What are the reasons for fragmentation in Russia, is it possible. "Everything is known in comparison": folk wisdom or the apogee of philosophical thought? Working with the map
SOUTHERN AND SOUTHWESTERN RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES.Material for independent work and project activities
Questions in the text of the paragraph
1. How did the geographical location and natural conditions affect the development of various Russian principalities?
Natural conditions and the availability of natural resources influenced the development of various Russian lands. Fertile soils influenced the development of agriculture. The lack of arable land led to the development of handicrafts. Natural resources and handicraft technologies in each region determined trade relations and what this or that principality earned on.
2. What circumstances contributed to the decrease in the importance of Kyiv?
In the XII century, Kievan Rus broke up into independent principalities. In the principalities, their own nobility arose, which was more profitable to have its own prince protecting its rights than to support the Grand Duke of Kyiv. For the Kyiv land, which turned from a metropolis into a "simple" principality, a steady decrease in its political role was characteristic. The territory of the land itself, which remained under the control of the Kyiv prince, was also constantly decreasing. One of the economic factors that undermined the power of the city was the change in international trade communications. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was the core of the Old Russian state, lost its relevance after the Crusades. Europe and the East were now connected bypassing Kyiv (through the Mediterranean Sea and through the Volga trade route). In 1169, as a result of a campaign of a coalition of 10 princes, acting on the initiative of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, Kyiv for the first time in the practice of princely strife was taken by storm and plundered, and for the first time the prince who took possession of the city did not remain to reign in it. Andrei was recognized as the oldest and bore the title of Grand Duke, but did not attempt to sit down in Kyiv. Thus, the traditional connection between the reign of Kyiv and the recognition of seniority in the princely family became optional. Being a natural phenomenon, fragmentation contributed to the dynamic economic development of Russian lands: the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture. On the other hand, fragmentation led to a decrease in the defense potential, which coincided in time with the unfavorable foreign policy situation. By the beginning of the 13th century, in addition to the Polovtsian danger (which was decreasing, since after 1185 the Polovtsians did not undertake invasions of Russia outside the framework of Russian civil strife), Russia was faced with aggression from two other directions. Enemies appeared in the northwest: Catholic German Orders and Lithuanian tribes, which entered the stage of decomposition of the tribal system, threatened Polotsk, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk. In 1237-1240 there was a Mongol-Tatar invasion from the southeast, after which the Russian lands fell under the rule of the Golden Horde.
Questions and tasks for working with text
1. What influenced the development of the Kyiv principality inXII - beginningthirteenth century?
Despite the political fragmentation of the state, the Kiev principality initially retained a special position. There was still an idea of Kyiv as the capital of the state, of the primacy of the Kievan prince. The residence of the Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Russia was also located in Kiev. Therefore, formally, Kyiv was the main city of Russia. Various princes fought for him. Galicia, Volyn, Turov, Smolensk, Chernigov, Seversk, Pereyaslav and other principalities sent their troops to its defense from the nomads at the call of the Grand Duke.
2. What were the features of the history of the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities in the XII - early XIII centuries?
3. Compare the geographical, natural and climatic conditions and features of the development of the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. How did they influence the history of these lands?
Galicia-Volyn land- the southwestern outskirts of Russia, located at the foothills of the Carpathians. Fertile soils, forest-steppe zones, lack of large rivers, mountain ranges (Carpathians). Warm summers and mild winters. Arable farming. Successful development of hunting and fishing trades, crafts. Salt mining (rich salt deposits). Lively trade routes passed through South-Western Russia - to the Danube, to the center and south of Europe, to Byzantium. This contributed to the growth of cities. The relative remoteness from the nomads attracted here the population of the southeastern lands.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality- north-east of Russia. A wooded area rich in animals, mushrooms and berries, a lot of fertile land in the field, a network of rivers rich in fish and the absence of the danger of steppe raids are natural conditions favorable for creating a rich principality. Being at the crossroads of trade routes (along the rivers Oka and Volga) is a good geographical position.
Both the Galicia-Volyn principality and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality had favorable natural conditions, a geographical location that ensured the growth of prosperity, the development of agriculture and handicrafts, trade, and were quite safe from the Polovtsian raids.
4. In what spheres of life of the Galicia-Volyn principality was the proximity of Western European countries especially affected? What are the consequences?
Working with the map
Show on the map the territories of Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Galicia-Volyn lands. What other lands and states did they border on? What rivers could be used to get from one of these principalities to other Russian principalities?
Kiev principality(orange color) bordered on the Galicia-Volyn principality, Turov-Pinsk, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl principalities, as well as on the lands of the Polovtsy. It was possible to other Russian principalities from the Kievan principality along the Dnieper River.
Chernihiv Principality(blue color) bordered on Pereyaslavl, Kyiv, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir-Suzdal and Murom-Ryazan principalities. The main navigable rivers in it were: the Dnieper, the Desna, the Oka and the Don.
Smolensk principality(dark pink color) bordered on Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Polotsk principality and Novgorod land. With other Russian principalities, the Smolensk principality was connected by rivers: the Dnieper, the Desna, the Moskva River, the Volga and the Western Dvina.
Galicia-Volyn land(bright gray color) bordered on the principality of Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Kyiv principality, as well as on the lands of the Polovtsians, the kingdom of Hungary, the kingdom of Poland, the lands of the Prussians and the principality of Lithuania. The main rivers of the principality were the Vistula, Dnieper, Dniester, Prut, Tisza.
Working with a document
This chronicle temple of St. John Chrysostom was a real work of art. He demonstrated the greatness and beauty of the faith, the wealth and influence of the prince.
2. Using the Internet, find out the name of the alloy from which the floor of the temple was cast.
An alloy of copper and tin is called bronze.
Thinking, comparing, reflecting
1. Using the text of the textbook and the Internet, create a family tree (genealogical) tree from Rurik to Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov.
2. Using the Internet and additional literature, make a chronicle of the life of Prince Daniel of Galicia in a notebook.
Daniil Romanovich - Prince of Galicia in 1205-1206, 1211-1212, 1229-1231, 1233-1235 and 1238-1264, Prince of Volyn in 1215-1229, 1231-1233 and 1235-1238, Grand Duke of Kyiv (1240), King of Russia since 1254, politician, diplomat and commander, son of Roman Mstislavich (from the older branch of the Monomakhoviches).
- Born in 1201
- After the death of his father in 1205, he became a Galician prince, but at the same time lost the throne.
- From 1215 he reigned in Volyn and by 1231 completed the unification of the Volyn lands.
- In 1223 he participated in the battle on the Kalka River against the Mongol-Tatars.
- In 1230 and finally in 1238, Daniel Romanovich captured Galich, transferring Volhynia to his brother Vasilko Romanovich, and then occupied Kyiv (1240). Leading a stubborn struggle against the dominance of large landowning boyars, Daniel relied on small service people and the urban population. He promoted the development of cities, attracting artisans and merchants there. Under him, Kholm, Lvov, Ugrovesk were built, Dorohychyn was updated. During the reign of Daniel, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to the Mongol invasion (1240-1241).
- In 1245, in the battle of Yaroslavl, Daniel's troops defeated the regiments of Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, Galician boyars, which ended his 40-year struggle for his father's inheritance. Daniel of Galicia intervened in the war for the Austrian ducal throne and in the early 1250s won recognition of the rights to it for his son Roman. Counting on the Western allies in the confrontation with the Horde, he agreed to accept the royal title from the Pope in 1253. The reign of Daniil Romanovich was the period of the greatest economic and cultural upsurge and the political strengthening of Galicia-Volyn Rus.
- Died in 1264.
3. Suggest a title for a documentary that would be based on the paragraph.
"Rus before the Mongol-Tatar invasion"
We repeat and draw conclusions
1. What are the reasons for the fragmentation in Russia? Is it possible to talk about the similarity of the reasons for the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia and in the countries of Western Europe?
- The growth of feudal ownership of land and the development of specific, princely-boyar land tenure;
- Subsistence economy - the ability of small principalities and boyars' possessions to provide themselves with everything necessary;
- The ability of fortified cities-fortresses - the centers of specific lands - to independently defend themselves from enemies;
- The struggle for power between the princes - feudal strife;
- Constant raids of nomads, which led to a decline in trade, the actual closure of trade routes and the outflow of the population to the northeastern lands of Russia;
- Obtaining the Polovtsy the right to plunder Russian lands as a payment for helping the princes in the internecine struggle.
The established order of government was also one of the political reasons for the fragmentation of the Old Russian state. Each land had its own veche, had its own elective power, its own people's militia. Under these conditions, the princely sons, who became governors of the lands, began to feel independent, able to rule independently, without Kyiv. The complex order of succession to the Kyiv throne so confused the relationship of the princes that the princes who ruled in certain lands sought to consolidate their power in this land and pass it on to their children by inheritance, and not waste their strength on the fight for Kyiv.
The reasons for the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia and in the countries of Western Europe are almost the same.
2. What were the main positive and negative consequences of the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia?
| Positive | Negative |
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3. Compare the features of the development of significant Russian lands during the period of fragmentation.
| Southwestern Russia | Northeast Russia | Northwestern Russia |
| The boyars were an influential force, and the princes, in order to maintain their power, had to reckon with his will. | The princes tried to strengthen their power, less reckoned with the opinion of the boyars | Republican form of government. The princes were invited to the veche, concluded an agreement with Novgorod and were limited in their rights |
| Fertile lands, mild climate, international trade, remoteness from the territories subjected to Polovtsian raids, proximity to the countries of Western Europe. | Fertile lands in the field, natural protection from enemies, a large influx of working craftsmen. | Infertile lands, developed handicrafts and international trade, vast territories rich in furs. |
| Relations with the countries of Western Europe had consequences in the political, spiritual and cultural spheres of life. | Diversity of cultural traditions, monumental and majestic architecture. | Cultural traditions are utilitarian, the architecture is practical, simple and clear. |
4. Name the most significant rulers of various Russian principalities.
- Vladimir-Suzdal Principality: Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrey Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest
- Novgorod land: there were a lot of princes, but they did not play a significant role in the development of the land.
- Chernihiv Principality: Oleg Svyatoslavich, Yaroslav Svyatoslavich
- Principality of Smolensk: Rostislav Mstislavich
- Galicia-Volyn principality: Roman Mstislavich, Daniil Romanovich
Possible questions in the lesson
Kiev principality
1. How did the territory of the Kyiv principality change in the second half of the 12th century?
In the second half of the 12th century, Pereyaslavsky, Turov-Pinsk principalities separated from the Kyiv principality, and part of the lands went to the Volyn principality.
2. What factors led to a decrease in the importance of Kyiv?
In the principalities, their own nobility arose, which was more profitable to have its own prince protecting its rights than to support the Grand Duke of Kyiv. For the Kyiv land, which turned from a metropolis into a "simple" principality, a steady decrease in its political role was characteristic. The territory of the land itself, which remained under the control of the Kyiv prince, was also constantly decreasing. One of the economic factors that undermined the power of the city was the change in international trade communications. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was the core of the Old Russian state, lost its relevance after the Crusades. Europe and the East were now connected bypassing Kyiv (through the Mediterranean Sea and through the Volga trade route). In 1169, as a result of a campaign of a coalition of 10 princes, acting on the initiative of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, Kyiv for the first time in the practice of princely strife was taken by storm and plundered, and for the first time the prince who took possession of the city did not remain to reign in it. Andrei was recognized as the oldest and bore the title of Grand Duke, but did not attempt to sit down in Kyiv. Thus, the traditional connection between the reign of Kyiv and the recognition of seniority in the princely family became optional.
Thus, the strengthening of the boyar estates, the economic and political role of individual territories, the loss of the significance of the trade route, the strife and raids of the Polovtsy became the reasons for the unwillingness of individual territories to submit to the authorities of Kyiv and, as a result, the decrease in the importance of Kyiv.
3. How did patrimonial land tenure develop in the Kiev principality?
There were many boyar estates in the Kiev principality. Their centers were fortified castles with a large number of inhabitants and armed squads.
4. Who defended the southern borders of the Kyiv principality during this period?
To protect against the Polovtsy, other steppe peoples, ousted from the steppe by the Polovtsy, were hired. They were called "black hoods", and they carried out border service on the southern and southeastern borders of the principality.
5. Why did the process of the ruin of Kyiv continue?
The continuous struggle of the princes for the throne of Kyiv led to the ruin of Kyiv.
Chernihiv Principality
1. What were the features of the development of the Chernihiv principality in the XII - early XIII centuries?
The Chernihiv principality was one of the most powerful and economically strong in Russia. The abundance of fertile lands, developed crafts and international trade were the features of this principality. Chernigov was also one of the church centers of Russia. Here was the residence of the bishop.
2. Why was the Chernihiv principality considered one of the most powerful and economically strong in Russia?
The abundance of fertile lands, developed handicrafts and well-established international trade made the Chernigov Principality one of the most powerful and economically strong in Russia.
3. What was the basis of its economy?
A developed craft was the basis of the economy of the Chernihiv Principality.
4. Why did the Chernigov Principality become a center of trade?
Due to its geographical position, Chernihiv was one of the important centers of trade in Russia. Chernihiv goods were traded not only in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Galich, but also in many European countries.
5. Who was the ancestor of the Chernihiv princely dynasty? Describe his activities.
The ancestor of the Chernihiv princely dynasty was Oleg Svyatoslavich. He was not only a brave warrior, but also a skilled diplomat. He was one of the first in Russia to establish allied relations with the Polovtsians.
6. Why did the disintegration of the Chernigov Principality begin?
After the death of Oleg Svyatoslavich, the principality began to gradually lose its former influence. The Chernigov princes of the Olgovichi dynasty got involved in a petty war, supporting either one or the other applicant, which resulted in repeated devastation of the Chernigov lands. The first to separate was the Muromo-Ryazan principality, then a number of other lands.
Smolensk principality
1. What were the features of the development of the Smolensk principalities in the XII - early XIII centuries?
The Smolensk principality conducted active international trade, had trade relations throughout Russia, and the Smolensk princes actively participated in strife.
2. What dynasty established itself in the Smolensk principality?
A dynasty of descendants of Mstislav the Great established itself in the Smolensk principality.
3. What role did the Smolensk princes play in the history of Russia?
Smolensk princes took an active part in the strife in neighboring lands and more than once occupied the throne of Kyiv.
4. With what lands did Smolensk merchants trade?
Merchants from Smolensk traded in all Russian lands and in other countries. Free trade agreements between Smolensk and the German lands have been preserved.
5. Against whom did the Smolensk princes make campaigns?
Smolensk princes, together with other princes, made campaigns against the Polovtsians.
Galicia-Volyn principality
1. Describe the Galicia-Volyn principality
| Index | Characteristic |
| Territory | Galicia-Volyn land - the southwestern outskirts of Russia, located at the foothills of the Carpathians |
| Natural and climatic conditions | Fertile soils, forest-steppe zones, lack of large rivers, mountain ranges (Carpathians). Warm summers and mild winters |
| Economy | Arable farming. Successful development of hunting and fishing trades, crafts. Salt mining (rich salt deposits). Lively trade routes passed through South-Western Russia - to the Danube, to the center and south of Europe, to Byzantium. This contributed to the growth of cities. The relative remoteness from the nomads attracted here the population of the southeastern lands |
| Main cities | Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Lutsk, Buzhsk, Cherven, Belz, Pinsk, Przemysl, Berestye (in Volyn) |
| Peculiarities political devices |
Estate land ownership. The wealthy and independent boyars constantly sought to weaken the princely power. Galicia-Volyn land was constantly in a state of feudal unrest and princely strife. The proximity of European states led to the fact that these states often intervened in princely and boyar strife, Poles, Hungarians, Polovtsy robbed the local population |
| Prominent political figures | Prince Yaroslav Osmysl fought with the boyars to strengthen his power. Under him, the Galician principality flourished. In 1199 Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich managed to unite Volhynia and Galich. In 1202 he also became the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Roman Mstislavich managed to stop the boyar strife during his reign and intensify foreign policy. Daniil Galitsky, after several years of struggle, was able to restore princely power. The Pope gave him the title of King of Russia |
| Features of cultural development | The development of the culture of the Galicia-Volyn principality was influenced by both eastern and western cultural traditions. Chronicle writing (“Galicia-Volyn Chronicle”) was developed, stone construction, ceramics, and painting flourished. |
2. How did geographical and climatic conditions influence the development of the Galicia-Volyn land?
The Galicia-Volyn principality was located on the southwestern outskirts of Russia, at the foothills of the Carpathians. Warm summers, mild winters, an abundance of fertile arable land, proximity to the Hungarian, Polish kingdoms and the Lithuanian principality, rich salt deposits, busy trade routes to the center and south of Europe - all this influenced the development of the Galicia-Volyn land.
3. In what areas of life of the Galicia-Volyn principality was the proximity of Western European countries especially affected?
The proximity of Western European countries affected the political, economic, spiritual and cultural spheres of life in the Galicia-Volyn principality. Having at its core common all-Russian roots, the principality was open to the influence of both eastern and western cultural traditions.
4. What consequences did this have?
Neighborhood with Western Europe was reflected in the religious impact on culture by Catholicism. Many buildings had features characteristic of Western European architecture. Neighborhood with the countries of Western Europe also manifested itself in political and military interaction. Various political groups in Poland and Hungary intervened in the struggle for the princely throne. The principality had to fight, including outside its lands. The spiritual interaction of the Galicia-Volyn principality with the West was also manifested in the fact that the Pope of Rome, seeking to strengthen the Catholic influence on the principality, bestowed the title of King of Russia on the Galicia-Volyn prince.
Summing up the lesson. Reflection
1. What roads did the main political centers of Russia choose during the period of feudal fragmentation?
Homework
1. Prepare a report about one of the political leaders of Russia in the middle of the 12th - early 13th centuries.
Roman Mstislavich is one of the most prominent princes of the late era of Kievan Rus. It was he who, at a historical turning point, managed to create the foundation of a new type of state, close to a centralized estate-representative monarchy. Kyiv at that time had already lost its role as the center of a large and strong state, small fragments of which were just beginning to form. But one of the first successors that rose from the ruins of the Old Russian state was the Galicia-Volyn principality. He managed to visit the Novgorod prince, to rise thoroughly as a Volyn prince, then, having received the Galician principality, to unite them into one state, and even for a short time to become the ruler of Kyiv. But the most distinctive thing in his reign was the attempt to establish a federal structure in Russia, which had long been gaining momentum in Western Europe.
The novel belonged to the family of the Rurik dynasty ruling in Russia. His great-great-grandfather was Vladimir Monomakh. On the side of his mother - the Polish princess Agnes - Roman Mstilavich was the grandson of the Polish prince Boleslav III "Krivoroty", as well as the nephew of the next four rulers of Poland. Almost nothing is known about the childhood and youth of Roman Mstislavich. Since the mother of Roman Mstislavich was a Polish princess, Roman, according to the testimony of Polish chroniclers, was brought up in Poland.
In 1170, after the death of his father, Roman became prince in Vladimir-Volynsky. In those days, Roman Mstislavich led an active special struggle. Alliances with other princes were short-lived and often recent allies (and sometimes blood relatives) converged on the battlefield. Roman Mstislavych had the first attempts to annex the Galician lands to Volhynia back in the 80s. Even then, a strong confrontation between the boyars and Prince Vladimir Yaroslavich of Galicia ended in the expulsion of the latter, and Roman managed to negotiate with the boyars and sit in Galich in 1188. Having strengthened the neighboring principality and stood firmly on his own feet, Roman managed by hook or by crook and even by military confrontation to break the discontent of the local elite. The strife of the boyars could prevent this, and for a long time did not give the prince peace. Nevertheless, the unification took place, and Roman managed to strengthen the princely power. And a new state appeared on the map, which gradually grew. Prince Roman Mstislavich, with his firm character and unshakable rule, strengthened it and laid the foundation for a strong policy of his heirs.
It just so happened that the pretenders to Galich always shifted their gaze to the throne of Kyiv. In 1201, Roman Mstislavich took Kyiv by storm. For Poland, Roman Mstislavich also played an important and friendly role. His military assistance helped Casimir the Just to take Krakow. In response to his support, Roman could count on the help of the Poles, who provided her, in turn, with the forces for the complete conquest of the Galician lands by Roman.
At the beginning of the 13th century, Roman Mstislavich's relations with the Poles deteriorated sharply. Not without the intrigues of the boyars. All this led to the fact that, according to the Suzdal Chronicle, in 1205 Roman Msitslavich went on a campaign against Poland and took two Polish cities. But not far from the city of Zavikhost, on June 19, 1205, the Poles unexpectedly surrounded and killed the prince.
What are the causes of fragmentation in Russia? Is it possible to talk about the similarity of the reasons for the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia and in the countries of Western Europe?
Answers:
1. The rise of agriculture, crafts and trade contributed to the development of feudal relations. Private land ownership was strengthened, an estate of feudal landowners was formed, whose interests less and less coincided with the interests of the central government. Therefore, the old form of unification of lands - Kievan Rus - no longer suited and did not correspond to progress, ceased to be necessary, since: a) the economy of peasants and feudal lords was natural, that is, the necessary photo materials were produced in individual estates. Therefore, individual regions (specific principalities) in agriculture they were isolated, which prevented the development of economic ties between them: - in specific principalities, crafts, trade, agriculture developed, cities "flourished". - None of the feudal lords was interested in the desire for unification with other feudal lords, especially between the eyes of hatred, that is, there was no economic reason to stick to the former unification of Kievan Rus. b) from the beginning of the 12th century, the rise of the Galician, Chernigov and Polotsk principalities of Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal lands was observed. Their princes and boyars considered dependence on Kyiv burdensome for themselves.
This is one of those scientists who rejected scholasticism and brought to the fore the power of their own mind, and not the statements of old books. The saying: "I think, therefore I am" - also belongs to this thinker. If before him the main source of knowledge was faith, then the scientist-philosopher develops the concept of reason as an instrument of knowledge.
Folk wisdom?
Other sources, challenging this statement, unanimously root the folklore origins of the popular quotation. If we accept the fact that this is what it is best explained by the classic parable "Get a goat, drive out the goat." The hero of the story prayed to the Almighty to expand his living space, he advised the unfortunate man to purchase a restless animal and also place it in the house along with his family. After a year of torment, the man returned to God with a single request - to ease suffering. And when, according to new instructions, he drove the cattle out of the dwelling into the yard, the man was incredibly happy and thanked the Creator. After all, without a goat it became not only calm, but also spacious! The meaning of this legend is that silence and tranquility are perceived as a much greater value after the turmoil than before it. That's really - everything is known in comparison! By the way, this simple technique is often used by the “powerful ones”: they take everything they can from the people, and then return it bit by bit, so they immediately become good.
Comparison is a tool of the mind
The phrase “everything is known in comparison” means, first of all, that some signs of an object or phenomenon that are not obvious can be made visible or cognizable in the case when a similar feature is absent from the object with which the comparison is made.
The words: "Im Gegenüber, im anderen Menschen, erkennt nun der Mensch den (individuellen) selben Willen", said Schopenhauer. This means that, comparing himself with other people, each person sees not them, but a reflection of his own will and personality. Therefore, identification will never even allow one to get closer to the truth, since a subjectively thinking individual is not able to give an objective assessment of this or that quality. Any comparison should have its own coordinate system, which is used to measure the presence of a particular quality to a greater or lesser extent. It is not surprising that the intersection of the x-axis and the y-axis was also invented by Descartes. Comparison is a tool, not a moral category, and one must be able to use it.
"Everything is known in comparison": Nietzsche and his vision of the meaning of the statement
Everyone remembers Friedrich Nietzsche from the time of the first year of higher education.
Ex-students roughly imagine that he is a theorist of free will and the dominance of the personal over the public, but no one will give a direct answer to the question of why the philosopher said: “Everything is known in comparison.” And did he say that? Zarathushtra is silent. This wise man has another equally interesting quote: “I do not trust all taxonomists and shun them. The will to the system is a lack of honesty. Systematics is also a tool of knowledge. Intuitive Nietzsche is not ready to talk about pure reason and working with its apparatus, therefore the quoted phrase, most likely, has nothing to do with the great thinker.
In any case, it is the catchphrase mentioned above that can help justify the layman’s refusal of some traditional values (family, homeland) and, in response to the question “why”, say: “But it’s more convenient for me. After all, everything is known in comparison.” It's quite possible to attribute it to a German author as well, and there's no need to mentally send Nietzsche to Solovki, he hardly knew what various readers would do with his name.
How to Know the Truth
Is it possible to say: "Truth is known in comparison"? More likely no than yes. Knowledge is subject to the presence of an object of one or another quality, and the truth, as the ecumenical patriarch Athenodorus said, is not one characteristic, but the totality of their infinite multitude.
So, the pure truth cannot be found by direct search. There will be its shades, reflections, slips of the tongue, remnants. Even the answer to the simple question of who was the first to say that everything is known in comparison cannot be obtained using today's tools of knowledge. Modern book sources, for example, tend to attribute this phrase not even to Nietzsche, but to Confucius, and it is possible that he had a similar quote, and if it is translated correctly, then we can say that this statement also has Chinese roots.
Today's perception of the maxim
Our time is the time of know-nothings and know-it-alls who are looking for the truth by comparing different brands of cars. The concept of identification only as a tool of knowledge is not quoted. Now the phrase "everything is known in comparison" usually adorns shops or restaurants, hotels. Mercantile time, mercantile quotes.
Detailed solution paragraph § 14 on history for students of grade 6, authors Arsentiev N.M., Danilov A.A., Stefanovich P.S. 2016
- Gdz history workbook for grade 6 can be found
Question for point 1. List the peoples who lived on the territory of Novgorod land.
In Novgorod proper lived mostly Eastern Slavs (Russians). But he was also paid tribute by numerous Finno-Ugric peoples in the territory of modern Northern Russia, Finland and Estonia; these peoples who paid tribute to Novgorod are also today often included in the republic.
Question for point III. What were the associations of merchants in medieval cities in Western Europe called?
Question to point IV. Which state was the first in the world to be called a republic? In what year did it originate? What republics existed in Western Europe in the Middle Ages?
The first state with the name of the republic was Rome, although the cities of the state, which were ruled by bodies chosen by the inhabitants, existed before. Rome was founded in 753 BC. e., but became a republic only in 509 BC. e. In the Middle Ages, the republics were only urban. There were many of them in Italy (Venice, Genoa, etc.) and Germany (Lubeck, Antwerp, etc.), including the Netherlands, which had not yet separated.
Question for paragraph 1. How did geographical and climatic conditions affect the occupations of the Novgorod population?
Novgorod is located in the north, in addition, it is surrounded by swamps, so it was difficult for the townspeople to engage in agriculture. But on the other hand, the city was located on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, moreover, it was the closest major port to the Baltic Sea along this route (the banks of the Neva were then considered unsuitable for large settlements). Thanks to this, trade became the main occupation of the Novgorodians and brought them big profits. Thanks to trade, the craft also flourished: there was someone to sell the products of the masters.
Question for paragraph 2. What are the main features of the republican system? How did they appear in Novgorod?
Main features:
Electiveness of the authorities - in Novgorod, people for all major positions (prince, mayor, thousand, bishop / archbishop) were elected by the veche;
The change of power - the prince could “show the way” at any time, the posadnik, thousandth and others were elected for a certain period, only the bishop / archbishop held the position for life.
Question for paragraph 3. Why do you think it was in Novgorod that a republican form of government developed?
In Novgorod, there were the most artisans and merchants, and merchants are better off when people chosen by them rule. In addition, thanks to trade, there were many literate people in Novgorod (this can be seen from birch bark letters), that is, people had enough education to decide the fate of their city themselves.
Question for paragraph 4. What was the restriction of the rights of princes in Novgorod?
The prince was limited by the terms of the contract with the city, as well as the threat of being expelled at any moment. It should also be noted that he was only a military leader, not directly involved in government, unlike the princes in other lands.
Question for paragraph 5. What reasons determined the special role of the clergy in Novgorod?
Novgorod was a republic, because its inhabitants were not satisfied with the head of the clergy, appointed from outside. Because here the bishop, and later the archbishop was elected.
In a trading city without a strong princely power, the keeping of the treasury also had to be entrusted to an elected person. This function, necessary for society, was taken over by the clergy, because it was believed that their service to the Lord would stop thieves.
Question for paragraph 6. What were the features of Novgorod culture? What are the causes of these features?
Peculiarities.
The cultural monuments of Novgorod of that time are simple. For example, the churches are small, have almost no decorations on the facade. Churches and other cultural monuments were ordered and paid for by the inhabitants themselves, that is, mostly merchants and artisans. They knew how to count money and did not want to pay for unnecessary frills.
The chronicles of Novgorod cover little about the affairs of the princes, but tell a lot about the events inside the city, its political life. This was due to the state structure of the republic, in which the prince did not play the most significant role, and the power was in the hands of the veche.
In Novgorod literature, the most popular hero is a clever person, usually a merchant, who, with the help of cunning and resourcefulness, gets out of the most difficult situations. Most of the inhabitants (many of whom were merchants) wanted to be just such enterprising people, and not brave and strong knights.
Most of the Novgorodians were literate. This can be seen from birch bark letters. It's just that most of them had to either trade, or sell to merchants what they had done. To do this, you need to know the score. The ability to read and write was also required, because some of the birch bark letters are the conditions for trade transactions.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 1. Compare the natural and geographical conditions of the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Which of them contributed to the transformation of the Novgorod land into one of the richest in Russia?
Vladimir-Suzdal land is located in cold latitudes, as well as Novgorod. But in the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality there are fewer swamps, so you can farm there, although you can’t count on big harvests. In Novgorod, this is almost impossible, because the republic has been buying bread throughout its history.
On the other hand, both of these principalities were on trade routes. But in Novgorod, trade was more profitable, because it was closer to the Baltic Sea. As a result, Novgorodians did not grow anything, but lived by selling their own and reselling other people's goods.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 2. What did Novgorod and the city-republics that existed in Europe in the Middle Ages have in common, and what distinguished them?
Common were elected authorities, corporations of artisans and merchants, the main occupations of the population (craft and trade).
The names of the same associations of merchants and artisans, elected authorities, etc. differed. The faith of the townspeople differed. And besides, even in the freest republics of Western Europe, the head of the church was not elected, as was the case in Novgorod.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 3. Why, despite the fact that the prince was the head of Novgorod, we are talking about the Novgorod Republic?
First, the prince was not the head of Novgorod. He commanded the army, although the militia was still headed by a thousand man, that is, only the squad, which he brought with him, was completely subordinate to the prince. The prince also had some judicial functions. But in matters of managing the city itself, the posadnik had much more rights.
Secondly, the prince was elected, and if necessary, the townspeople could remove him. That is, even though the prince was called the same as the monarchs in other principalities, he was actually an elected magistrate. In the conditions of that time, it would be more correct to call him the head of the mercenaries (princely squad), whom the free city invited for protection.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 4. Write in your notebook a letter on behalf of a German merchant about his trip to Novgorod.
The trip was successful and profitable.
In Novgorod, both bread and the products of our artisans are highly valued, everything can be sold here at a high price. On the other hand, this city has a lot of furs, thick and warm. Local residents know their price and will not give in without bargaining. But, nevertheless, you can buy such a valuable product here much cheaper than in our city. They say that these furs are mined by savages subject to Novgorod, which is why the skins here are inexpensive.
Novgorod is a strange city. There are Christian churches here, but they are completely different, not like our churches. And they pray differently here. But at the same time, people have normal business acumen. And when it comes to trading, we understand each other perfectly. It is quite possible to deal with Novgorodians, although you have to keep your eyes open.
The inhabitants of Novgorod swim far along the rivers, but few go out into the Baltic Sea. They need us as intermediaries. And it is profitable to use it, because such furs, wax, hemp and other similar goods cannot be bought anywhere else for such a price. I made a big profit. And if you and I, my friend, combine capital for the next trip, we will get even more.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 5. Using the Internet, prepare an excursion for classmates to the Torgovaya or Sofia side of Veliky Novgorod.
Velikiy Novgorod. Illustrated guide / ed. M. Kovaleva. - St. Petersburg: Fordewind, 2016;
Geocaching Guide to Veliky Novgorod: UNESCO World Heritage // http://visitnovgorod.com/library/files/geoke-shind/geokeshing-putevoditel_po_velikomu_novgorodu.pdf.
Southern and southwestern Russian principalities
(Material for independent work and project activities)
Question for point 1. What circumstances contributed to the decrease in the importance of Kyiv?
In the conditions of fragmentation, the princes began to take more care of their estates. A vivid example is Andrei Bogolyubsky, who, after the capture of Kyiv, left only the governor there, he himself went back to Vladimir. In addition, the princes were constantly at war with each other, often calling for help from the Polovtsy, and each time Kyiv had to be at the center of their struggle. The raids of the Polovtsy happened constantly, both in support of certain princes, and independently. At the same time, the importance of the trade route along the Dnieper decreased.
At the same time, one should not forget that smaller principalities such as Turov, Chernihiv and others separated from Kyiv.
Question for paragraph 1. What influenced the development of the Kyiv principality in the 12th - early 13th centuries?
The Metropolitan's residence remained in Kyiv;
The Kiev-Pechora Lavra retained its importance;
In Kyiv were the main shrines, including St. Sophia Cathedral.
Question for paragraph 2. What were the features of the history of the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities in the XII - early XIII centuries?
Peculiarities:
The lands of the Chernigov Principality were very fertile, which gave wealth;
The lands of the Chernigov Principality were vast, extending to Ryazan;
Chernigov merchants traveled far from their native places, they even reached London;
Smolensk merchants also traded in all Russian lands and beyond, including Germany.
Question for paragraph 3. Compare the geographical, natural and climatic conditions and features of the development of the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. How did they influence the history of these lands?
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was a zone of Slavic colonization. There, the main part of the land was in the hands of the prince. And those estates that ended up in the hands of the boyars did not bring enough income to compete with the prince. As a result, the princely power was strong, there was little to limit it.
On the territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality, lands were distributed to the boyars into estates for a long time. These fiefdoms brought great incomes, because the lands gave good harvests. In addition, salt mining brought income. Because of all this, the boyar families were very strong, the princes constantly had to reckon with them, if the central government was not strong enough, it was the boyars who took control instead. This was also helped by the proximity of Poland and Hungary, on whose help the boyars sometimes relied. At the same time, participation in strife in these countries expended the strength of the princes (one of the greatest of them, Roman Mstislavich, died in Poland).
Question for paragraph 4. In what spheres of life of the Galicia-Volyn principality was the proximity of Western European countries especially affected? What were the consequences?
This proximity was especially strong in the political sphere, since the forces of the principality, Hungary and Poland periodically participated in strife on each other's territory. Once, even a representative of the Hungarian nobility seized power in the Galicia-Volyn principality. All this weakened the principality.
Such closeness could also manifest itself in the religious sphere. The Pope sent the royal crown to Daniil Romanovich, which in the eyes of Europe should have meant the adoption of Catholicism. True, the prince had a different opinion and refused to change his faith, not having received real military assistance against the Tatar-Mongols.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 1. Using the text of the textbook and the Internet, create a family tree (genealogical) tree from Rurik to the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich.
Donskoy, D.V. Reference book on the genealogy of the Rurikoviches (ser. IX - early XIV century) / Ed. book. D. M. Shakhovsky. - M., 1991.
All Monarchs of the World // http://www.allmonarchs.net.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 2. Using the Internet and additional literature, make a chronicle of the life of Prince Daniel of Galicia in your notebook.
Chernyavsky, S.N. Daniel Galitsky. The king who destroyed the kingdom. - M., 2016;
Pautkin A.A. Annalistic portrait of Daniil Galitsky: literary borrowings, the influence of painting tradition or eyewitness? // Ancient Russia. Questions of medieval studies. 2002. No. 1 (7). pp. 69-73.
We think, compare, reflect: question number 3. Suggest a title for a documentary that would be based on the paragraph.
aristocratic republic. Prince and boyars in the Galicia-Volyn land.
We repeat and draw conclusions
1. What are the reasons for the fragmentation in Russia? Is it possible to talk about the similarity of the reasons for the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia and in the countries of Western Europe?
The reasons for the fragmentation of the Old Russian state and Western Europe were different, not for nothing that the first is called specific, and the second - feudal.
Weakening of the main trade routes (from the Baltic Sea to the Black through the Dnieper and from the Baltic to the Caspian through the Volga). It is not for nothing that in the 12th century Arab coins (dirhams) disappear from the Russian lands, while many of them are found in the stands of previous centuries. Trade with distant countries connected individual principalities, with its weakening, these ties ceased. Trade routes between Western Europe and the East suffered the most during the formation of the Arab Caliphate in the 7th century and intensified again after the 1st crusade in the 12th century, however, feudal fragmentation began much later than the 7th century, and the time after the 1st crusade generally became its heyday.
The Grand Dukes in Kyiv had a custom to appoint each of their sons to one or another specific prince - this made it possible to better control vast lands. Some of these princes eventually founded separate specific dynasties. In Western Europe, the custom of kings to distribute their lands to their sons at one time led to the collapse of the Frankish kingdom, then the empire of Charlemagne. But the real feudal fragmentation began later, and in the course of it, the European kingdoms were divided among themselves by no means the descendants of kings. In the families of the monarchs of Europe, the custom arose to bequeath everything to the eldest son; among the Russian princes, such a custom began to gradually assert itself only in the 15th century.
After the congress of princes in 1097 in Lyubech, the ladder system began to die off. Because of this, the princes from the younger branches of the Rurikovich no longer hoped for the throne in Kyiv, they counted only on the inheritance of their fathers. Therefore, they no longer cared about the entire Old Russian state, in which they hoped to rule, but only about their inheritance, which they were supposed to inherit and pass on to their children. In Western Europe, certain lands were assigned to certain clans until feudal fragmentation. It was not this fact that led to the fragmentation itself, but the weakening of the central government.
The cities were interested in a prince who would defend their interests, and not the interests of Kyiv. In Western Europe, the feudal lords did not rely on cities at all, unlike the Russian princes.
The boyars, who owned estates in only one particular principality, were interested in a prince who would only care about this principality, and not about the entire Old Russian state. This reason is vaguely reminiscent of Western Europe - large feudal lords resisted the kings with the support of their vassals.
2. What were the main positive and negative consequences of the onset of a period of fragmentation in Russia?
Negative:
The principalities were constantly at war with each other, sometimes even using the help of the Polovtsy, that is, the lands were more often ruined;
The Old Russian state as a whole became weaker, the princes united with great difficulty to fight an external enemy;
The weakening of trade ties was partly the cause of fragmentation, and partly a consequence, it became more difficult for merchants to make their way through many borders of individual principalities;
The interference of foreigners in the internal affairs of the Russian principalities intensified (in particular, the throne of the Galicia-Volyn principality was at one time in Hungarian hands).
Positive:
Specific centers began to actively grow and develop, and not just the capital of the Old Russian state;
The culture of specific centers began to develop, in particular, numerous churches were built in Vladimir-on-Klyazma.
3. Compare the features of the development of significant Russian lands during the period of fragmentation.
The most powerful was the power in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, where the boyars had almost no influence. In the Galicia-Volyn land, on the contrary, the boyars had so much influence that sometimes they practically deprived weak princes of power. But strong princes limited the boyar freemen. In the Novgorod Republic, the prince remained only as an elected person, who only led the army and had some judicial functions, the real power was in the hands of the veche.
The largest crops were brought by arable lands of the Galicia-Volyn land. In the Novgorod Republic, it was difficult to engage in agriculture because of the swamps, bread had to be imported, but the city grew rich due to trade. In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, crops were meager due to the northern climate, trade did not bring as much as in Novgorod. The development of this part of the Old Russian state was stimulated only by the flight of a large number of people from the threat of nomads, especially the Tatar-Mongols.
Galicia-Volyn and Kyiv lands suffered from the invasions of the Polovtsians. They did not reach the Novgorod land, where the Swedes and German crusaders were a threat. Only the Vladimir-Suzdal land was protected by distance and forests from foreign invasions.
Accordingly, foreigners did not interfere in the administration of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The Novgorod Republic was also ruled by the Novgorodians themselves. On the contrary, the republic subjugated the neighboring underdeveloped peoples. The Swedes and Germans competed with Novgorod only for control over these peoples. At the same time, the Galicia-Volyn principality had close relations with Poland and Hungary, in which all three parties actively interfered in each other's internal political affairs.
4. Name the most significant rulers of various Russian principalities.
During the period of specific fragmentation, Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest became famous in Rostov-Suzdal, later Vladimir-Suzdal land, Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich and Daniil Romanovich in Galicia-Volyn, in Novgorod land, after the start of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Alexander distinguished himself Nevsky.
Check yourself!
- What are palace coups? What are the results of the first in the XVIII century. palace coup?
- Why were the associates of Peter I, who came to power under Catherine I, forced to revise his policy in many respects? What was this revision?
- What events took place during the reign of Peter II?
- What were the goals of the leaders? What is the meaning of conditions?
- Who ruled Russia during the reign of Anna Ioannovna? What are the main events of this time in domestic politics?
- What is bironism? What are its consequences for Russia?
- Using the map, tell us about the foreign policy of Russia during the time of Anna Ioannovna.
Think and Discuss:
- After the death of Peter I, a period of palace coups began in Russia. Can this be considered a consequence of the transformations of Peter I?
- Why did the attempt of the leaders to limit the autocracy fail? Is it possible to talk about the similarity of the reasons for the failure of these attempts at the beginning of the 17th century. and in 1730?
- What are the reasons for the German dominance in Russia? Why did this dominance adversely affect the development of the country?
- Remember the struggle of Russia with Turkey and the Crimea in the 16th - early 18th centuries. Why did this fight take so long? Why, in your opinion, despite the entry of the Russian army into the Crimea, the result of the war of 1735-1739. for Russia was very modest?
"Archives of History"
Conditions signed by Anna Ioannovna
- Upon the adoption of Her Majesty, the Russian crown should not be encroached upon in marriage.
- As in itself, and in itself, the Russian state cannot inflict anyone on the crown of the heir.
- The Secret Supreme Russian Council, which is now found in 8 persons, cannot be canceled in any way and not enter into state affairs without their general consent.
- State villages, lands and money should not be given to anyone. Above the colonel do not favor ...
- Do not take away officials, villages and lands from the nobility without a trial.
- To the court of Her Majesty, beyond a certain state, no one should be accepted ...
- Excessive taxes in excess of what is required should not be imposed on anyone.
With the help of a document, confirm the statement of the author of the textbook that the conditions were a kind of constitution.