The value of the lumbar-abdominal torso of animals. The concept of parts and areas of the body of animals. The structure of the bone as an organ

In determining the exterior features of a dog and a comparative assessment of one or different age and breed groups, the conditional division of the animal's body into certain areas is of great help.

The dog's body is usually divided, first of all, into the stem part and limbs. The stem part consists of the head, neck, torso and tail. The head is divided into brain and facial sections.

The brain department for a more detailed orientation is divided into:

the occipital region, which lies between the head and the occipito-atlantic joints;

parietal region, located on the dorsal side of the brain section of the head, in front of the occipital region;

frontal region, located in front of the parietal region;

auricle area

eyelid area

temporal region, occupies the part of the head between the ear and the eye, bordering on the parietal region.

The front section is divided into:

the nasal region, which in turn is subdivided into the back of the nose and the lateral region of the nose;

infraorbital region, bordering on the nasal and buccal regions.

The apical section of the facial section has: the region of the upper lip, the region of the lower lip, the region of the chin.

On the lateral surfaces of the face, there are: the buccal region, the region of the large chewing muscle.

On the lower side of the facial section is the intermaxillary region.

The neck lies on the border with the head, above and behind the occipital region. From the sides and cranially, the parotid region is distinguished on it, and from below - the pharyngeal region. On the neck itself, it is customary to distinguish the upper nuchal region with its nuchal edge and the lateral region of the neck. Along the bodies of the cervical vertebrae, the brachiocephalic muscle lies in a wide strip, hence the name brachiocephalic region. Ventral to this region is the cervical region in the narrow sense of the word, as opposed to the nuchal region. But it is better to call this region the lower cervical region with its laryngeal region in front and the tracheal region behind. From the sides of the lower cervical region, the jugular groove stretches.

The trunk covers the dorsal-thoracic, lumbo-abdominal and sacro-gluteal regions.

The thoracic region is divided into the region of the withers and the dorsal region. The chest from the lateral surface is called the costal region, and from below - the sternum region and presternal region.

The lumbo-abdominal region covers the lumbar region, or simply the lower back, and the vast abdominal region (belly). This area is divided into three sections by two transverse planes, one of which passes at the level of the convex part of the last rib, and the second - at the level of the maklok. The anterior section, from the first transverse line to the contour of the costal arch, gives the region of the xiphoid cartilage. The middle section is delimited into the right and left iliac regions, adjacent to the lower back from above. The place at the waist, which is in front of the maklok, is commonly called the hungry hole. Behind the region of the xiphoid cartilage is the umbilical region.

Continuing backward, the right and left iliac regions pass into the right and left inguinal regions, and the continuation of the umbilical region backwards is called the pubic region.

The sacro-buttock region has, as a continuation of the lower back, the sacral region, which passes backwards into the tail, and laterally into the gluteal region.

The thoracic limb consists of the shoulder girdle and the free section of the limb. The region of the scapula, in turn, is subdivided into the region of the scapular cartilage adjacent to the withers, the supraspinous region and the infraspinous region, separated from each other by the spine of the scapula. Ahead, on the border of the shoulder girdle and shoulder region, the shoulder joint protrudes.

The free limb includes three main regions or links: the region of the shoulder, the region of the forearm, and the region of the hand.

The shoulder area serves mainly as the location of the triceps brachii and is separated behind by the ulnar line. Further, the forearm and hand are isolated on the limbs. The composition of the hand includes the wrist, metacarpus and fingers of the hand.

The pelvic limb consists of the pelvic girdle and the free section of the limb. The pelvic girdle is adjacent to the sacro-gluteal region called the croup.

The free limb lies below and includes three main areas or links: the thigh area, the shin area and the foot area.

From the lower border of the gluteal region to the knee joint, there is a thigh with a patella region. Ahead and slightly above it lies the knee crease. Below the thigh is the lower leg and, finally, the foot. In the latter, the tarsus, metatarsus and toes are distinguished.

Areas of the dog's body

Topographic areas of the head: 1-5 Brain department. 1. Frontal area. 2. Parietal region. 3. Occipital region. 4. Temporal region. 5. The area of ​​the auricle. 6-21. Facial department. 6-8 Nose area. 6. Dorsal region of the nose. 7. Lateral region of the nose. 8. The area of ​​the nostrils. 9. Upper lip. 10. Lower lip. 11. Chin area. 12-13 Orbital area. 12. Upper eyelid. 13. Lower eyelid. 14. Cheekbone area. 15. Infraorbital region. 16. Temporomandibular joint. 17. Chewing area. 18. Cheek area. 19 The region of the upper jaw. 20. Region of the lower jaw.

Topography of the neck area: 22. Dorsal area of ​​the neck. 23. Lateral (jugular) region of the neck. 24. Region of the parotid gland. 25. Throat area. 26-27 Ventral region of the neck. 26. Region of the larynx. 27. Area of ​​the trachea.

Topographic regions of the chest (chest): 28. Presternal region. 29. Breast area. 30. Scapular region. 31. Rib area. 32. Region of the heart.

Topographic areas of the abdomen: 33-34. The cranial region of the abdominal wall (epigastrium). 33. Subcostal region. 34. The area of ​​the xiphoid process. 35-36. The middle region of the abdominal wall (mesogastrium). 35. Iliac region. 36. Umbilical region. 37-39. Caudal region of the abdominal wall (hypogastric). 37. Inguinal region. 38. The pubic region. 39. Prepuce area.

Topographic regions of the back (dorsal): 40. Interscapular region. 41. Region of the thoracic spine. 42. Lumbar region.

Topographic areas of the pelvis and tail: 43. Sacral region. 44. Cranial gluteal region. 45. Area of ​​iliac tubercles. 46. ​​Caudal gluteal region. 47. Area of ​​ischial tubercles. 48-50. Perineum area. 48. Anus area. 49. Genitourinary region. 50. Area of ​​the scrotum. 51. Tail area.

Topographic areas of the thoracic limb: 52. Shoulder joint. 53. Axillary region (including the axillary fossa). 54. Shoulder area. 55. Area of ​​the triceps muscle. 56. Elbow region. 57. Region of the olecranon. 58. Area of ​​the forearm. 59. Wrist area. 60. Metacarpus area. 61. Phalange area (fingers).

Topographic areas of the pelvic limb: 62. Hip joint. 63. Femoral region. 64. Knee area. 65. Popliteal region. 66. Patella area. 67. Leg area. 68. Tarsus area. 69. Heel region. 70. Metatarsal area. 71. Phalange area.

Planes and Directions

To characterize the structure of all organs, their parts, location and relationship with other parts of the body and organs, it is customary to use some special anatomical conventional terms.

First of all, the dog's body is divided by a series of planes.

A plane mentally drawn vertically along the middle of the animal's body from the mouth to the tip of the tail and cutting the body into two symmetrical halves - right and left, is called the middle sagittal plane. Planes mentally drawn vertically across the body of an animal and dividing it into a number of segments similar in structure are called segmental planes. The plane mentally drawn horizontally along the animal's body and dividing it into upper and lower parts is called the frontal plane.

In order to be able to navigate the body of the animal, indicate the topography of its individual organs and make it easier to study it, the body of the animal was divided into regions, departments, which received a specific name.

Along with the complication of the structure of the body of vertebrates, the conditional division of it into regions becomes more complicated.

In fish, the head, trunk (the area between the head and tail) and tail (the area located behind the anus) stand out on the stem part of the body.

In terrestrial vertebrates, in connection with the development of their limbs, two parts are already distinguished on the body - the neck and the body (therefore, the body means the part without the neck).

In this regard, the head, neck, trunk and tail stand out on the stem part of the body; on the limbs - belts and free limbs (Fig. 7).

HEAD - caput. It is subdivided into the skull - cranium and the face - fades.

For quick and clear orientation in determining the places of damage on the head or when taking measurements in breeding work, regions are distinguished on the skull - regiones (rg.): On the border between the neck and head, the occipital region - rg. occipitalis; in front of her on top of the parietal region - rg. parietalis; in front of the parietal region, the frontal region is rg. frontalis; on the sides of it the area of ​​the auricle - rg. auricularis; between the eye and ear on the sides of the parietal region, the temporal region - rg. temporalis.

On the face, they distinguish - "the region of the nose - rg. nasalis, on which the back of the nose - dorsum nasi, the tip of the nose - apex nasi and the lateral region - rg. lateralis nasi stand out; on the sides and below the latter is the infraorbital region - rg. infraorbitalis, passing into buccal region - rg. buccalis, on which the maxillary, dental and mandibular areas are distinguished; behind the buccal region - zygomatic region - rg. zygomatica; behind the buccal region, where the large flat chewing muscle is located, lies the chewing region - rg. masseterica.

Below the face, between the lower jaws, are the intermaxillary region - rg. intermandibularis and the area of ​​the hyoid bone - rg. subhyoidea. On the anterior part of the face, its apical or apical part, the region of the nostrils is distinguished - rg naris, the region of the upper lip - rg. labialis superior. In the region of the nostrils and upper lip, there may be a nasal or nasolabial mirror. The pigs have a snout here. There is also an area of ​​the lower lip - rg. labialis inferior and chin area - rg. mental is.

Around the eye - the orbital region - rg. orbitalis, on which the region of the lower eyelid is distinguished - rg. palpebral superios

Rice. 7. Areas of the cow's body

NECK - collum (cervix). It borders on the occipital region, on the sides of which lie: the region of the parotid gland - rg. paratidea, located below the auricle, passing from above into the behind-the-ear region - rg. retroauricularis, and from below - into the pharyngeal - rg. pharyngea; laryngeal region - rg. laryngea lies below behind the pharyngeal region. Along the lower side of the neck from the laryngeal region back to the body stretches the tracheal region - rg. trachealis. Along the neck from the sides of the tracheal region is the brachiocephalic muscle, the region of which is called the region of the brachiocephalic muscle - rg. brachiocephalica. Along the lower edge of this area stretches the jugular groove - sulcus jugularis, in which lies the external jugular vein, from which blood is usually taken from large animals. Below this gutter, the sternocephalic region is rg. sternocephalica; closer to the scapula, in the upper part it is called the prescapular region - rg. prescapularis. The back ventral part of the neck - dewlap - palear.

Above the region of the brachiocephalic muscle is the lateral cervical region, located in the upper part of the neck, - rg. colli lateralis, it still distinguishes the outer edge - margo nuchalis or the dorsal edge of the neck - margo colli dorsalis.

BODY - truncus. It distinguishes the dorsal-thoracic, lumbar-abdominal and sacro-gluteal regions.

The dorsal-thoracic region is a continuation of the bulge and upper regions of the neck, which consists of two parts: in front of the withers - rg. interscapularis and behind the dorsal region - rg. dorsalis.

On the sides and below from the back there is an extensive lateral chest region, from below passing in front of the presternal region - rg. presternalis, bordering on the tracheal, and behind - in the sternal - rg. sternalis.

The lateral thoracic region is also divided into two parts: the anterior part, where the shoulder girdle (scapula) lies on the chest, and the shoulder, which in many animals goes to the level of the sternal region. Caudal part of the thoracic region - costal - rg. cos-talis - reaches the edge of the chest, called the costal arch.

Lumbar-abdominal. The upper part of this department is the lumbar region - rg. The iumbalis (lower back) is an extension of the back. Below the waist - a vast abdominal region, or simply the belly (belly) - abdomen.

By two transverse (segmental) planes, drawn at the level of the most convex part of the costal arch and at the level of the maklok, the abdominal region is divided into three sections: the anterior region, in front and below, running along the edges of the costal arches (right and left) and posteriorly bounded by a transverse plane drawn along the edge of the convex part of the costal arch. This area is called the area of ​​the xiphoid cartilage - rg. xiphoidea. The middle lateral region is located between the two transverse planes described above. Here are the right and left iliac regions - rg. iliacea. In this area, a hungry fossa (periolumbar fossa) fossa paralumbalis is distinguished, located under the lower edge of the lower back in front of the maklok, and the umbilical region - rg. umbilicalis - a site located in the middle region behind the region of the xiphoid cartilage (in this region the umbilical cord is located in newborns).

On the sides and behind the iliac region lie the right and left inguinal regions - rg. inguinalis, from below, as a continuation of the umbilical region, there is a pubic region - rg. publica.

Sacro-buttock department. In the middle part of this department, above and behind the lumbar region lies the sacral region - rg. sacralis, which passes into the root of the tail - radix caudae. On the sides of it is the gluteal region - rg. glutea, its lower border goes along the line passing from the maklok through the hip joint to the ischial tuberosity.

Gluteal region (buttocks) - rg. glutea (nates) is located in place of the pelvic girdle. Together with the sacral section, the paired gluteal region forms a croup in ungulate animals. The back side of the croup under the tail is called the anal region - rg. analis, here is the anus - the anus. Under the anal region from the anus to the labia in females and the scrotum in males lies the area perineum, or perineum, - rg perineals (perineum).

From the lower border of the gluteal region to the knee joint on the pelvic limb are the thigh - femur and the area of ​​the patella - rg. patellaris, the knee fold rises up from it to the stomach. From the knee to the tarsal joint lies the lower leg - crus, from which the limb ends with a link called the foot - pes, or hind leg.

On the thoracic limb, the region of the shoulder girdle is distinguished - rg. scapularis (to the level of the shoulder joint) and the shoulder area - rg. brachials. These two areas are adjacent to the thoracic region. On the area of ​​​​the shoulder girdle, another area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe scapular cartilage is isolated - rg. suprascapularis, supraspinous - rg. supraspinata and infraspinal region - rg. infraspinata, located along the scapula in front of and behind the spine of the scapula.

From the shoulder joint to the elbow, there is a shoulder - brachium, behind which the edge of the triceps muscle, or the triceps edge, margo tricepitalis, is clearly visible. Between the elbow and wrist joints lies the forearm - antebrachium, below it is the hand - manus, or front paw.

Terms indicating the location and direction of parts of an animal's body. To clarify the location on the body of an organ or its part, the entire body is conditionally dissected by three mutually perpendicular planes drawn along the body, across and horizontally (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Planes and directions in the body

The vertical plane that cuts the body longitudinally from head to tail is called the sagittal plane - planum sagittate. If the plane passes along the body, dividing it into right and left symmetrical halves, then this is the middle sagittal plane - planum medianum. All other sagittal planes drawn parallel to the median sagittal plane are called lateral sagittal planes - plana of the sagittal plane, directed towards the median plane is called medial; the opposite (outer) area is called lateral, it is directed to the side. So, the outer surface of the rib will be lateral, and the one that is visible from the inner surface of the chest, i.e., towards the median sagittal plane, will be medial. The outer lateral surface of the limb is lateral, while the inner one, directed towards the median plane, is medial.

It is also possible to dissect the body with longitudinal planes, but in animals they are located horizontally on the earth's surface. They will run perpendicular to the sagittal. Such planes are called dorsal (frontal). These planes can be used to cut off the dorsal surface of the tetrapod body from the ventral surface. And everything that is directed to the back received the term "dorsal" (dorsal). (In animals it is upper, in humans it is posterior.) Everything that is directed to the abdominal surface has received the term "ventral" (abdominal). (In animals it is lower, in humans it is anterior.) These terms apply to all parts of the body, except for the hand and foot.

The third planes along which you can mentally dissect the body are transverse (segmental). They run vertically, across the body, perpendicular to the longitudinal planes, cutting it into separate sections - segments, or metameres. In relation to each other, these segments can be located towards the head (skull) - cranially (from Latin cranium - skull). (In animals it is forward, in humans it is up.) Or they are located towards the tail - caudally (from Latin cauda - tail). (In quadrupeds it is back, in humans it is down.)

On the head, directions are indicated towards the nose - rostral (from Latin rostrum - proboscis).

These terms can be combined. For example, if it is necessary to say that the organ is located towards the tail and towards the back, then they use a complex term - caudodorsally. Both medical and veterinarian will understand you. If we are talking about the ventrolateral location of the organ, this means that it is located on the ventral side and outside, on the side (in the animal on the side - from below, and in humans on the side - in front).

In the region of the autopodia of the extremities (on the hand and foot), the back of the hand or the back of the foot are distinguished - dorsum manus and dorsum pedis, which serve as a continuation of the cranial surfaces of the forearm and lower leg. Opposite the dorsal on the hand are palmar (from lat. palma manus - palm), on the foot - plantar (from lat. planta pedis - sole of the foot) surfaces. They are called anti-back. In the region of the stylo- and zeugopodium, the anterior surface is called cranial, the opposite is called caudal. The terms "lateral" and "medial" are retained on the limbs.

All areas on the free limb in relation to their longitudinal axis can be closer to the body - proximally or further from it - distally. Thus, the hoof is located more distally than the elbow joint, which is located proximal to the hoof.

The body of a vertebrate animal is usually divided primarily into an axial, or stem, part and limbs (Fig. 4).

In fish, the head, trunk and tail are distinguished in the stem part (the last section is located behind the anus). In terrestrial vertebrates, a neck also develops between the head and body, sometimes weakly expressed (amphibians), sometimes more clearly (in reptiles, birds and mammals). The head - caput - is divided into two sections: 1) the brain section and 2) the facial section.

1. The brain department is delimited into:

• a) the occipital region - regio occipitalis - lies between the head and the nuchal region;
• b) parietal region - r.parietalis - located on the dorsal side of the brain, in front of the occipital region;
• c) frontal region - r.frontalis - located in front of the parietal region;
• d) auricle area - r.auricularis;
• e) eyelid area - r. palpebralis;
• e) temporal region - r. temporalis - occupies a place between the ear and the eye, on the side of the parietal region, without delimiting sharply from the latter.

Rice. 4. : Areas of the body of the cow

Head - 1. Neck: 2 - extrusion area; 3 - lower cervical area; 3'
- ventral fold of the neck. Rib cage: 4 - withers; 5 - back; 6 - lateral chest area; 7 - presternal area; 8 - chest area. The lumbar region of the body: 9 - region of the xiphoid cartilage; YU- hypochondrium; 11 - lower back; 12 - iliac region; 13 - umbilical region; 24 - hungry hole; 15 - groin area; 16 - pubic region; 17 - tail. Thoracic limb: 18 - area of ​​the scapula: 19 - shoulder; 20 - shoulder joint; 21 - elbow joint; 22 - forearm; 23 - wrist; 24 - metacarpus; 25 - fingers. Pelvic limb: 26 - sacrum; 27 - maklok; 28 - gluteal region; 29 - ischial tubercle; 30 - area of ​​the hip joint; 31 - thigh area; 32 - lower leg; 33 - tarsus (hock joint); 34 - metatarsus; 35 - fingers; 36 - knee joint; 37 - knee fold.

2. The facial section is delimited into:

• a) the nasal region - r.nasalis, which, in turn, is divided into the back of the nose - dorsum nasi - and the lateral region of the nose - r.lateralis nasi;
• b) infraorbital region - r.infraorbitalis, which borders on the nasal and buccal regions. The apical, or apical, section of the facial section has:
• c) nostril area - r.narium;
• d) area of ​​the upper lip - r.labialis dorsalis;
• e) lower lip area - r.labialis ventralis;
• f) chin area - r.mentalis. On the sides of the facial section, there are:
• g) buccal region - r.buccalis - with its maxillary, dental and mandibular areas and
• h) the area of ​​the masticatory muscle - r.masseterica.

On the lower side of the facial section is the submandibular region - r.submandibulars.

Neck - cervix, s. collum. On the border with the head from above, as indicated, is the occipital region, from the sides - the parotid region - r.parotidea, and from below - the laryngeal region - r.laryngea. On the neck itself, it is customary to highlight the upper, you are a different region - r.nuchalis- with its nuchal edge - margo nuchalis - and the lateral nuchal region (right and left) - r.nuchalis lateralis; they all lie above the vertebral bodies, thus forming the dorsal part of the neck.

Along the vertebral bodies lies a wide ribbon of the brachiocephalic muscle, hence the name - the region of the brachiocephalic muscle - r. brachiocephalica.

Ventral to this region is the lower cervical region, as opposed to the nuchal, or upper, cervical region.

Lower (anterior in humans) cervical region - r. colli ventralis - with its laryngeal region in front and tracheal region - r. trachealis - behind. From the sides of the lower cervical region stretches the jugular groove - sulcus iugulari.

The trunk - truncus - is divided into dorsal, lumbar-abdominal and sacro-gluteal sections, in which the body cavities are located: chest, abdominal and pelvic - cavum thoracis, cavum abdominis, cavum pelvis.

1.thoracic region- thorax - when viewed from the outside, it also includes the shoulder girdle, and in many mammals, the shoulder of the thoracic limb. The back - dorsum - as a continuation of the nuchal region of the neck, is delimited into the withers region - r. interscapularis - and dorsal region - r. dorsalis.
Breast from the surface gives:

• a) extensive lateral chest area;
• b) sternal region - r. sternalis and
• c) presternal (anterior thoracic) region - r.praesternalis.

On the lateral chest region, in turn, distinguish the costal region - r. costalis, the rear border of which is the costal arch - arcus costarum, and the areas of the shoulder girdle and shoulder belonging to the thoracic limb.

2. lumboabdominal- abdomen - divided into the lumbar region, or lower back, - r.lumbalis - as a continuation of the back and a vast abdominal region, or belly (belly), - regio abdominalis lateralis. This area is subdivided by two transverse lines (one passes at the level of the most convex part of the last rib, and the second - at the level of the maklock) into three sections. The anterior section, from the first transverse line to the contour of the costal arch, represents the region of the xiphoid cartilage - r. xyphoidea. The middle section is delimited into the right and left iliac regions - r. iliaca, adjacent from above to the lower back; moreover, the place at the waist, which is in front of the maklok, is commonly called the hungry fossa - fossa paralumbalis, and the umbilical region - r. umbilicalis, lying behind the region of the xiphoid cartilage from the bottom of the abdomen. The posterior section as a continuation of the iliac region backwards is called the right and left inguinal region - r.inguinalis, and the continuation of the umbilical region backwards is called the pubic region -r. publica.

3.sacro-gluteal department- pelvis, - continues into the sacral region - r. sacralis, which goes backwards into the tail, and from the side into the gluteal region - r. glutaea.

Thoracic and pelvic limbs - extremitates thoracicae et pelvinae.

thoracic limb with its belt and shoulder from the side it adjoins the dorsal-thoracic region of the body. On this area, it is customary to highlight the area of ​​​​the shoulder girdle, or scapula, - r. scapularis, which, in turn, is delimited into the region of the scapular cartilage - r. suprascapularis, adjacent to the withers, the supraspinous region - r. supraspinata - and the posterior region - r.infraspinata, separated from each other by the spine of the scapula. Ahead, on the border of the shoulder girdle and shoulder region, the shoulder joint protrudes. Shoulder area - r. brachialis - mainly serves as the location of the triceps muscle of the shoulder and is separated behind by a clearly defined ulnar line - linea apsopaea, rising upward from the ulnar tubercle. The territory of this muscle is usually called r. apsopaea. Further, links are isolated on the limbs: the forearm - antebrachium - and the front paw, or hand-manus, s. autopodium. On the latter, in turn, the wrist is distinguished - carpus, metacarpus - metacarpus - and the finger - digitus (fingers - digiti) with its phalanges.

pelvic limb with its pelvic girdle adjoins the sacro-gluteal part of the body. Here is the gluteal region - r. glutaea, limited below by a broken line passing from the maklok to the hip joint and from there back to the most protruding point along the posterior contour of the gluteal region. Collectively, the right and left gluteal regions, as well as the sacral region in ungulates, are called the croup. The back section under the initial part of the tail represents the anal region - r. analis. Under it to the labia in females and to the scrotum in males lies the perineum, or simply the perineum - r. perinealis, s. perineum.

From the lower border of the gluteal region to the knee joint, there is a thigh - femur - with the area of ​​the patella - r. patellaris. Ahead and slightly above it in the direction of the abdomen lies the knee fold. Under the thigh link is the next link - the lower leg - crus - and, finally, the hind paw, or foot, on which they distinguish: tarsus - tarsus, metatarsus - metatarsus - and finger - digitus (fingers - digiti).

The body of vertebrates is divided into the axial part and limbs. The axial part of the lower vertebrates - fish - consists of a head, trunk and tail. In mammals, in addition to the head and tail, the neck and torso are distinguished. The neck, trunk and tail form the trunk of the body. Each of the listed sections of the body, in turn, is divided into regions (or links, articles). In most cases, they are based on various bone or cartilage formations of the skeleton,

Rice. 78. Division of the body of mammals into regions and links.

Areas of the head: / - upper lip; 2 - nostril; 3 - nasal; 4 - frontal; 5 - occipital; 6 - lower lip; 7 - chin; 8 - buccal; 9 - submandibular; 10 - infraorbital; 11 - chewing muscle; 12th century; 13 - temporal; 14 - parietal; 15 - parotid; 16 - auricle; 17 - guttural; neck (18a) and torso; 18 - out; 19 - withers; 20 - back; 21 - lower back; 22 - sacrum; 23 - tail root; 23a - tail; 24 - brachiocephalic muscle; 25 - lower cervical; 26 - tracheal; 27 - presternal; 28-sternal; 29 - costal (lateral chest); 30 - stomach; 31 - gluteal; 22, 23, 31 - croup; links of the thoracic limb: 32 - region of the shoulder girdle (region of the scapula); 33 - shoulder; 34 - forearm; 35 - wrist; 36 - metacarpus; 37 - proximal phalanx of the finger (puto); 38 - middle phalanx of the finger; 39 - flax diet I phalanx of the finger (outside the hoof); 35, 36, 37, 38, 39-brush; 37, 38, 39 - finger of the thoracic limb; links of the pelvic limb: 40 - pelvic girdle; 41 - thigh; 42 - area of ​​the kneecap; 43- lower leg; 44 - tarsus; 45 - metatarsus; 46 - proximal phalanx of fingers; 47 - middle phalanx of fingers; 48 - distal phalanx of the finger (outside the hoof); 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 - foot; 46, 47, 48 - finger of the pelvic limb; joints: 49 - jaw; 50 - occipital-cervical; 51 - shoulder; 52 - elbow; 53 - carpal; 54 - proximal phalanx of the fingers (downy); 55 - middle phalanx (coronal); 56-distal phalanx (ungulate); 57 - hip; 57a - maklok; 576 - iliac crest; 58 - knee; 59 - tarsal (hock); 60 - proximal phalanx (putovy); 61 - middle phalanx (coronal); 62 - distal phalanx (ungulate).

Head (Latin - caput, Greek - kephale). Its bone skeleton - the skull (cranium) is divided into the brain (the place where the brain is located) and the facial sections (the skeleton of the oral and nasal cavities). In the brain, there are areas: occipital (Fig. 78-5), parietal (14), frontal (4), temporal (13), parotid (15) and auricle (16). On the front of the head, the nasal region, or nose (3), is distinguished with the region of the nostrils (2), the regions of the upper (1) and lower (6) lips, the infraorbital (10), buccal (8) and the region of the masticatory muscle (11), chin (7) and submandibular (9). The skeleton of all these areas are mostly the bones of the same name of one or another part of the skull, partially cartilaginous formations and some soft organs (Fig. 79).

Neck - cervix s. collum (Fig. 78-18, a) - is divided into the upper cervical region (18), the region of the brachiocephalic muscle (24) and the lower cervical region (25), on which the laryngeal (17) and tracheal regions (26) are distinguished ~ Bone base the necks make up the cervical vertebrae (Fig. 79-3).

The trunk consists of departments: chest, abdominal and pelvic. The thoracic region contains the back and chest and is often called the thoracic region (rio 78-19, 20, 27, 28, 29). It is located between the neck (18a) and the lower back (21) * Its bone skeleton is made up, from above - the thoracic, or dorsal, vertebrae - vertebrae thoracales (Fig. 79-4), from the sides - ribs (5) and from below - the sternum, (6, 7, 8). Together they make up the chest. The upper part of the dorsal-thoracic region is the back (Fig. 78-20). Its front part, which is higher and curved in ungulates, stands out under the name of the split (19). Its bone skeleton is the first thoracic vertebrae with their longer spinous processes (Fig. 79-4). The rest of the thoracic vertebrae in ungulates form the backbone of the back, which is lower than the withers and more straight. From the sides in the dorsal-thoracic region, the following are distinguished: lateral thoracic, or costal, regions (Fig. 78-29), from below and in front - presternal (falcon 27) and behind - thoracic (28) regions. The bone skeleton of the costal regions is the ribs (Fig. 79-5), and the sternum region is the sternum (6, 7, 8). The lateral thoracic (costal) regions in the anterior part are covered by the regions of the shoulder girdle (scapula) (Fig. 78-32) and shoulder (33),

The abdominal region includes the lower back and abdomen (belly), it is also called the lumbar-abdominal region. It has a bone skeleton only in the upper part, that is, in the lower back - lumbus, consisting of lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 79-9).

The pelvic region consists of the sacrum (Fig. 78-22) and the pelvic girdle. The bone basis of the sacrum is the sacral vertebrae, fused into one sacral bone (Fig. 79-10). The pelvic girdle arose in connection with the development of the end

Rice. 79. Division of the skeleton of a cow into sections and links.

Skull: / - front part of the skull; 2 - cerebral part of the skull; body bones; 3 - “cervical vertebrae; 4 - thoracic (dorsal) vertebrae; 5 - ribs; 6 - handle of the sternum; 7 - body of the sternum; 8 - xiphoid cartilage; 4, 5, 6,7,8 - chest; 6, 7, 8 - sternum (sternum); 9 - lumbar vertebrae; 10 - sacrum; 11 - tail vertebrae; 3, 4, 9, 10, 11 - spinal column; bones of the thoracic limb: 12 - scapula; 13 - humerus; 14 - bones of the forearm; 15 - bones of the wrist; 16 - bones of the metacarpus; 17 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye); 18 - bones of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary); 19 - bones of the distal phalanx of the fingers (ungulates); 15-19 - bones of the hand; 17, 18, 19 - bones of the fingers; bones of the pelvic limb: 20 - ilium; 20a - maklok; 21 - sciatic; 22 - pubic; 20-22 - bones of the pelvic girdle; 23 - femur; 23a - kneecap; 24 - tibial; 25 - fibula; 24-25 - bones of the lower leg; 26 - tarsal bones; 27 - bones of the metatarsus; 28 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye bones); 29 - bones of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary bones); 30 - bones of the distal phalanx of the fingers (ungulates); 26-30 - foot bones; 28-30 - bones of the fingers; 31 - sesamoid bones of the proximal phalanx; 34 - costal arch.

Rice. 80. Skeleton of a sheep (A) and a pig (B).

Skull: / - front part of the skull; 2 - cerebral part of the skull; bones of the trunk a: 3 - cervical vertebrae; 4 - thoracic (dorsal) vertebrae; 5 - ribs; 6 - handle of the sternum; 7-body of the sternum; 8- xiphoid cartilage; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 - chest; 6, 7, 8 - sternum (sternum); 9 - lumbar vertebrae; 10 - sacrum; // - tail vertebrae; 3, 4, 9, 10, 11 - spinal column; bones of the thoracic limb: 12 - scapula; 13 - humerus; 14 - bones of the forearm; 15-bones of the wrist; 16 - bones of the metacarpus; 17 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye); 18 bones of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary); 19 bones of the distal phalanx of fingers (ungulates); 15-19-bones of the hand; 17-19 - bones of the fingers; bones of the pelvic limb: 20 - ilium; 21 - sciatic; 22 - pubic; 20-22 - bones of the pelvic girdle; 23 - femur; 23a - kneecap; 24 - tibial; 25 - fibula; 24-25 - bones of the lower leg; 26 - tarsal bones; 27 - bones of the metatarsus; 28 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye bones); 29 bones of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary bones); 30 - bones of the distal phalanx of the fingers (ungulates); 26-30 - bones of the foot; 28-30 - bones of the fingers; 31 - carpal accessory bone; 32-. sesamoid bones of the proximal phalanx; 33 -= sesamoid bone of the distal phalanx*

Rice. 81. Horse skeleton.

Skull: 1 - facial section of the skull; 2 - cerebral part of the skull; bones of the body: 3 - cervical vertebrae; 4 - thoracic (dorsal) vertebrae; 5 - ribs; 7 - body of the sternum; 8 - xiphoid cartilage; 4, 5, 7, 8 - chest; 7-8 - sternum (sternum); 9 - lumbar vertebrae; 10 - sacrum; 11 - tail vertebrae; 3, 4, 9, 10, 11 - spinal column; bones of the thoracic limb: 12 - scapula; 13 - humerus; 14 - bones of the forearm; 15 - bones of the wrist; 16 - bones of the metacarpus; 17 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye); 18 - bones of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary); 19 - bones of the distal phalanx of the fingers (ungulates); 15-19 - bones of the hand; 17-19 - bones of the fingers, bones of the pelvic limb: 20 - ilium; 21 - sciatic; 22 - pubic; 20, 21, 22 - bones of the pelvic girdle; 23 - femur with patella (a); 24 - tibial; 25-fibula; 24, 25 - bones of the lower leg; 26-tarsal bones; 27 - bones of the metatarsus; 28 - bones of the proximal phalanx of the fingers (putovye bones); 29 - bone of the middle phalanx of the fingers (coronary bones); 30 - bones of the distal phalanx of the fingers (ungulates); 26-30 - foot bones; 28-30 - bones of the fingers; 31 - carpal accessory bone; 32 - sesamoid bones of the proximal phalanx; 33 - sesamoid bone of the distal phalanx.

Nostey and in the process of evolution has grown into the body, serves as the walls of the pelvic cavity, consists of the bones of the same name.

The tail - cauda in different animals has a different length. Its bone skeleton is the tail vertebrae (Fig. 79, 80, 81-11). On the tail, the root, body and tip are distinguished.

Limbs. In terrestrial animals, front, or thoracic, and hind, or pelvic, limbs are distinguished (Fig. 78). They consist of the shoulder (32) and pelvic girdle (40), which are connected to the trunk part of the body, and free limbs. The free limbs are divided into the main supporting column, which holds the stem part of the animal's body above the ground, and the hand (on the thoracic limb) (35-39), or the foot (44-48) (on the pelvic limb); the last lower vertebrates and some mammals directly rest on the soil. The main supporting column consists of two links. Its upper link on the thoracic limb is the shoulder (33), and on the pelvic one is the thigh (41), the lower one is the forearm on the thoracic limb (34) and the lower leg on the pelvic (431). chest.

The bone skeleton of the region of the shoulder girdle (32) in lower vertebrates consists of three bones: the scapula, the clavicle, and the coracoid. In ungulates, whose limbs are adapted only for translational movement, the bone frame of the shoulder girdle is represented by one shoulder blade (Fig. 79-12). In domestic mammals, an incompletely developed clavicle occurs only in animals with a variety of movements of the thoracic limb, such as cats. The coracoid bone in most mammals is reduced to a small remnant fused with the lower end of the scapula, the coracoid process. Therefore, the region of the shoulder girdle in farm animals is simply called the region of the scapula.

The shoulder - brachium (Fig. 78-33) - is located below the shoulder girdle and has the shape of an irregular triangle, the base facing down, and the apex to the posterior superior angle of the scapula. The bone skeleton of the shoulder - the humerus - os brachii (Fig. 79-13). In ungulates, the shoulder is not completely free, since it is located on the outer lateral surface of the chest region and is covered, together with the latter, by one common layer of skin.

The forearm - antebrachium - in all animals is located freely, outside the skin trunk pouch (Fig. 78-34). Its basis is two bones of the forearm: the radius - radius and the ulna - ulna (Fig. 79-14).

The hand - manus - is divided into a number of links: the wrist, metacarpus and fingers. The wrist - carpus (Fig. 78-35) - is a short thickened link in the middle of the free thoracic limb. At its core, it has two rows of small bones of the wrist - ossa carpi (Fig. 79-15). P I with so - metacarpus (Fig. 78-36) - the longest link of all the underlying links of the limb. The bone skeleton in different animals consists of a different number of metacarpal bones - ossa metacarpi (Fig. 79-16). Fingers - digiti (Fig. 78) - are called ordinal numbers, while their count starts from the inside. Different animal species have different numbers (from one to five). Each finger, except the first, consists of three segments, called the proximal, middle and distal phalanges: phalanx proximalis (57), media (38) and distalis (39). Each phalanx is based on the bones of the same name (Fig. 79), that is, os phalangis proximalis (17), mediae (18) and distalis (19). \/2. Pelvic limb. The bones of the pelvic girdle (Fig. 79,80,81-20-22), together with the sacrum (10) and the first caudal vertebrae (11), form the bone skeleton of the cavity, which in primates has the appearance of a pelvis, and therefore is called the pelvic. It consists of three paired bones: ilium (20), ischium (21) and pubic (22), fused on each side into one innominate bone - os coxae. The ilium and ischium are the skeleton of the gluteal region (Fig. 78-31), or the region of the pelvic girdle, which, with its medial side, borders on the sacrum (22) and the beginning of the tail (23). The gluteal regions of both sides, together with the sacrum and the beginning of the tail in ungulates, are distinguished into a special region - croup - croup (22, 23, 31).

The thigh - femur (41) - is located under the pelvis. It is based on the femur - os femoris (Fig. 79-23). In ungulates, the thigh, like the shoulder, in its significant part does not separate from the body into a really free link and is covered with a common layer of skin along with the body.

The lower leg - crus (Fig. 78-43) - has two bones at the base: the tibia tibia - and the fibula - fibula (Fig. 79-24, 25).

The foot - pes, pedis, like the hand, is divided into three links - the tarsus, metatarsus and fingers. Tarsus - tarsus (Fig. 78-44) - represents

It is a somewhat thickened short link, located approximately in the middle of the free pelvic limb. Its bony skeleton is three rows of tarsal bones ossa tarsi (Fig. 79-26). The metatarsus - metatarsus (Fig. 78-45) - is in many ways similar to the metacarpus. Its bone base is formed by the bones of the metatarsus - ossa metatarsi (Fig. 79-27). The number of metatarsal bones in different animal species varies (from one to five). The fingers of the pelvic limb and their bone base in ungulates are basically similar to those described on the thoracic limb (Fig. 78-46, 47, 48 and Fig. 79-28, 29, 30)

Topic 11
SKELETON

The skeleton of an animal consists of axial and peripheral parts. The axial skeleton includes the skeleton of the head (skull) and the skeleton of the stem part of the body. The peripheral skeleton is formed by the bones of the limbs and is divided into the skeleton of the belts and free limbs.

Lesson 16. SKELETON OF THE BODY STEM

The purpose of the lesson: to study the structure of the bones of the stem skeleton.

Materials and equipment. Anatomical preparations: complete thoracic segment; first, second, typical and last cervical vertebrae; thoracic, lumbar and caudal vertebrae, sacrum, rib, sternum of cattle, horses, pigs.

STEM SKELETON form the bones of the neck, trunk and tail. It consists of bone segments that are fully developed in the anterior part of the thoracic region - each segment consists of one vertebra, two ribs and a segment of the sternum. Both in the cranial and caudal directions, the reduction of parts of the bone segments occurs. First, the sternum disappears, the ribs are reduced, the remains of which adhere to the vertebrae, and then the vertebrae themselves. All vertebrae of the stem skeleton form spinal column(spine), inside it, that is, in spinal canal, the spinal cord is located.

Skeleton of the chest cattle consists of 13-14, horses - 17-19, pigs - 14-17 vertebrae, the same number of pairs of ribs and sternum. The diaphragmatic vertebra, through which the center of gravity of the animal passes, is the 13th in cattle, the 15th in the horse, and the 11th in the pig.

thoracic vertebra- vertebra thoracica - cattle (Fig. 36, A) consists of body 8 and arches (arms) 3, which are interconnected arch roots. Between the body and the arch is the vertebral foramen. On the body, a convex head 9, with caudal - concave pit 6. The head and fossa of the body of two adjacent vertebrae are connected

Rice. 36. Thoracic vertebra:
BUT- cattle; B- horses; AT- pigs

between themselves. Neutral on the vertebral body there is a mild ventral crest 7. On the sides of the head and fossa, smoothed depressions are noticeable - cranial costal pits 10 and caudal costal pits 5. Two fossae of adjacent vertebrae form deep costal fossa for connection with the head of the rib. On the arc, cranial 13 and caudal articular processes 2 that articulate the arches of two adjacent vertebrae. At the roots of the arch in front, paired cranial vertebral notches 11, and behind - lateral(lateral) vertebrates(intervertebral) holes 12 through which the spinal nerves and arteries pass. In the lateral sides of the arch, transverse processes depart, bearing transverse costal pits(pits of transverse processes) 4 and mastoid processes 14. In the dorsal direction departs from the arch spinous process 1, long at the thoracic vertebrae, directed somewhat backward in the withers. At the diaphragmatic - 13th vertebra, the spinous process is directed straight up.

At the horse B in comparison with cattle, the body of the thoracic vertebra is shorter, the head and fossa are more flattened, the ventral crest is better expressed, as a result of which the body acquires a triangular shape. The cranial and caudal costal fossae are deeper, the tops of the spinous processes are thickened and sometimes bifurcated, instead of a paired lateral vertebral foramen, there is a steam room caudal vertebral notch, which is from the cranial.

vertebral notch of the anterior vertebra forms intervertebral foramen.

At the pig AT in comparison with cattle, the body of the thoracic vertebra is more cylindrical in shape, the ventral crest is not developed, there is a cross hole 15.

Rib - costa. Cattle have 13-14, horses - 17-19, pigs - 14-16 pairs of ribs. They form the lateral wall of the chest. Rib of cattle (see Fig. 37, BUT) comprises costal bone and costal cartilage. The costal bone has two ends: dorsal, facing the vertebra ( vertebral), and ventral, facing the sternum ( sternal). At the vertebral end there are head 1 with articular surfaces for articulation with costal fossae on the vertebral bodies, neck 2, tubercle 3 with an articular surface for articulation with the transverse costal fossae of the transverse processes, rib angle 4. Rib body 6 wide and flat, convex on the lateral side and concave on the medial side. On the cranial concave edge there is muscle groove 5, on the caudal convex edge - vascular trough 7.

Cattle have 8 pairs of sternal (true) ribs, the cartilaginous ends of which articulate with the sternum. The remaining ribs are asternal (false), with their cartilages attached to the cartilages of the anterior ribs. On the 2nd-10th ribs, joints form between the costal bone and cartilage.

horse ribs B in comparison with cattle have a more rounded body 6, convex to the lateral side in the form of an arc, rib angle 4 weakly expressed. Sternal ribs 8 pairs.

On the ribs of a pig AT better expressed rib angles 4, as a result of which the bone rib looks like a comma. Sternal ribs 6-8 pairs.

The sternum - sternum - forms the lower wall of the chest. In cattle, it consists of a handle, body and xiphoid process (Fig. 38, BUT). Handle 1 directed cranially,

Rice. 37. Rib:
BUT- cattle; B- horses; AT- pigs

Rice. 38. Sternum:
BUT- cattle; B- horses; AT- pigs

has paired pits on the sides for the first costal cartilages. It articulates with the body at the joint. Body 2 flattened in the dorsoventral direction, expanding caudally, consists of six segments connected by cartilage, it has 6 pairs rib notches 3 for articulation with the sternal ribs. Xioid process 4 directed caudally, xiphoid cartilage 5 in the form of a wide thin plate.

Horse brisket B has cartilage additives on the handle - falcon 6, which descends to the ventral side of the body strongly compressed from the sides in the form sternum crest 7. There are 7 rib cuts on the body.

Pig brisket AT has a rectangular handle 1 with a common rib notch for the first pair of ribs. On the body of the sternum, which consists of four segments, there are 5 pairs of costal notches. The xiphoid cartilage is short, elongated-oval in shape.

Lumbar skeleton in cattle it consists of 6, in a horse - from 5-6, in a pig - from 5-7 lumbar vertebrae.

lumbar vertebra- vertebra lumbalis - cattle (Fig. 39, BUT) has a long body 1 with flat head and pit 2. Well pronounced ventral crest 3, there is a deep caudal notch 4, sometimes forming a lateral (lateral) vertebral foramen. Between the body and the bow - vertebral foramen 9. On the bow is a low

Rice. 39. Lumbar vertebra:
BUT- cattle; B- horses; AT- pigs

spinous process 5, long transverse costal processes 6, formed as a result of fusion of the transverse process with a reduced rib, there are articular processes; of them cranial 7 semi-arc shape, caudal 8- cylindrical.

At the horse B body 1 lumbar vertebra is shorter, ventral crest 3 expressed only in the first vertebrae, there are no lateral foramina, the spinous process is higher and narrower. At cranial 7 and caudal articular articular areas of the processes are even, on the last two or three transverse costal processes there are articular areas.

At the pig AT the ends of the transverse costal processes are directed downward, at their base there are either lateral openings, or notches or pits, vertebral heads are flat.

Skeleton of the sacrum formed by sacral vertebrae fused into one bone.

The sacrum - os sacrum - of cattle (Fig. 40, BUT) consists of five fused vertebrae. Their bodies formed sacral body 1, on which seams (transverse lines) from the fusion of the vertebrae are visible. The body tapers caudally and is arched dorsally. The vertebral foramina are united in sacral canal 9. Instead of cranial and caudal vertebral notches, dorsal 2 and ventral sacral foramen. The arcs and spinous processes also fused, forming a median sacral crest 4. The transverse costal processes of the first two sacral vertebrae formed wings of the sacrum 5, squeezed from front to back and having a rough ear-shaped surface 6 for articulation with the ilium

pelvic girdle. The transverse processes of the remaining vertebrae were reduced and formed side parts 3 sacrum. On the first sacral vertebra on the sides of heads 8 survived cranial articular processes 10 crescent-shaped, on the last - caudal articular processes in the form of a cylinder, under the head is cape 7.

At the horse B the sacrum consists of 5-6 fused vertebrae. Body 1 her direct, wings 5 located in the frontal plane, the ends are slightly directed forward, the spinous processes are higher than in cattle, their ends are expanded, and sometimes bifurcated and do not grow together. On the wings, in addition to the ear-shaped, there is an anterior articular surface 11 for articulation with the same surface of the last lumbar vertebra. The cranial articular processes are straight.

At the pig AT the sacrum consists of 4 fused vertebrae. The spinous processes were reduced, between the arches of the fused vertebrae there are interarc holes 12, the wings are directed in the sagittal plane.

tail skeleton formed by tail vertebrae - vertebrae caudales. Cattle have 18-21. The vertebral bodies are long, rudiments of arches are visible on the first 3-5 vertebrae, and on the ventral surface of the body - hemal arches for the passage of the tail artery, which then pass into hemal processes visible up to the 10th vertebra. The transverse processes are short, wide, bent ventrally. Toward the end of the tail, the vertebrae are greatly reduced.

Rice. 40. Sacrotum:
BUT- cattle; B- horses; AT- pigs

The horse has 15-20 tail vertebrae. The body of the vertebra is short, massive, its width is almost equal to its length, the rudiment of the arch is weakly expressed and gradually disappears completely, there are no hemal arches.

The pig has 20-23 tail vertebrae; they are small, the arches are well developed and protrude caudally from the body.

Neck skeleton consists of seven vertebrae. The first and second cervical vertebrae are very different from the rest. 3rd-5th - typical, in the sixth the shape of the transverse costal process is changed, and in the seventh - a high spinous process, an undivided transverse costal process and caudal costal fossae for articulation with the first rib, there is no transverse foramen.

Typical cervical vertebra cattle (Fig. 41, BUT) has a relatively short body 4, well expressed head 9 and pit 3, deep cranial 8 and caudal vertebral notches 2. Spinous processes 11 increase from the third to the seventh vertebra, cranial 10 and caudal articular processes 1 flat, well developed transverse costal processes 7 bifurcated (one part directed ventrally, the other - dorsally). Between the transverse costal processes and the roots of the arch is transverse(vertebral costal) hole 6. The ventral crest is absent.

At the horse b body 4 elongated, head 9 convex pit concave, spinous processes very weakly expressed and ventral crest 5-very much, transverse costal processes bifurcated in the craniocaudal direction.

At the pig The head 9 and pit 3 flattened. On the transverse costal processes there is cross hole.

Second cervical vertebra(axial) - axis - cattle (Fig. 42) has body 4, arc and wide vertebral foramen. Instead of the head is located tooth, or odontoid process 9, crescent shape. On both sides of it are

articular surfaces 8 for articulation with the atlas. Vertebral fossa deep 3 . The spinous process is rectangular in shape and is called crest 1, caudal articular processes 2 isolated, instead of cranial vertebral notches intervertebral foramen 7, transverse costal processes 5 not forked and have transverse holes 6.

At the horse B odontoid process 9 in the form of a chisel, its end is pointed, the articular surface 8 borders the process from the sides and bottom, ridge 1 arched, bifurcated and bears caudal articular processes 2, ventral crest 10 highly developed.

At the pig AT the body of the axial vertebra is short, the odontoid process is in the form of a cone, the crest is very high and elevated towards the posterior margin.

The first cervical vertebra (atlas) - atlas - cattle (Fig. 43, BUT) has the shape of a ring and consists of two arcs: dorsal 1 with dorsal tubercle 2 and ventral 7 With ventral tubercle 8. The body is reduced. At the caudal end of the atlas is a flattened articular surface 6 for articulation with the odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra. At the cranial end there are ellipsoidal cranial articular fossae for articulation with the condyles of the occipital bone.

The transverse costal processes of the atlas are in the form of wide thin plates and are called wings 5. On the wings are wing holes 4, they pass from the dorsal to the ventral side and are located laterally intervertebral foramen 3.

At the horse B the wings of the atlas are lowered ventrally. They have additional transverse (transverse costal) holes 9.

At the pig AT the wings have a transverse canal, the ventral tubercle is strongly developed and protrudes caudally.