. And he continued to experiment on himself.

More recently, research has shown that vitamin C overdoses cause serious problems, in particular gastrointestinal tract. It was argued that there was no fault of the scientist, he simply did not have time to finish the research (although he managed to recommend taking vitamin C to the whole nation). Even his mistakes in dosages made doctors seriously take up the problem of vitamins. Pauling received two Nobel Prizes, a lot of medals, orders, honorary titles and other awards. But he presented the main award to himself: Pauling lived for almost 94 years, and for the last 27 years he did not get sick with anything. Until the last minute he remained in a bright, lively mind, clear consciousness and cheerfulness. It just disappeared one day...

The winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced today in Stockholm. The rest of the winners will be announced this week.

Euronews has collected some facts about the prestigious award in the world.

Nobel Prize in numbers

The Nobel Prize has been awarded in Stockholm since 1901 in five categories: physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature, as well as for achievements in the field of peacekeeping.

The prize in economics, which is often considered to be a Nobel Prize, is actually not one, since Alfred Nobel himself had nothing to do with its establishment.

Throughout history, the award has been presented 585 times, with a total of 923 awards. As the winners were repeated on several occasions, 892 individual winners and 24 organizations became laureates of the award.

Nobel Prize record holders

Record holder for the number Nobel Prizes can be called International Committee Red Cross, which became the winner three times: in 1917, 1944 and 1963.

American physicist John Bardeen has won the award twice, as has chemist Linus Pauling. The latter went down in history not only as an outstanding chemist, but also as a peacemaker. In 1962, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere.

Marie Curie also received the Nobel Prize twice in different categories - in physics in 1903 and in chemistry in 1911. In addition to her, there were three more laureates in the Curie family. Eldest daughter Marie Irene Joliot-Curie and her husband Frédéric received the Chemistry Prize, and her husband youngest daughter Eva American diplomat Henry Labuasse was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.

Laureates who turned down the Nobel Prize

In some cases, the laureates refused the award. Writers Boris Pasternak and Jean-Paul Sartre refused to receive the Nobel Prize. The first under pressure from the Soviet government, and the second, in principle, refused any form of public recognition.

Due to the decree of Adolf Hitler, which forbids German citizens from receiving the Nobel Prize, the German chemists Richard Kuhn and Adolf Butenandt, and the microbiologist Gerhard Domagk, lost it.

Vietnamese political figure Le Duc Tho, who was due to receive the award in 1973 for his "work in resolving the Vietnamese conflict", turned it down, citing the ongoing Vietnam War.

The award was suspended from 1940 to 1942 due to World War II.

Literature Prize Scandal

This year, the Nobel Committee will not present the Literature Prize due to the outbreak that broke out at the Swedish Academy.

The Literature Awards will resume in 2019. Then two laureates will be announced at once - for 2018 and 2019.

On the eve of the Nobel Week started, during which the best minds of the planet will receive well-deserved awards. On Monday, the first prizes - in medicine - have already received the first "trio" of authors: Randy Shekman, James Rothman and Thomas Zudof.

In honor of this event, "Reedus" decided to recall the most Interesting Facts for the most prestigious award in the world. But it turned out that those were a wagon and a small cart. Therefore, in order to somehow streamline them, we connected each curious fact with a certain numeral ...

$1.1 million. This is the amount of money awarded to the laureates this year. In June 2012, it had to be reduced by 20% in order to save money.
Once at the ceremony, the medals were mixed up. In 1975 Russian laureate Prize in Economics Leonid Kantorovich received the medal of his American colleague Tjalling Koopmans.
The only winner in the world of both the Nobel Prize and the Ignobel Prize is Andrey Geim. In 2000, along with Michael Barry, they were honored by the Ignobel Physics Committee for "using magnets to demonstrate the levitation of frogs."
The only woman to win the Nobel Prize twice is Marie Skłodowska-Curie.
The first winner of the Peace Prize, who received it alone, Sir William Randel Creamer.
One person received not only the Nobel Prize, but also the Oscar. Bernard Shaw in 1925 received the Literature Prize "for a work marked by idealism and humanism, for sparkling satire, which is often combined with exceptional poetic beauty." In 1938, Bernard Shaw received an Oscar for writing the screenplay for Pygmalion.

Two Nobel laureates were seen in "connections" with drugs. 1993 Chemistry Prize winner Kary Mullis claims that the discovery of polymerase chain reaction imaging was only due to the use of LSD. Mullis has been an active advocate for lysergin ever since. Another "drug addict" is the 1962 Medicine Prize winner Francis Crick. He discovered the molecular structure of DNA, and also under the influence of "acid".
There have been two cases of refusal of Nobel Prizes. Le Dykh Tho refused the Peace Prize, Jean-Paul Sartre - from the Literary Prize.

Three times Nobel Peace Prize winner - International Committee of the Red Cross. This is the only three-time "champion" in the history of the award.
More than three - do not gather. This rule also applies to the Nobel Committee. Maximum amount co-authors of one work - 3 people, for a year in one area, again, three authors can receive awards.

Four people have won the Prize twice: Maria Skłodowska-Curie (Physics Prize 1903, Chemistry Prize 1911), John Bardeen (Physics Prize 1956, 1972), Linus Pauling (Chemistry Prize 1954, Peace Prize 1962) ) and Frederick Senger (Chemistry Prize - 1958, 1980).

The prize in physics was not awarded six times: in 1916, 1931, 1934, 1940, 1941 and 1942.

The Literature Prize was not awarded seven times: in 1914, 1918, 1935, 1940, 1941, 1942 and 1943.

Eight times no prize was awarded in chemistry: in 1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940, 1941 and 1942.

Nine times the prize in medicine was not awarded: in 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1925, 1940, 1941 and 1942.

Knut Anlund.

For ten days late was named the winner of the Literature Prize in 2005. One of the jury members, Knut Anlund, did not agree with the award to the Austrian writer Elfriede Jelinek. In the end, in protest, Anlund left the jury, and the award found its "heroine".

The Peace Prize has not been awarded twenty times: in 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1932, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1948, 1955, 1956, 1966, 1967 and 1967.

Only twenty-one years later, Myanmar's opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi was able to receive her Peace Prize. Previously, it did not work out, she was in prison. By the way, the song "Walk On" by U2 is dedicated to her.

William Lawrence Bragg.

The youngest laureate turned twenty-five years old. So much was celebrated in 1915 by the Australian William Lawrence Bragg, who received the prize in physics.

Thirty-nine years have passed since the creation of the neutron diffraction method to the awards of Schall and Brockhouse. This is the largest gap of its kind in the history of the Nobel Prize.

Forty-three percent of award winners in science disciplines are Americans.

Forty-four women have won Nobel Prizes to date.

Albert Camus.

Only forty-six years lived the winner of the prize in literature, Albert Camus, this is the most short life among all winners.

Fifty-five years average age laureates in medicine.

Fifty-seven years is the average age of laureates in physics and chemistry.

Nober Prize winners in 2009. © Peter Andrews/Reuters

Fifty-nine years is the average age of all laureates in all categories.

Einstein was nominated sixty times for his formulation of the theory of relativity. He never received an award for it. An outstanding physicist was awarded for explaining the photovoltaic cell.

Sixty-nine people are the winners of the Economics Prize to date.

Ninety years old at the time of receiving the award was the American Leonid Gurvich. In 2007 he received an economics award. So far this record has not been broken.

Rita Levi-Montalcini.

One hundred and three years this year, the main long-liver among the laureates, the Italian neuroscientist Rita Levi-Montalcini, turned. She received the Physiology Prize in 1986, when she was 77 years old.

One hundred and eight people have won prizes in literature to date.

One hundred and twenty-one people have been laureates of the Peace Prize to date.

One hundred and sixty people have received prizes in chemistry to date.

One hundred and ninety-three people have received prizes for research in physics to date.

Two hundred and two people have received prizes for research in physiology and medicine to date.

Winners of the award in the field of medicine and physiology. In the following days, the world will recognize the best of the best in other categories as well. So, on October 4, the decision of the Nobel Committee in physics will be announced, on October 5 - in chemistry. The Nobel Peace Prize will be awarded on October 7th. Among them are the famous whistleblower of the American intelligence services Edward Snowden, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, US presidential candidate Donald Trump and Pope Francis. The winner of the Economics Prize will be announced on 10 October. Finally, an award in the field of literature will be awarded - the masters of the pen will be announced on October 13th.

It is worth noting that this Nobel week will be special. It has been 120 years since the death of Alfred Nobel. In addition, a record number of laureates are claiming prestigious awards - this year there are 376 of them, including 148 scientific organizations. The award ceremony will take place on December 10 at the Stockholm Philharmonic on the day of Nobel's death. The amount of the cash prize this year will be $932,000. In the selection "MIR 24" - interesting facts from the history of the Nobel Prize.

Nobel Prize for all ages

The Nobel Prize is awarded to both young and old. Although basically the winner of the award is over 50 years old. 17-year-old Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan has won the Nobel Prize of all time. In 2014, she was awarded the Peace Prize "for her struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to an education." The oldest winner at the time of the award was 90-year-old American economist Leonid Gurvich. In 2007, he was awarded the Nobel Prize "for creating the foundations of the theory of optimal mechanisms." In turn, the Italian neuroscientist Rita Levi-Montalcini is the Nobel Prize winner. She made a significant discovery that helped in the treatment of cancer and Alzheimer's disease. At the time of her death in 2012, she was 103 years old.

October 10th, 2012

With the most prestigious scientific award world connected and tragic moments, and funny cases, and quite detective stories. Forbes magazine has chosen ten of the most remarkable facts from the history of the Nobel Prize, including quite detective cases and just funny moments.

The second week of October has been called the Nobel Prize for 111 years: it is at this time that the Nobel Foundation, in accordance with the terms of the will of the famous Swedish scientist, announces the names of the laureates of the world's most prestigious scientific prize. In 2012, laureates in the field of physiology, medicine and physics have already been named, and the last winners in the field of economics will be named on October 15. It is not so easy to answer the question “How many Nobel Prize winners?”. In total, from 1901 to 2011, 851 laureates received the award, but the list of people and organizations awarded the award contains only 844 names and titles - simply because some were laureates twice or even three times.

Most of the laureates - 199 people (including 2012) - received awards for research in the field of physiology and medicine. Physicists are only six people less - 193 (taking into account 2012), one of them - twice. 160 laureates have been awarded the Prize in Chemistry (including one twice), 121 Peace Prizes (including one twice and one three times), 108 in Literature, and a total of 69 in Economics (introduced in 1969) .

Multiple laureates

Among the rules for awarding Nobel Prizes there is a condition that all prizes, except for the Peace Prize, can be awarded to one person only once. Nevertheless, four Nobel laureates are known who received the prize twice: this is Maria Sklodowska-Curie (pictured; in physics - in 1903, in chemistry - in 1911), Linus Pauling (in chemistry - in 1954, the Peace Prize - in 1962), John Bardeen (in physics in 1956 and 1972) and Frederick Sanger (in chemistry in 1958 and 1980). There was only one three-time winner in the history of the Nobel Prize - the International Committee of the Red Cross, which received the Peace Prize (this prize is the only one that allows the nomination of not only individuals, but also organizations) in 1917, 1944 and 1963.

Laureates posthumously

In 1974, the Nobel Foundation introduced a rule that the Nobel Prize was not awarded posthumously. Before that, there were only two cases of posthumous awarding of the prize: in 1931 - to Erik Karlfeldt (for literature), and in 1961 - to Dag Hammarskjöld (peace prize). After the introduction of the rule, it was violated only once, and then by a tragic coincidence. In 2011, the Physiology or Medicine Prize was awarded to Ralph Steinman (pictured), but he died of cancer a few hours before the announcement of the Nobel Committee's decision.

Nobel economy

AT this year the cash portion of the Nobel Prize is $1.1 million. The amount was reduced by 20% in June 2012 in order to save money. As the Nobel Foundation argued for this step, the innovation will help to avoid a reduction in the organization's capital in long term, because the management of capital should be carried out in such a way that "the award could be given endlessly."

Nobel cache

In the entire history of the Nobel Prize, only one case has been recorded when the winners received the same Nobel medals twice for the same discovery. German physicists Max von Laue (1915 laureate) and James Frank (1925 laureate) after the ban on Nobel Prizes introduced in Nazi Germany in 1936, handed over their medals for preservation to Niels Bohr, who led the institute in Copenhagen. In 1940, when the Reich occupied Denmark, Hungarian György de Hevesy (pictured), fearing that the medals might be confiscated, dissolved them in aqua regia (a mixture of concentrated nitrogen and hydrochloric acid), and after his release he isolated the gold from the stored solution of chloroauric acid and transferred it to the Royal Swedish Academy. There, Nobel medals were again made from it, which were returned to the laureates. By the way, György de Hevesy himself was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1944.

Nobel long-liver

Italian neuroscientist Rita Levi-Montalcini (pictured) is a long-lived Nobel laureate and the oldest of them: this year she turned 103 years old. She was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1986, when she celebrated her 77th birthday. The oldest laureate at the time of the award was 90-year-old American Leonid Gurvich (Economics Prize - 2007), and the youngest was 25-year-old Australian William Lawrence Bragg (Physics Prize - 1915), who became a laureate together with his father William Henry Bragg.

Women of the Nobel

The largest number of women laureates is among the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize (15 people) and the Literature Prize (11 people). However, the winners of the literary prize can boast that the first of them was awarded the high title 37 years earlier: in 1909 Nobel laureate in literature was the Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf (pictured), and the first woman to win the Peace Prize was the American Emily Green Bolch in 1946.

Nobel co-authors

According to the rules of the Nobel Foundation, no more than three people can receive an award in one area per year for various works- or no more than three authors of one work. The first three were the Americans George Whipple, George Minot and William Murphy (pictured), who were awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1934. And the last (for 2011) are the Americans Saul Pelmutter and Adam Reiss and the Australian Brian Schmidt (physics), as well as the Liberians Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf and Leima Gbowee and the Yemeni citizen Tawakul Karman (Nobel Peace Prize). If the prize is awarded to more than one person or for more than one work, it is divided proportionally: first - by the number of works, then - by the number of authors of each work. If two works are awarded the prize, one of which has two authors, then the author of the first will receive half the amount, and each of the authors of the second - only a quarter.

Nobel passes

There is no requirement in the rules for awarding the Nobel Prize that it must be awarded every year: by decision of the Nobel Committee, if among those applying for high award there is no worthy work, the prize may not be awarded. In this case, its monetary equivalent is transferred to the Nobel Foundation in whole or in part - in the latter case, from one third to two thirds of the amount can be transferred to the special fund of the profile section. During the three war years - in 1940, 1941 and 1942 - Nobel Prizes were not awarded at all. Given this gap, the Nobel Peace Prize was most often (18 times) not awarded, the prize in physiology or medicine - nine times, in chemistry - eight times, in literature - seven times, in physics - six times, and in the awarding of the prize in economics, introduced only in 1969, there was not a single pass.

Nobel transformation

The famous physicist Ernest Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908. The phrase with which he reacted to this news became winged: the scientist said that “All science is either physics or stamp collecting,” and a little later commented on his award even more figuratively, stating that of all the transformations that he witnessed, “Most unexpected was my own transformation from physicist to chemist.”

Nobel heirs

The first Nobel Prize winner in physics was Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, who was awarded the prize in 1901 for the discovery x-ray radiation. In total, for works directly related to the application of Roentgen's discovery in science, the Nobel Prizes were awarded 12 more times, including in physics (seven times), in physiology and medicine (three times) and in chemistry (twice): in 1914, 1915, 1917, 1922, 1924, 1927, 1936, 1946, 1962, 1964, 1979 and 1981.