Ways of mastering borrowed words in Russian. The problem of international vocabulary. Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Borrowing this or that word, the Russian language rarely leaves it in the form in which it existed in the source language. This is due to the difference in sound structure, grammar, semantics between languages. Therefore, when borrowing, words change their appearance, adapt to the laws of the Russian language, begin to live according to its norms. The adaptation of words (mastering) begins, first of all, with a change in its graphic appearance. Graphic development is the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet, since most Western European languages ​​are built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and the Russian language is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, English. meeting - Russian rally; German. Grossmeister is a grandmaster. Some words and expressions retain their former appearance: tet-a-tet, veni, vidi, vici.

Phonetic development is a change in the sound composition of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic development is manifested regularly, naturally, because. the articulation base of the languages ​​is different. Vowels, alien to the Russian language, can be transmitted in different ways. For example, English. trust - rus. trust, German. Hulsa - Russian. sleeve. Diphthongs are not characteristic of the Russian language, so they are also converted: lat. auqūstus - Russian. August, lat. auditorium – Russian audience. Adapting to the phonetic conditions of the Russian language, foreign words undergo reduction, stunning at the end and in the middle of the word. When mastered, the stress may also change: lat. kathedra - Russian department, english standard - Russian standard, lat. auditor - auditor.

Morphological development is the adaptation of a word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. Nouns during development are subject to the declension system, with the exception of indeclinable nouns. Foreign inflections, as a rule, are cut off or replaced by Russian ones, or become part of the base. For example, gradus is a degree, metallum is a metal. When borrowing, a gender change is possible, since in other languages ​​the category of gender is not grammatically relevant, but is determined on a semantic basis: all inanimate nouns are classified as neuter. In lat. language na-um belonged to the neuter gender, and in Russian - to the masculine: aquarium, forum, council. In Greek noun in –a were neuter, and in Russian they became feminine: theme. axiom problem. Greek the words scarlet, asphalt, analysis were feminine. Changes can be in number: for example, a German. curl, valve, eng. coconut, cake, Greek silo were noun. pl. numbers. When mastering, there is a change in part-speech affiliation. So, for example, major (French), plenum (Lat), piano (French), nocturne (French “night”), candidate (Latin “dressed in white”) were adjectives, credo (Latin “I believe” ) is a verb, quorum (lat.) is a pronoun. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, as a rule, only the basis and the idea of ​​​​action are borrowed, and it is already formed according to the model of the Russian language: lieben - to love, gehen - to go.

Mastering is a long process, so some words retain the features of the original language, while creating an accent. In the process of borrowing, changes also occur in the semantics of words. The meaning of words can narrow or expand. In most cases, the word is borrowed in some specific meaning, so its semantics becomes narrower. For example, the French word la poudre meant “dust, powder, gunpowder”, and was borrowed in the meaning of “powder for cosmetic purposes”, lat. globus ("ball") acquired the meaning "model the globe". An example of the expansion of semantics can be the words: greenhouse (from the French "greenhouse for growing oranges"), which in Russian means "any greenhouse", the word room had in Italian. language meaning "a room with a fireplace", in Russian. - any room in a residential building, holidays in lat. denoted the period from June 22 to August 23, when the Sun was in the constellation Canis, in Russian the word holidays means "a break in classes." Semantics can also change to a greater extent: Gr. the diploma literally meant “a sheet folded in half”, in Russian - “document”, in Latin an entrant - “the one who is going to leave”, in Russian - “the one who enters”. Thus, when a foreign word enters the Russian language, it must obey its rules and laws.

6. Tracing - special kind borrowing

Tracing is called an "environmentally friendly" method of borrowing, since it allows, without destroying the integrity of the perception of the Russian lexical system, to expand its capabilities. Tracing paper (French calgue - “copy, imitation”) - words formed according to the model of a foreign word. Tracing papers are less studied for several reasons:

1) there are relatively fewer cripples than borrowings;

2) tracing papers are difficult to distinguish, since the criteria by which a particular word or combination should be recognized as the result of tracing are not clear.

There are several types of calques: derivational calques, semantic calques and semi-calques.

Derivational tracing paper is created by translating each morpheme of a foreign word: consonance - gr. simphonia; proto-language - German. Urspache; peninsula - Halbinsel, adverb - lat. Adverbum, television - television - half-calculus (one of the parts without translation).

Semantic tracing paper - a word with a new figurative meaning that arose under the influence of the semantics of a foreign word: shadow “illegal, not in power” (English) - shadow business, shadow economy; format "character, type, form" - English. The meeting was held in an updated format; high "best, elite" (eng.) - high fashion, high technology, shock "shock, amaze" (eng.) - New film N. Mikhalkov shocked the jury. Linguists note that the ratio of types of cripples in different periods language development is not the same. If in the XIX - XX centuries. derivational tracing papers prevailed: superman, prime cost (German), binder (German), employer, skyscraper (English); semantic tracing papers are noted - the highlight of the program (under the influence of French), the platform is "a set of principles political party”- under the influence of German, semantic calques prevail in the Russian language of our days, and their main source is English.

As a result of economic, political and cultural ties different vocabulary was borrowed from other peoples. Borrowed words can displace native Russian names, or be used along with them, becoming synonyms (export-import, import and export). The sources of borrowings were Slavic (Polish, Czech, etc.) and non-Slavic (Greek, Latin, French, German, Italian, English, Turkic) languages.

1. Mostly household vocabulary was borrowed from Polish (jacket, suede, stroller, cap), Latinisms (coin, public), German and Italian words (fair, soil, thing) were borrowed through it.

2. From Ukrainian language bagel, borscht, hopak, schoolboy, grain grower are borrowed.

3. From Czech - refugee, polka, robot.

When moving to another language, words adapt to the phonetic structure and morphological system of the borrowing language, undergo lexico-semantic transformation:

1. Phonetic transformations - replacing foreign sounds with sounds of the borrowing language that are close in quality.

a) nasal vowels in French are transmitted by the corresponding vowels in combination with n, m (adventure, landing)

b) permutation of sounds (easel)

c) insertion of vowels between consonants (chintz)

d) moving the accent (decorator, revolver)

2. Morphological transformations - assignment to a certain part of speech, distribution by word-formation types, obtaining the appropriate grammatical design.

a) loss of endings (Greekisms -os, -on: bishop, idol, Latinisms -moustache, -mind: muscle, decree).

b) change generic affiliation(la sorte zh.r. - sort m.r.).

3. Lexico-semantic transformation -

a) distribution by thematic and lexical-semantic groups: the Türkisms scarlet and bulany have replenished the composition of LSG adjectives of color

b) change in the volume of the word (narrowing) - powder in French means powder, powder, gunpowder, dust, sand. And in Russian - only powder.

c) rethinking the word, changing the conceptual framework (barn - palace)

d) the emergence of a new secondary meaning of the borrowed word (vinaigrette)

AT on the mother tongue there is a tendency to attach borrowed words to consonant with their own words and rethink them in this circle - folk etymology, false etymology (entrenched). Folk etymology is used in YHL for stylistic purposes.

According to the degree of development, they differ:

1. assimilated - firmly included in the lexical system of the Russian language and are perceived as originally belonging to it (pencil, soup)

2. Exotic words (exoticisms) - reflecting the phenomena of life and life of other peoples (mademoiselle, satsivi, dollar). It is possible to find exact equivalents for such words in Russian, but the foreign language specificity will be lost during translation. When borrowing realities denoted by exoticisms, such words pass into the category of lexically mastered words (goulash, shish kebab).

3. Barbarisms - foreign words that are not fully mastered by the borrowing language, due to the difficulties of grammatical development, often give a humorous or ironic tinge to the text (chew chuingam, drink jus).

Kalki in Russian.

Tracing paper - a word built on the model of the corresponding alien by transferring it constituent parts with the help of Russian word-formation elements. Tracing is the process of creating cripples. Tracing paper differs from borrowings - someone else's word does not transfer, but is translated using its own language material when borrowing the semantics of its constituent parts.

1. derivational tracing papers - built with the help of Russian word-forming elements (look - with German Aussehen - -aus - -you, sehen - look. Interjection and lat interjectio, skyscraper and skyscraper, etc.).

2. Semantic tracing papers - words that borrow one of the LSVs from their foreign language equivalents (to touch - to excite from the French toucher (to touch), picture - the meaning of "movie" from English picture (picture, portrait, movie).

3. Semi-calques - a word made up of borrowed and own elements, using the word-formation structure of a foreign language prototype word (television - Greek television and Russian vision, humanity - humanitat - Latin root human and Russian -ost).

9. Lexicography. The main types of dictionaries (according to Maslov. chapter 3, section 7

Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic construction, etc.) transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements of one language to another. Words are usually borrowed, and less often syntactic and phraseological turns. The borrowing of sounds and derivational morphemes from other languages ​​occurs as a result of their secondary isolation from more borrowed words. Borrowings adapt to the system of the borrowing language and are often so assimilated by them that the foreign origin of such words is not felt by the native speakers of this language and is found only with the help of etymological analysis.

Unlike fully acquired borrowings, so-called foreign words retain traces of their foreign origin in the form of sound, spelling, grammatical and semantic features that are alien to native words. Sometimes foreign words denote concepts characteristic of foreign peoples or countries (ethnographisms, regionalisms, exoticisms), for example "guayava" - fruit plant from tropical America. Words of this kind are usually interpreted in special dictionaries of foreign words, some of them are included in general dictionaries. Some words of foreign origin occupy an intermediate position between foreign words and fully mastered borrowings, for example, in Russian the widely used word "coat" has not yet received the ability to decline. At the first stages of borrowing, words of a foreign language can be used in the texts of the borrowing language as foreign inclusions, retaining their foreign appearance, and if they (usually as a manifestation of fashion) receive more or less regular use, then they are called barbarisms.

Being the result of a long historical interaction of languages, their mixing, borrowings occupy a significant place in the vocabulary of many languages. Strengthening the interaction of languages ​​with the growing role of cultural and economic ties between peoples leads to the formation of a special fund of international words that are available both in related and unrelated languages. In the languages ​​of Europe, the main fund of international words is made up of borrowings from Greek and Latin, in the Near and Middle East - from Arabic and Persian, in Far East- from Chinese. International words refer mainly to the field of special terminology of various branches of science and technology Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M. 1990.

Getting into the Russian language, a foreign word ends up in a different language system, which differs from the source language by the features of the phonetic, grammatical structure, which has its own graphics, its own system of concepts. The borrowed word must adapt to this system in order to function normally in it. Therefore, borrowed vocabulary, when transferred from a foreign language, undergoes a process of mastering. There are 4 types of development: 1) phonetic; 2) graphic; 3) grammatical, 4) semantic.

Graphic development - the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet - is observed in words borrowed from languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat have a different graphic system (English meeting - Russian rally).

Grammatical development is the adaptation of a foreign word to the grammatical system of the Russian language.

In the process of borrowing, a semantic transformation of the word is carried out. In most cases, the meaning of the word becomes narrower than in the native language, because the lexeme is not borrowed with all the meanings of a polysemantic word, but only with one or several.

In our work, we will dwell in more detail on the phonetic development of borrowings.

Phonetic development is a change in the sound image of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic development is manifested regularly, naturally. For example, changes are observed in the transmission of consonant sounds. In most Indo-European languages, the sound [h] is pronounced with a breath, it can be deaf and voiced. In Russian, words containing this sound are transmitted differently (English hobby, hokkey - Russian - hobby, hockey).

The process of phonetic development can be lengthy. So, during the 19th century, the vowel [o] in foreign words was pronounced without reduction: p[o]rtmone, p[o]et. At present, there has been a complete phonetic development of such words, which is enshrined in modern orthoepic norm. However, in some cases, the duration of phonetic development can lead to the creation of orthoepic variants: pho[n "e] tika and pho[ne] tika, [t "e] mp and [te] mp, [s "e] ssia and [se] Russia.

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words underwent phonetic, morphological and semantic changes.

For example, double vowels ei, ai in Russian are most often transmitted as av and ev: eucalyptus (Greek eukalyptos), car (German Automobil), etc.

Changes of a morphological nature primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes gender. So, foreign-language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from French décoration), extravaganza (from French féerie). Foreign suffixes that are not common in Russian are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from Gr. harmonikos), generation (from Lat. generatio), march (from German marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), parliament (German das Parlament - neuter), skittles (German der Kegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine) , font (German die Schrift - feminine).

Often in the Russian language, the original meaning of words is also subject to change: German. der Maler - the painter received a new meaning - "painter", i.e. worker painting buildings, interiors, etc.; fr. hasard (excitement) - the case received the meaning of "passion, passion, ardor"; French adventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to lat. adventura - an accident, used in the meaning of "doubtful event, business", etc.

However, not all borrowed words are reformulated. It is not uncommon for foreign words to penetrate in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek genesis - genus, origin), duel (French duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (Latin palma), etc.

In addition to the actual borrowings, the so-called calque is possible (fr. calque - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

Tracing papers are: a) derivational, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise through the literal translation into Russian of individual significant parts words (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, calques from Latin and Greek are: interjection (lat. Inter + jectio), adverb (lat. ad + verbium), spelling (gr. Orthos + graph), etc.; b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (fr. toucher) in the meaning of “cause sympathy”, a nail (fr. le clou) in combination with a program nail, etc.

Word-building calques are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic calques - from French words.

In addition to complete lexical (word-forming and semantic) cripples, the Russian language also has semi-calculations, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also native Russian ones. According to the word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Semicalcs include, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They replenished the terminological systems, were also used as exoticisms (gr. exōtikos - foreign) in the description national characteristics to create local color. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes. The relevance of their inclusion in Russian texts different styles should be carefully thought out each time, since the abuse of foreign vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts designed for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve the goal.

Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language - M., 2002.

Getting into the Russian language, a foreign word finds itself in a different language system, which differs from the source language in the features of the phonetic, grammatical structure, which has its own graphics, its own system of concepts. The borrowed word must adapt to this system in order to function normally in it. Therefore, borrowed vocabulary, when transferred from a foreign language, undergoes a process of mastering. There are four types of development: phonetic, graphic, grammatical, semantic.

Phonetic development is a change in the sound image of words in accordance with the laws of the adopted language.

Yes, in Russian phonetic system many sounds that are in foreign words coming into our language are missing. When borrowing, they are replaced by the sounds of the Russian language. N.: Breathing sound H, which is present in many languages, is replaced by either the sound G: harmony(Greek harmonia), horoscope(Greek horoskopos), or sound X: hippie(eng. hippie), hobby(eng. hobby).

Graphic development is the transfer of a word in writing using the letters of the borrowing language. The vast majority of borrowed words are transmitted using Cyrillic graphics: fax, office, stapler. However, at present it can be seen that many names of firms and their products are transmitted both by means of Cyrillic and Latin graphics: “Dillette” and “Gillette” “Chop” - “Shop”.

Grammar mastering is the subordination of another's word to the rules of the grammar of the borrowing language. Adaptation to the morphological system of the Russian language is associated with a change in the generic affiliation of the word: sort - m.r. (fr. - f.r.), vase - f.r. (fr. m.r.).

Semantic development is the inclusion of a foreign word in the system of concepts of the borrowing language. Most of the borrowings used in our speech are semantically mastered: this is the designation of objects life: sideboard, sofa, carpet; titles dishes, drinks: vermicelli, goulash, soda, cocoa; titles clothes: trousers, blouse, jeans.

Along with semantically assimilated words in our speech, there are many such foreign words that denote concepts that are unusual for Russian reality. N.: haiku(non-rhyming three-line) guru(spiritual teacher). These words are called exoticisms. Exoticisms do not have synonyms in the Russian language, since they reflect the specific that is in the life of another people. Therefore, they can be translated into Russian only descriptively.

Exotic vocabulary reflects the most diverse aspects of the life of a particular country: its life(in the name of dwellings, types of clothing, food): bungalow, saklya, chum, kimono, veil, sari, lobio, spaghetti; culture(in the names of dances, musical instruments, literary genres): polonaise, rumba, tarantella, samisen, trembita, zecca. Many exoticisms reflect the realities associated with religion, beliefs: priest, mullah, rabbi, church, mosque. Exoticisms also include the names of phenomena that reflect the features geography, climate: prairie, simum, sirocco.

Along with exoticisms in our speech, there are often barbarisms. barbarisms- these are foreign words denoting realities, phenomena that exist in our life and are included in the system of concepts of the Russian language. Unlike exoticisms, barbarisms can be translated into Russian with a single word without any semantic loss: goodbye(English), orevoir(fr.), Chao(Italian) - goodbye; sorry(fr.), sorry(English) - Sorry.

In modern Russian there is a significant layer (layer) of international words. Internationalisms- these are words foreign in their morphological structure, mainly scientific and technical terms, formed from Latin and Greek elements, existing not only in Russian, but also in other languages: telephone, telegraph, philosophy. The specificity of internationalisms is that they “do not have a homeland”, i.e. living source of borrowing.