Anatomy of life and death. Vital points on the human body Momot Valery Valerievich

Brief information on the anatomy and physiology of the human body

For a better understanding of the material presented below, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the elementary foundations of human anatomy and physiology.

The human body consists of countless cells in which certain life processes take place. Cells in combination with intercellular substance form various types of tissues:

Integumentary (skin, mucous membranes);

Connective (cartilage, bones, ligaments);

Muscular;

Nervous (brain and spinal cord, nerves connecting the center with the organs);

Various tissues, connecting with each other, form organs, which, in turn, united by a single function and connected in their development, form an organ system.

All organ systems are interconnected and united into a single whole - the body.

The following organ systems are distinguished in the human body:

1) propulsion system;

2) digestive system;

3) respiratory system;

4) excretory system;

5) reproductive system;

6) circulatory system;

7) lymphatic system;

8) system of sense organs;

9) the system of organs of internal secretion;

10) nervous system.

The motor and nervous systems are of the greatest interest from the point of view of the defeat of vital points.

ENGINE SYSTEM

The human motor system consists of two parts:

Passive or supporting;

Active or locomotive apparatus.

The supporting part is called so because it by itself cannot change the position of the parts and the whole body in space. It consists of a number of bones interconnected by a ligamentous apparatus and muscles. This system serves as a support for the body.

The bones of the skeleton are built from strong bone tissue, consisting of organic substances and salts, mainly lime; outside covered with periosteum, through which pass the blood vessels that feed the bone.

The shape of the bones are: long, short, flat and mixed. Let us consider in more detail the supporting part of the motor apparatus. The skeleton of the trunk consists of the spine, chest, bones of the shoulder girdle and bones of the pelvic girdle.

The basis of the skeleton of the body is spine. His cervical department consists of 7 vertebrae, chest- from 12 vertebrae, lumbar- from 5 vertebrae, coccyx- from 4–5 vertebrae. The holes in the vertebrae form in the spine channel. It contains spinal cord which is an extension of the brain.

The movable part of the spine is its cervical and lumbar region. There are 4 bends in the spine: forward - in the cervical and lumbar parts and back - in the thoracic and sacral parts. These curves, together with the cartilaginous discs lying between the vertebrae, serve as a shock-absorbing agent when pushing, running, jumping, etc.

The chest contains the lungs, airways, heart, blood vessels, and esophagus.

The thorax is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of ribs, and the sternum. The last two rows of ribs have only one attachment, and their front ends are free.

Due to the special shape of the joints between the ribs and vertebrae, the chest can change its volume during breathing: expand when the ribs are raised up and narrow when lowered down. The expansion and contraction of the chest is due to the action of the so-called respiratory muscles attached to the ribs.

The mobility of the chest to a large extent determines the performance of the respiratory organs and is especially important during increased muscular work, when deep breathing is necessary.

The skeleton of the shoulder girdle consists of clavicle and shoulder blades. The clavicle at one end is connected by a sedentary joint to the sternum, and at the other is attached to the process of the scapula. shoulder blade- flat bone - lies freely behind the ribs, more precisely on the muscles, and, in turn, is also covered with muscles.

A number of large back muscles are attached to the scapula, which, when contracted, fix the scapula, creating, in necessary cases, complete immobility with resistance. The process of the scapula forms the shoulder joint with the spherical head of the humerus.

Thanks to the movable connection of the clavicle with the sternum, the mobility of the scapula and the arrangement of the shoulder joint, the arm has the ability to perform a wide variety of movements.

Taz educated sacrum and two nameless bones. The bones of the pelvis are tightly connected to each other and the spine, since the pelvis serves as a support for all overlying parts of the body. For the heads of the femoral bones of the lower extremities, there are articular cavities on the lateral surfaces of the innominate bones.

Each bone occupies a certain place in the human body and is always in direct connection with other bones, closely adjacent to one or more bones. There are two main types of bone connections:

Continuous connections (synerthroses) - when the bones are interconnected with the help of a gasket between them from connective (cartilaginous, etc.) tissue;

Discontinuous joints (diarrhosis) or joints.

HUMAN SKELETON

Main bones of the body

Torso bones: 80 bones.

Scull: 29 bones.

Trunk bones: 51 bones.

Sternum: 1 bone.

Spine:

1. Cervical - 7 bones.

2. Thoracic - 12 bones.

3. Lumbar - 5 bones.

4. Sacrum - 1 bone.

5. Coccyx - 4-5 bones.

Upper limb bones(total 64 pieces):

1. Clavicle - 1 pair.

2. Shoulder blade - 1 pair.

3. Humerus - 1 pair.

4. Radius - 1 pair.

6. Wrist bones - 2 groups of 6 pcs.

7. Bones of the hand - 2 groups of 5 pcs.

8. Finger bones - 2 groups of 14 pcs.

Bones of the lower limbs(total 62 pieces):

1. Ilium - 1 pair.

2. Bucket - 1 pair.

3. Patella - 1 pair.

4. Tibia - 1 pair.

5. Bones of the tarsus - 2 groups of 7 pcs.

6. Metatarsal bones - 2 groups of 5 pcs.

7. Bones of the toes - 2 groups of 14 pcs.

The joints are quite mobile and therefore they are paid special attention in martial arts.

Ligaments stabilize the joints and limit their movement. Using this or that technique of a painful nature, they rotate the joints against their natural movement; in this case, first of all, the ligaments suffer.

If the joint is twisted to the limit and continues to be affected, the entire joint suffers. The articular surfaces of the bones in shape can be compared with segments of various geometric bodies. In accordance with this, the joints are divided into spherical, ellipsoid, cylindrical, block-shaped, saddle-shaped and flat. The shape of the articular surfaces makes up the volume and direction of movements that occur around three axes. Flexion and extension are performed around the frontal axis. Abduction and adduction occur around the sagittal axis. Rotation is performed around the vertical axis. The inward rotation is called pronation, and outward rotation - supination. In the spherical ellipsoid joints of the limbs, peripheral rotation is also possible - a movement in which the limb or part of it describes a cone. Depending on the number of axes around which movements are possible, the joints are divided into uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial (multiaxial).

Uniaxial joints include cylindrical and block-shaped.

To biaxial - ellipsoid and saddle.

Triaxial (multiaxial) include spherical and flat joints.

The skeleton of the hand is divided into three parts: the shoulder, the forearm, formed by two bones - the ulna and the radius, and the hand, formed by 8 small bones of the wrist, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 bones (phalanges) of the fingers.

The connection of the shoulder to the bone of the scapula and clavicle is called shoulder joint. It can move forward, backward, up and down. The connection of the shoulder with the forearm forms the elbow joint. In the elbow joint, basically, there are two movements: extension and flexion of the arm. Due to the special device of the elbow joint, it is possible to turn the radius, and with it the hand out and in. The connection of bones between the forearm and hand is called wrist joint.

The bones of the skeleton of the lower extremities consist of three parts: hips, shins and feet.

The connection between the femur and the pelvis is called the hip joint. joint. It is reinforced with strong ligaments that limit the movement of the leg back. The lower leg is formed by two bones: tibial and peroneal. In contact with its upper end with the lower end of the femur, the tibia forms knee-joint. In front of the knee joint is a separate bone - knee cap, which is strengthened by the tendon of the quadriceps femoris. In the knee joint, flexion and extension of the leg can be performed. Therefore, with a sharp hold on the legs (especially in the knee joint): strikes, lateral or rotational movements, or excessive extension / flexion (boost), serious damage is possible. The foot consists of three parts:

Red metatarsus, consisting of 7 bones,

Metatarsus - from 5 bones and

14 finger bones (phalanges).

The bones of the foot are connected by ligaments and form the arch of the foot, which acts as a shock absorber when pushing or jumping. The connection between the leg and the foot is called ankle joint. The main movement in this joint is the extension and flexion of the foot. In the ankle joint, with sharply conducted techniques, there are often injuries (sprain, rupture of ligaments, etc.).

JOINTS AND JOINTS OF HUMAN BONES

1. Ligaments of the upper and lower jaws.

2. Shoulder joint.

4. Intervertebral connections.

5. Hip joint.

6. Pubic articulation.

7. Wrist joint.

8. Joints of fingers.

9. Knee joint.

10. Ankle joint.

11. Joints of the toes.

12. Tarsal joints.

Elbow joint (approx.)

Hip joint (approx.)

Muscles are the active part of the human locomotor apparatus. The musculature of the skeleton consists of a large number of individual muscles. Muscle tissue, consisting of muscle fibers, has the property of contracting (shortening in length) under the influence of irritation brought to the muscles from the brain along the nerves. Muscles, having attachments with their ends to the bones, more often with the help of connecting strands - tendons, bend, unbend and rotate these bones during their contraction.

Thus, muscle contractions and the resulting muscular traction are the force that sets the parts of our body in motion.

In the chest part, the pectoralis major muscle starts from the sternum and clavicles with a wide base and is attached to the other, narrow end to the humerus of the upper limb. The pectoralis minor attaches to the process of the scapula above and to the superior ribs below. Intercostal muscles - external and internal, located between the ribs and in the intercostal spaces.

The abdominal muscles are made up of several layers. The outer layer is made up of the rectus abdominis muscles, which lie in front with a wide ribbon and are attached above to the ribs, and below - to the pubic junction of the pelvis.

The next two layers are formed by the oblique abdominal muscles - external and internal. All preparatory exercises associated with tilting the torso forward, to the side and rotating it lead to strengthening the abdominals.

The muscles of the back are arranged in several layers. The muscles of the first layer include trapezius and wide backs. The strong trapezius muscle is located in the upper back and neck. Attached to the occipital bone of the skull, it goes to the scapula and to the collarbone, where it finds its second attachment.

The trapezius muscle, during its contraction, throws the head back, brings the shoulder blades together and, pulling up the outer edge of the clavicle and shoulder blade, raises the arm above shoulder level.

The broad muscle occupies a significant part of the entire back. Covering it, it starts from the sacrum, lumbar and half of the thoracic vertebrae, attaches to the humerus. The broad back muscle pulls the arm back and, together with the pectoralis major muscle, brings it to the body.

For example, if you grab an arm from an opponent, then usually he tries to pull it out by sharply bending the arm at the elbow joint and bringing the humerus to the body. When bringing the humerus to the body, the broad muscle of the back and the pectoralis major muscle play an important role.

The muscles that carry the work of the extensors of the body are located in the deep layer of the muscles of the back. This deep layer starts from the sacrum and is attached to all the vertebrae and ribs. These muscles have great strength when working. The alignment of a person, the balance of the body, lifting weights and the ability to keep it in the right position depend on them.

The musculature of the upper limb consists for the most part of long muscles thrown over the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints.

The shoulder joint is covered by the deltoid muscle. It is attached, on the one hand, to the collarbone and scapula, on the other hand, to the humerus. The deltoid muscle abducts the arm from the body to shoulder level and is partially involved in abduction forward and in abduction of the arm back.

HUMAN MUSCLES

Human muscles: front view

1. Long palmar muscle.

2. Superficial finger flexor.

4. Triceps muscle of the shoulder.

5. Coracobrachial muscle.

6. Large round muscle.

7. Broad muscle of the back.

8. Serratus anterior.

9. External oblique muscle of the abdomen.

10. Iliopsoas muscle.

11.13. Quadriceps.

12. Tailor muscle.

14. Tibialis anterior.

15. Achilles tendon.

16. Calf muscle.

17. Slim muscle.

18. Superior extensor tendon retinaculum

19. Tibialis anterior.

20. Peroneal muscles.

21. Shoulder muscle.

22. Long radial extensor of the hand.

23. Finger extensor.

24. Biceps muscle of the shoulder.

25. Deltoid muscle.

26. Large pectoral muscle.

27. Sternohyoid muscle.

28. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.

29. Chewing muscle.

30. Circular muscle of the eye

Human muscles: rear view

1. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.

2. Trapezius muscle.

3. Deltoid muscle.

4. Triceps muscle of the shoulder.

5. Biceps brachii.

6. Radial flexor of the hand.

7. Shoulder muscle.

8. Aponeurosis of the biceps muscle of the shoulder.

9. Gluteus maximus.

10. Biceps femoris.

11. Calf muscle.

12. Soleus muscle.

13.15. Long peroneal muscle.

14. Tendon of the long extensor of the finger.

16. Iliotibial tract (part of the wide fascia of the thigh).

17. Muscle that strains the wide fascia of the thigh.

18. External oblique muscle of the abdomen.

19. Broad muscle of the back.

20. Rhomboid muscle.

21. Large round muscle.

22. Pelvic muscle.

Biceps arm (biceps), being on the anterior surface of the humerus, produces mainly flexion of the arm at the elbow joint.

Triceps (triceps), being on the back surface of the humerus, produces mainly extension of the arm in the elbow joint.

The flexors of the hand and fingers are located on the forearm in front.

On the back of the forearm are the extensors of the hand and fingers.

The muscles that rotate the forearm inward (pronation) are located on its front surface, the muscles that rotate the forearm outward (supination) are located on the back surface.

The muscles of the lower extremities have greater massiveness and strength than the muscles of the upper extremities. Starting from the lumbar vertebrae of the inner surface of the innominate bone, the psoas muscle is thrown in front through the bones of the pelvis and is attached to the femur. It flexes the hip at the hip joint. This muscle plays a role in stretching, as the leg has to assume different flexion positions. One of the elements of the bend is the “carry” position, where the leg is lifted forward and up.

The gluteus maximus is responsible for rearward hip extension. It starts from the bones of the pelvis and is attached at the lower end to the femur at the back. The muscles that abduct the thigh to the side are located under the gluteus maximus muscle and are called the gluteus medius and minimus.

On the inner surface of the thigh is a group of adductor muscles. The strongest of all leg muscles - the quadriceps muscle - is located on the thigh in front, its lower tendon is attached to the tibia, that is, below the knee joint. This muscle, together with the iliopsoas muscle, bends (lifts) the thigh of the leg forward and upward. Its main action is the extension of the leg in the knee joint (it plays an important role in kicks).

The leg flexors are located mainly on the back of the thigh. The extensors are located on the anterior surface of the lower leg, and the flexors of the foot are located on the posterior surface. The strongest muscle in the lower leg is the triceps (calf or "calf"). With its lower end, this muscle is attached by a strong cord, the so-called Achilles tendon, to the calcaneus. Contracting, the triceps flexes the foot, pulling the heel up.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The brain and spinal cord form the so-called nervous system. Through the sense organs, it perceives all impressions from the external world and induces the muscles to produce certain movements.

The brain serves as an organ of thinking and has the ability to direct voluntary movements (higher nervous activity). The spinal cord controls involuntary and automatic movements.

In the form of white cords, the nerves that emerge from the brain and spinal cord branch like blood vessels throughout the body. These threads connect the centers with the nerve terminal apparatuses embedded in various tissues: in the skin, muscles and in various organs. Most of the nerves are mixed, that is, they consist of sensory and motor fibers. The former perceive impressions and direct them to the central nervous system, the latter transmit impulses emanating from the central nervous system to the muscles, organs, etc., thereby causing them to contract and act.

At the same time, the nervous system, having a connection with the outside world, also establishes a connection with the internal organs and maintains their coordinated work. In this regard, we will analyze the concept of reflex.

For the movement of certain parts of the body, the participation of many muscles is necessary. In this case, not only certain muscles are involved in the movement, but each muscle must develop only a strictly defined force of movement. All this is controlled by the central nervous system. First of all, responses to irritation (reflex) always go from it along the motor nerves to the muscles, and along the sensitive ones to the brain and spinal cord. Therefore, the muscles, even in a calm state, are in some tension.

If an order is sent to any muscle, for example, to the flexor, to bend the joint, irritation is simultaneously sent to the antagonist (opposite to the acting muscle) - the extensor, but not of an excitatory, but of an inhibitory nature. As a result, the flexor contracts and the extensor relaxes. All this ensures consistency (coordination) of muscle movement.

For the practical study of the art of attacking the vital points, the nerves of the central nervous system, their roots in the body and the places where they are closest to the surface of the skin, should be especially well studied. These places are subjected to compression and shock.

When it hits a nerve ending, a person feels like an electric shock and loses the ability to defend himself.

There is a division into the nerves of the skin, muscles, joints - on the one hand, and the nerves that regulate the internal organs, circulatory system and glands - on the other hand.

There are four main motor nerve plexuses:

cervical plexus;

Brachial plexus;

Lumbar plexus;

The sacral plexus.

From the brachial plexus originate the nerves responsible for the mobility of the upper limbs. When they are damaged, temporary or irreversible paralysis of the hands occurs. The most important of these are the radial nerve, median nerve, and ulnar nerve.

Nerves responsible for the movement of the lower extremities emerge from the sacral plexus. These include the femoral nerve, sciatic nerve, superficial peroneal nerve, and saphenous nerve of the leg.

All motor nerves usually follow the contours of the bones and form a knot with blood vessels. These motor nerves usually run deep within the muscles and are therefore well protected from external influences. However, they pass through the joints and in some cases even come to the surface (under the skin). It is in these relatively unprotected places that strikes should be struck.

METHODS OF AFFECTING VITAL POINTS ON THE HUMAN BODY

As noted in the introduction, the classifications of vital points on the human body are quite diverse. At the same time, the topography of zones belonging to one or another classification group on the human body is often identical, but the results from different lesions can either coincide or differ quite a lot.

An example of the coincidence of topography and the consequences of a lesion is a series of points around the elbow joint (we are not talking here about energy points and the corresponding methods of lesion). Anatomically present in this area are: the joint itself, created by the articulation of the humerus, ulna and radius bones, the ulnar and radial nerves, which pass in this place almost on the surface, as well as various muscles, some of which are transferred through the joint (not to mention large blood vessels ). Based on this, we can act on the joint by twisting it, bending it, etc., attacking the nerves with a blow or pressure, or squeezing and twisting the muscles. The consequences of the vast majority of the technical actions listed above are identical - the hand will be immobilized (joint fracture, muscle strain, brief paralysis, etc.).

But the capture and impact, carried out in the region of the oblique muscles of the abdomen, will be very different. When grabbing the muscle, the opponent will feel a sharp pain, possibly unbearable - but if the grip is released, the pain will stop almost immediately and no serious consequences (except for the usual “bruise” as a serious consequence) will occur. However, if a blow is struck in the same area with sufficient force and at the right angle, the enemy can not only be severely maimed, but also killed almost immediately (which, for example, is possible with a ruptured spleen).

From this follows a logical conclusion that the difference should be sought not so much in the points themselves, but in the methods of defeating them, about which we want to say a few words before proceeding to the description of the vital points presented in our book. After the analysis carried out by the author in order to study the methods of influencing points in various martial arts systems, a small list arose that quite fully reflects the entire range of influences that vital points on the human body can be subjected to. These methods are as follows:

Compression (clamp);

Twisting (twisting);

Squeezing (squeezing);

Pressing (indentation);

Impact (interruption).

All methods can be used both individually and in combination - in any of the following groups of techniques.

IMPACT ON BONES AND JOINTS

A strong blow to the bone can destroy (break) it, which in itself leads to partial immobilization of the part of the body where this or that bone is located. Sharp shocking pain occurs due to damage to the nerves that lie close to the bone that is being broken.

Therefore, if they want to immobilize an arm or leg, they first of all seek to break one or another bone in the corresponding limb with a sharp and strong blow at the right angle, since this sometimes allows you to achieve the maximum possible effect with minimal effort.

In addition, the bones can also be impacted for another purpose - to damage nearby organs, nerves or blood vessels with fragments of a broken bone or cartilage. So, for example, a broken rib causes severe pain, but much more serious consequences can occur if fragments of the rib pierce the lung and blood begins to flow into its cavity. In this case, hemothorax occurs and the person slowly and painfully dies from suffocation.

The joints are affected in order to disrupt their physiological functioning. If a joint is blocked or damaged, it cannot move. Compared to breaking a bone, this is a more benign method, since it is not at all necessary to completely destroy the joint in order to subjugate the enemy to your will. The fact is that when exposed to the joint, the adjacent ligaments, muscles and nerves also suffer, which leads to severe pain. All this makes the enemy incapable of further resistance. It should be noted that techniques of this type can only be applied to the movable joints of the human body.

IMPACT ON MUSCLE

Muscles are most often affected by gripping, pressing, or twisting, but impact damage to one or another muscle is also possible. Any effect on the muscle is based on the principles common to all methods. As you know, each muscle serves to flex or extend the limbs, turn the head, etc., any movement is accompanied by muscle contraction. Extension or flexion depends on the location of the muscle. Biceps and triceps are good examples. Here, one muscle is responsible for flexion, and the other for extension of the arm in the elbow joint. If any of these muscles are caught or contracted in a certain sensitive place, they are forced into an unnatural position, which excites the nerves, causing severe pain and local paralysis.

Muscle twisting refers to the stretching and eversion of certain muscle groups. When a muscle stretches and wraps, it temporarily loses its ability to function. The movement of the body part for which the muscle is responsible may be difficult or even impossible. In addition, during this exposure, the nerves are compressed, which causes severe pain.

Techniques for grabbing and pressing on the muscles do not require much precision, since the target is a certain zone, not a point. To effectively influence the muscles, it is enough to apply an adequate external influence in the form of pressure, twisting or impact.

IMPACT ON THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATION ORGANS

The impact on the respiratory organs can be carried out in three main ways: by clamping, squeezing or interrupting the windpipe, squeezing the diaphragm or hitting it, and hitting or pressing on sensitive points of the so-called. "respiratory" muscles responsible for the expansion and contraction of the ribs. To compress the lungs, one must have a fairly deep knowledge of the nerves covering the large array of muscles that surround the lungs. By acting on these nerves, it is possible to force the muscles to contract with such force that the opponent will pass out from pain and as a result of a lack of oxygen.

The most accessible areas for pressure to occlude blood vessels are points located on and near the carotid artery and jugular vein. As a result of the overlap of these largest vessels, blood stops flowing to the brain, which leads to loss of consciousness and death. In addition, a correctly delivered blow to the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys or abdominal aorta also leads to very severe damage to the circulatory system of the body, often with a fatal outcome.

IMPACT ON THE NERVE AND INTERNAL ORGANS

The main areas where points for nerve damage are located can be considered: nerve connections; unprotected nerves; nerve troughs.

In addition, there are many important points related to both the central and autonomic nervous systems, which are extremely important for the defeat of the internal organs of the enemy.

Nerve junctions are usually referred to as points located where nerves cross joints. Places like knees, wrists, fingers, elbows, ankles are not protected by muscles. Twisting will easily cause pain and damage. Other sites where the nerves are close to the surface of the skin may also be attacked.

For example, in the elbow joint, the ulnar nerve is located close to the surface and is not protected by muscles. If the elbow is bent at a certain angle, exposing the nerve, a slight blow or compression of this area is enough to make the arm numb and lose sensation.

Another example. Lightly hitting the opponent on the outside of the kneecap will damage the peroneal nerve. As a result, his leg will become numb and temporarily unable to use it. A weak blow leads to a temporary incapacitation, a strong one can cripple.

Some joints, such as the elbows, knees, shoulders, and hips, also have nerves that run inside the joint or are protected by a thick layer of muscle. However, other nerves in the same location - such as those in the armpit or abdomen - are only covered by thin tissue. Depending on the strength of the attack in these areas, you can either temporarily neutralize the enemy, or make him a cripple, or kill him.

Although the nerves of the head, neck, and torso are often deep and well-protected, there are specific points that can be attacked.

In any depression in the human body, the nerves can be attacked with great efficiency. A hollow is a depression in the body where the covering tissue is soft. For example, notches above and below the collarbone, where many nerves are located that control the movement of the hand. You can also give an example of a cavity behind the ear or behind the lower jaw. There are many nerves of the brain here, these places can be effectively attacked, causing the enemy, pain, numbness and temporary loss of consciousness.

There are many points vulnerable to attacks on the neck and back. These points are directly connected with the central nervous system, so exposure to them almost always leads to death.

Active influences on the nerves of the autonomic nervous system can also lead to death. This is possible due to the fact that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the functions of internal organs. Blows to the area of ​​the liver, spleen, stomach, heart can be fatal if applied with the proper force and at the right angle. A blow to the solar plexus causes pain and spasm of the abdominal muscles, as well as breathing problems. The enemy is unlikely to be able to provide any effective countermeasures after such an impact.

On the next page we list the points described in our book. Since most of these points are taken from Gyokko-ryu, all the names of the points are given in Japanese (their translation is given in brackets).

We tried to pay enough attention to each point, indicating not only its location, the direction of the impact and the possible consequences of the lesion, but also the corresponding anatomical data about the nerves, muscles or internal organs, which are affected by the impact. We believe that these data will not be superfluous and the reader will pay enough attention to them when reading the book.

LIST OF POINTS CONSIDERED IN THE BOOK

Crown and articulation of the frontal and temporal lobes of the skull.

- I'm a man(An arrow hitting the head) - the base of the back of the head.

- Kasumi(Mist, fog) - temple.

- Jinchu(Center of a person) - the base of the nose and the tip of the nose.

- Menbu(Face) - bridge of the nose.

- Ying(Shadow) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw.

- Happa(Eight ways to leave) - a pat on the ear.

- Yugasumi(Evening fog) - a soft place under the ear.

- Hiryuran(The flying dragon is struck) - eyes.

- Tenmon(Heaven's Gate) - the protruding edge of the zygomatic bone near the zygomatic cavity

- Tsuyugasumi(The haze dissipates) - jaw ligaments.

- Mikatsuki(Jaw) - the lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right

- Asagasumi, Asagiri(Morning mist) - bottom edge

- Uko(Door in the rain) - side of the neck.

- Keichu(Middle of the neck) - the back of the neck.

- Matsukaze(Wind in the pines) - upper and lower end of the carotid artery

- Murasame(Rain in the village) - in the middle of the carotid artery.

- Tokotsu(Independent bone) - Adam's apple.

- Ryu Fu(Willow breath) - above and below the Adam's apple.

- Sonu(Trachea) - interclavicular fossa.

- Sakkotsu(Clavicle) - collarbone.

- Rumont(Dragon Gate) - above the collarbone near the shoulder.

- Dantu(Center of the chest) - the upper part of the sternum.

- soda(Great spear) - the seventh protruding vertebra.

- Kinketsu(Forbidden move) - sternum.

- Butsumetsu(Buddha's death day) - ribs under the pectoral muscles in front and behind.

- Jujiro(Crossroads) - right on the shoulder.

- Daimon(Big gate) - the middle of the shoulder at the junction

- Sei(Star) - right in the armpit.

- Cheers canon(Outside the devil opens) - lower ribs under the pectoral muscles

Xing chu(Center of the heart) - the middle of the chest.

- Danko(Heart) - the region of the heart.

- Wakitsubo(Side of the body) - the last ribs on the side under the arms.

- Katsusatsu(Point of life and death) - the spine at the level of the waist

- Suigetsu(Moon on water) - solar plexus.

- Inazuma(Lightning) - area of ​​the liver, "floating" ribs.

- Kanzo(Region of the liver in the back) - behind at the level of the lower back on the right

- Jinzo(Kidneys) - on both sides of the spinal column just above the katsusatsu point

- Sisiran(Tiger struck) - stomach.

- Gorin(Five rings) - five points around the center of the abdomen.

- Kosei(Power of the tiger) - groin and genitals.

- Kodenko(Small heart) - sacrum.

- Bitei(Coccyx) - at the end of the spine between the buttocks.

- Koshitsubo(Cauldron of the thighs) - the inner crest of the pelvic bones, the fold of the groin.

- Sai or Nasai(Leg) - inside and outside the middle of the thigh.

- Ushiro Inazuma(Lightning at the back) - behind the thigh, starting from the buttocks and up to the middle of the muscle

- Ushiro Hizakansetsu(Knee joint) - knee joint front and back.

- utchirobushi(Shin bone from the inside) - just above the head of the bone from the inside.

- Kokotsu(Small bone) - lower leg from the inside.

- Soubi(calf muscle) - calf muscle.

- Kyokei(Hard directions) - on top of the foot.

- Akiresuken(Achilles tendon) - just above the heel.

- Dzyakkin(weak muscle) - in the upper arm between bone and muscle

- Hoshizawa(Cliff under the stars) - “shock” point just above the elbow joint

- Udekansetsu(Arm joint) - the area under the elbow.

- Kotetsubo(point of the forearm) - the radial nerve at the top of the forearm

- Miyakudokoro(Inner slope of the cliff) - at the crook of the wrist from the inside.

- Sotoyakuzawa(Outer slope of the cliff) - at the crook of the wrist on the outside

- Kote(Forearm) - the head of the ulna.

- Yubitsubo(Finger cauldron) - the base of the thumb.

- Gokoku(Five directions) - a point in the hole between the thumb and forefinger.

- haishu(Palm outside) - the outer side of the hand.

VITAL POINTS: FRONT VIEW

LIFEPOINTS: SIDE VIEW

VITAL POINTS: BACK VIEW

VITAL POINTS: UPPER AND LOWER LIMB

1. TEN TO, TEN DO(TOP OF THE HEAD) - articulation of the frontal and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN TO) and articulation of the occipital and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN DO)

Skull: top view

With a moderate impact - concussion, loss of coordination of movements, fainting. A strong blow with a fracture of the skull leads to death due to damage to the tissues and arteries of the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain by fragments of the parietal bones. The direction of impact is towards the center of the head (the shock wave should ideally reach the corpus callosum, thalamus and then the optic chiasm and pituitary gland).

Brain: the direction of blows when hitting points ten then and ten do

2. I am MEN(ARROW HITTING THE HEAD) - base of the occiput

Point Defeat I am Maine largely depends on the direction of the blow, as well as its strength. A light blow, directed strictly horizontally, leads to muscle spasms of varying severity and headache (symptoms may appear the next day). A blow of the same force, but directed slightly upward, strikes the cerebellum and leads to loss of consciousness. A medium-strength blow directed upward at an angle of about 30 degrees, as well as with a slight deviation to the left or right, causes shock and loss of consciousness due to damage to the occipital nerves and short-term infringement of the spinal cord. A strong blow leads to immediate death due to a fracture of the cervical vertebrae (in particular, processes atlanta), infringement of the spinal cord by fragments of cartilage or its complete rupture, damage by fragments of the bone of the occipital and vertebral arteries.

Muscles of the back of the neck and neck

3. KASUMI (MIST, FOG)- temple

With a moderate impact - pain shock, concussion, loss of consciousness. With a strong blow - a fracture of flat bones and a rupture of the temporal artery. A fracture in the temporal region of the skull with damage to the anterior and middle branches of the cerebral artery most often causes death. The cerebral artery supplies blood to the skull and the membrane that covers the brain. The artery branches into the cranium and contracts or expands if these branches break as a result of a fracture, which at best causes a prolonged loss of consciousness.

Head arteries

1. Superficial temporal artery.

2. Occipital artery.

3. Sternocleidomastoid muscle (dissected and turned back).

4. Lingual nerve cranial nerve XII.

5. Internal jugular vein.

6. Internal carotid artery.

7. Cutaneous branches of the cervical nerve plexus.

8. Cervical lymph node with a lymphatic vessel.

9. The place of division of the carotid artery.

10. Temporal muscle.

11. Maxillary artery.

12. Chewing muscle, (together with the zygomatic arch bent forward).

13. Lower jaw.

14. Facial artery.

15. External carotid artery.

16. Submandibular gland.

17. Larynx.

18. Common carotid artery.

19. Thyroid gland.

20. Posterior cerebral artery.

21. Cerebellar arteries.

22. Vertebral artery.

23. Anterior cerebral artery.

24. Middle cerebral artery.

25. S-shaped segment (carotid siphon) near the base of the skull.

26. Trapezius muscle.

4.JINTCHU(HUMAN CENTER) - base of the nose

A split lip, broken or knocked out front teeth, and watery eyes are minimal results. Pain and tearing occur due to nerve endings close to the surface of the skin. The impact may result in a fracture of the upper jaw due to the spherical nature of the skull.

The skull will shrink to the limit, and then "explode", resulting in a fracture. The broken area is usually on one side or the other, away from the impact point. Pain shock can lead to death.

Facial bones of the skull

5. MENBU(FACE) - nose bridge

Facial bones of the skull: front and side view

Darkening of the eyes, fracture of the bridge of the nose with severe bleeding. A short-term loss of consciousness is possible. Compound fracture and/or displacement of the nasal bone and nasal septum as a result of a blow to the top of the nose. Needless to say, a hematoma will follow due to the rupture of a large number of blood vessels in this area. Shock and pain can lead to loss of consciousness.

Temporary blindness can be the result of severe tearing due to damage to pain receptors in the nasal region (damage to the nasal part of the anterior ethmoidal nerve - a branch of the trigeminal nerve). We must know that in many cases the blow itself cannot be the cause of death, but the accidental side effects that arise as a result of the blow being struck can lead to death.

6. IN(SHADOW) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw

Sharp shocking pain with a strong deep indentation of the phalanx of the finger into a point towards the center of the head, leading to an instant spasm of the facial muscles ("grimace of pain"). Damage to the upper part of the facial nerve can lead to partial paralysis of the mimic muscles of the face. Possible rupture of the ligaments of the lower jaw.

Some muscles and nerves of the face

1. Frontal muscle.

2. Circular muscle of the eye.

3. Large zygomatic muscle.

4. The circular muscle of the mouth.

5. Muscle that lowers the corner of the mouth.

6. Superior branch of the facial nerve.

7. Lower branch of the facial nerve.

8. Facial nerve, exit from the base of the skull.

9. Flat cervical muscle.

7. HAPPA(WHEATY'S EIGHT WAYS) - slap on the ear

Ringing in the ears and darkening of the eyes (due to the branching of deep blood vessels in this region of the skull) will be the mildest result of the impact. The facial nerve passes along with the auditory nerve to the inner ear and under the mucous membrane of the middle ear follows to the base of the skull. It can be easily damaged in case of damage to the middle ear or trauma to the skull, so hearing and balance disorders are often accompanied by paralysis of facial muscles. Contusion with a disorder of the functions of the vestibular apparatus (from mild to severe), if the blow is applied correctly. Rupture of the eardrums, severe bleeding, deep fainting, shock.

Organs of hearing and balance

1. Lateral ventricle of the brain.

2. Thalamus (interbrain).

3. Islet.

4. Third ventricle (interbrain).

5. Temporal lobe.

6. The inner ear in the petrous part of the temporal bone - the cochlea and the internal auditory meatus.

7. Middle ear with auditory ossicles.

8. External auditory canal and outer ear.

9. Tympanic membrane and lateral semicircular canal.

10. Internal jugular vein.

11. Internal carotid artery and cervical border (sympathetic) trunk.

12. Inner capsule.

13. Location of the primary acoustic center of the cortex (the so-called transverse gyrus of Herschl).

14. Location of the secondary acoustic center of the cortex (Wernicke's speech center).

15. Auditory radiance, bundles of fibers of the central auditory pathway.

16. Hippocampus cortex (limbic system).

17. Brain stem (midbrain).

18. Stony part of the temporal bone.

19. Temporomandibular joint and head of the joint of the lower jaw.

20. Base of the skull.

21. Maxillary artery.

22. Muscles of the pharynx.

23. Vestibular-auditory nerve.

24. Facial nerve.

25. Internal auditory canal.

26. Snail.

27. Superior semicircular canal.

28. Ampoules of the semicircular canal with vestibular organs for balance coordination.

29. Posterior semicircular canal.

30. Lateral semicircular canal.

31. Pressure equalization valve.

32. Medium articulated body.

33. Lateral loop part of the ear canal.

34. Cerebellum.

35. Rhomboid fossa.

36. Canal of the facial nerve.

37. Fossa of the sigmoid sinus of the brain.

38. Cast.

39. Furrow.

40. Vertebral artery.

41. The vestibule of the ear labyrinth with an elliptical sac and with a membranous vesicle.

8. YUGASUMI(EVENING MIST) - soft spot under the ear

Muscles of the head and face

Sharp, shocking pain when struck or pressed with the tip of the finger backwards inwards. The lesion is directed to the facial and abducens nerves. The abducens nerve is the motor nerve of the facial muscles. It enters, together with the auditory nerve, into the temporal bone, then, close under the mucous membrane of the middle ear, it follows the canal of the facial nerve inside the parotid salivary gland is divided into branches. Nerve damage leads to paralysis of facial muscles (relaxed sagging of the corners of the mouth, lower eyelids, etc.) and distortion of the face. There are also hearing impairments. All sounds are perceived as painfully loud (so-called hyperacoustics).

Exit of the facial nerve from the base of the skull

1. Superior branch of the facial nerve.

2. Facial nerve emerging from the base of the skull.

3. The lower branch of the facial nerve.

9. HIRYURAN(FLYING DRAGON DAMAGED) - eyes

Loss of vision and impaired coordination and space, internal hemorrhage and damage to the cornea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe eye. With deep penetration of the fingers into the eye sockets, a complete irreparable loss of vision is possible due to the destruction of the eyeballs, rupture of the optic nerve. As a result of deep penetration, damage to the cerebral cortex is instantaneous death due to internal hemorrhage.

Organs of vision and eye muscles

2. Lens.

3. Cornea.

4. Sclera and retina.

5. Optic nerve with ciliary nerve.

6. Ring-shaped muscle of the eyelid.

7. The muscle that lifts the upper eyelid.

8. The muscle that lifts the eyelid (smooth muscle, contracts involuntarily, automatically).

9. Conjunctiva.

10. Rainbow defense.

11. Ciliary body and suspensory ligament of the lens.

12. Vitreous body (transparent).

13. Optic nerve papilla.

10. TENMON(SKY GATES) - the protruding inner edge of the zygomatic bone at the articulation with the frontal bone near the eye socket

Facial part of the skull, side view

Sharp pain, severe hematoma, constant lacrimation, shock in case of a fracture and damage to the eye by bone fragments. Temporary or irreversible paralysis of the eye muscles leads to misalignment of the eyes (strabismus). If the superior branch of the cranial nerve is damaged, the eyeball may no longer be able to turn outward. The result will be convergent strabismus. With damage to the autonomic (parasympathetic) nerve fibers for the internal eye muscles, it can lead to impaired accommodation and pupil motility.

Branching of the cranial nerve (approximately)

11. TSUYUGASUMI(THE DARK CLEARS) - jaw ligaments

Nerves of the face

1. Block nerve going to the oblique superior eye muscle.

2. Nerve of the eye muscles.

3, 4. Glossopharyngeal nvrv.

5. Vagus nerve.

6. Abducens nerve.

Sharp pain, involuntary opening of the mouth, "grin of pain" occurs when the finger (fingers) is strongly pressed on one or both sides on the junction of the lower and upper jaws. The defeat of the glossopharyngeal nerve with a fracture of the condylar or coronoid processes can seriously affect the masticatory and speech apparatus, up to paralysis of the masticatory muscles.

Muscles and ligaments of the jaw

12.MIKATSUKI(JAW) - the lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right

Lower jaw

Severe pain up to loss of consciousness with a crack or fracture of the bone. A fracture or displacement of the lower jaw is the result of a blow to either side of the mandibular bone. If two blows are made at the same time, a double fracture is evident (on both sides). But if one blow was delivered earlier, the jaw is repelled to the second tool of impact, a fracture is possible only on one side. To prevent future deformation of the jawline, the teeth and splinters must be temporarily held together. Of course, it will be very difficult to eat and talk until everything falls into place.

Lower jaw

Direction of blows

13. ASAGIRI(MORNING MIST) - lower edge of the chin

14. Brief conclusions The necessity of writing this chapter is caused by the general psychological mechanism of cognitive processes: getting acquainted with something fundamentally new, a person nevertheless looks for relevant analogies in his past experience. And it is in the wrong selection of analogies

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Brownian motion - Random movement of microscopic particles of a solid substance, visible, suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by the thermal movement of particles of a liquid or gas. Brownian motion never stops. Brownian motion is related to thermal motion, but these concepts should not be confused. Brownian motion is a consequence and evidence of the existence of thermal motion.

Brownian motion is the most obvious experimental confirmation of the ideas of the molecular kinetic theory about the chaotic thermal motion of atoms and molecules. If the observation interval is large enough so that the forces acting on the particle from the molecules of the medium change their direction many times, then the average square of the projection of its displacement on any axis (in the absence of other external forces) is proportional to time.
When deriving Einstein's law, it is assumed that particle displacements in any direction are equally probable and that the inertia of a Brownian particle can be neglected compared to the influence of friction forces (this is acceptable for sufficiently long times). The formula for the coefficient D is based on the application of Stokes' law for the hydrodynamic resistance to the motion of a sphere of radius a in a viscous fluid. The relationships for and D were experimentally confirmed by the measurements of J. Perrin and T. Svedberg. From these measurements, the Boltzmann constant k and the Avogadro constant NA are experimentally determined. In addition to the translational Brownian motion, there is also a rotational Brownian motion - random rotation of a Brownian particle under the influence of impacts of the molecules of the medium. For rotational Brownian motion, the rms angular displacement of a particle is proportional to the observation time. These relationships were also confirmed by Perrin's experiments, although this effect is much more difficult to observe than translational Brownian motion.

The essence of the phenomenon

Brownian motion occurs due to the fact that all liquids and gases consist of atoms or molecules - the smallest particles that are in constant chaotic thermal motion, and therefore continuously push the Brownian particle from different sides. It was found that large particles larger than 5 µm practically do not participate in Brownian motion (they are immobile or sediment), smaller particles (less than 3 µm) move progressively along very complex trajectories or rotate. When a large body is immersed in the medium, the shocks that occur in large numbers are averaged and form a constant pressure. If a large body is surrounded by a medium on all sides, then the pressure is practically balanced, only the lifting force of Archimedes remains - such a body smoothly floats or sinks. If the body is small, like a Brownian particle, then pressure fluctuations become noticeable, which create a noticeable randomly changing force, leading to oscillations of the particle. Brownian particles usually do not sink or float, but are suspended in a medium.

Brownian motion theory

In 1905, Albert Einstein created a molecular kinetic theory for a quantitative description of Brownian motion. In particular, he derived a formula for the diffusion coefficient of spherical Brownian particles:

where D- diffusion coefficient, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, N A is the Avogadro constant, a- particle radius, ξ - dynamic viscosity.

Brownian motion as non-Markovian
random process

The theory of Brownian motion, well developed over the last century, is approximate. And although in most cases of practical importance the existing theory gives satisfactory results, in some cases it may require clarification. Thus, experimental work carried out at the beginning of the 21st century at the Polytechnic University of Lausanne, the University of Texas and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg (under the direction of S. Dzheney) showed the difference in the behavior of a Brownian particle from that theoretically predicted by the Einstein-Smoluchowski theory, which was especially noticeable when increase in particle size. The studies also touched upon the analysis of the movement of the surrounding particles of the medium and showed a significant mutual influence of the movement of the Brownian particle and the movement of the particles of the medium caused by it on each other, that is, the presence of a "memory" in the Brownian particle, or, in other words, the dependence of its statistical characteristics in the future on the entire prehistory her behavior in the past. This fact was not taken into account in the Einstein-Smoluchowski theory.
The process of Brownian motion of a particle in a viscous medium, generally speaking, belongs to the class of non-Markov processes, and for its more accurate description it is necessary to use integral stochastic equations.

Small suspension particles move randomly under the influence of impacts of liquid molecules.

In the second half of the 19th century, a serious discussion about the nature of atoms flared up in scientific circles. On one side were irrefutable authorities such as Ernst Mach ( cm. Shock waves), who argued that atoms are simply mathematical functions that successfully describe the observed physical phenomena and have no real physical basis. On the other hand, scientists of the new wave - in particular, Ludwig Boltzmann ( cm. Boltzmann constant) - insisted that atoms are physical realities. And neither of the two sides was aware that already decades before the start of their dispute, experimental results had been obtained that once and for all decided the question in favor of the existence of atoms as a physical reality - however, they were obtained in the discipline of natural science adjacent to physics by the botanist Robert Brown.

Back in the summer of 1827, Brown, while studying the behavior of pollen under a microscope (he studied an aqueous suspension of plant pollen Clarkia pulchella), suddenly discovered that individual spores make absolutely chaotic impulsive movements. He determined for certain that these movements were in no way connected with the eddies and currents of water, or with its evaporation, after which, having described the nature of the movement of particles, he honestly signed his own impotence to explain the origin of this chaotic movement. However, being a meticulous experimenter, Brown found that such a chaotic movement is characteristic of any microscopic particles, be it plant pollen, mineral suspensions, or any crushed substance in general.

Only in 1905, none other than Albert Einstein, for the first time realized that this mysterious, at first glance, phenomenon serves as the best experimental confirmation of the correctness of the atomic theory of the structure of matter. He explained it something like this: a spore suspended in water is subjected to constant “bombardment” by randomly moving water molecules. On average, molecules act on it from all sides with equal intensity and at regular intervals. However, no matter how small the dispute, due to purely random deviations, it first receives an impulse from the side of the molecule that hit it from one side, then from the side of the molecule that hit it from the other, etc. As a result of averaging such collisions, it turns out that that at some point the particle “twitches” in one direction, then, if on the other side it was “pushed” by more molecules, to the other, etc. Using the laws of mathematical statistics and the molecular-kinetic theory of gases, Einstein derived an equation describing dependence of the rms displacement of a Brownian particle on macroscopic parameters. (Interesting fact: in one of the volumes of the German journal "Annals of Physics" ( Annalen der Physik) three articles by Einstein were published in 1905: an article with a theoretical explanation of Brownian motion, an article on the foundations of the special theory of relativity, and, finally, an article describing the theory of the photoelectric effect. It was for the latter that Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.)

In 1908, the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Perrin (Jean-Baptiste Perrin, 1870-1942) conducted a brilliant series of experiments that confirmed the correctness of Einstein's explanation of the phenomenon of Brownian motion. It became finally clear that the observed "chaotic" motion of Brownian particles is a consequence of intermolecular collisions. Since “useful mathematical conventions” (according to Mach) cannot lead to observable and completely real movements of physical particles, it became finally clear that the debate about the reality of atoms is over: they exist in nature. As a “bonus game”, Perrin got the formula derived by Einstein, which allowed the Frenchman to analyze and estimate the average number of atoms and / or molecules colliding with a particle suspended in a liquid over a given period of time and, using this indicator, calculate the molar numbers of various liquids. This idea was based on the fact that at each given moment of time the acceleration of a suspended particle depends on the number of collisions with the molecules of the medium ( cm. Newton's laws of mechanics), and hence on the number of molecules per unit volume of liquid. And this is nothing but Avogadro's number (cm. Avogadro's law) is one of the fundamental constants that determine the structure of our world.

Today we will consider an important topic in detail - we will define the Brownian motion of small pieces of matter in a liquid or gas.

Map and coordinates

Some schoolchildren, tormented by boring lessons, do not understand why they should study physics. Meanwhile, it was this science that once made it possible to discover America!

Let's start from afar. In a sense, the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean were lucky: they developed on the shores of a closed inland reservoir. The Mediterranean Sea is called so because it is surrounded on all sides by land. And ancient travelers could advance quite far with their expedition without losing sight of the shores. The outlines of the land helped to navigate. And the first maps were drawn more descriptively than geographically. Thanks to these relatively short voyages, the Greeks, Phoenicians and Egyptians learned how to build ships well. And where the best equipment is, there is the desire to push the boundaries of your world.

Therefore, one fine day, the European powers decided to go out into the ocean. While sailing through the vast expanses between the continents, sailors saw only water for many months, and they had to somehow navigate. The invention of an accurate watch and a high-quality compass helped determine their coordinates.

Clock and compass

The invention of small hand-held chronometers helped navigators a lot. To determine exactly where they were, they needed to have a simple instrument that measured the height of the sun above the horizon, and know exactly when it was noon. And thanks to the compass, the captains of the ships knew where they were going. Both the clock and the properties of the magnetic needle were studied and created by physicists. Thanks to this, the whole world was opened to Europeans.

The new continents were terra incognita, uncharted lands. Strange plants grew on them and incomprehensible animals were found.

Plants and physics

All the natural scientists of the civilized world rushed to study these strange new ecological systems. And of course, they wanted to take advantage of them.

Robert Brown was an English botanist. He made trips to Australia and Tasmania, collecting plant collections there. Already at home, in England, he worked hard on the description and classification of the brought material. And this scientist was very meticulous. Once, while observing the movement of pollen in plant sap, he noticed that small particles constantly make chaotic zigzag movements. This is the definition of the Brownian motion of small elements in gases and liquids. Thanks to the discovery, the amazing botanist wrote his name into the history of physics!

Brown and Gooey

In European science, it is customary to name an effect or phenomenon by the name of the one who discovered it. But often it happens by accident. But a person who describes, discovers the importance, or explores a physical law in more detail, finds himself in the shadows. So it happened with the Frenchman Louis Georges Gui. It was he who gave the definition of Brownian motion (Grade 7 definitely does not hear about him when he studies this topic in physics).

Gouy's research and properties of Brownian motion

The French experimenter Louis Georges Gouy observed the movement of various types of particles in several liquids, including solutions. The science of that time already knew how to accurately determine the size of pieces of matter up to tenths of a micrometer. Exploring what Brownian motion is (it was Gouy who gave the definition in physics to this phenomenon), the scientist realized that the intensity of the movement of particles increases if they are placed in a less viscous medium. Being a broad-spectrum experimenter, he exposed the suspension to the action of light and electromagnetic fields of various powers. The scientist found that these factors do not affect the chaotic zigzag jumps of particles. Gouy unequivocally showed what Brownian motion proves: the thermal movement of the molecules of a liquid or gas.

Collective and mass

And now we will describe in more detail the mechanism of zigzag jumps of small pieces of matter in a liquid.

Any substance is made up of atoms or molecules. These elements of the world are very small, not a single optical microscope is able to see them. In a liquid, they vibrate and move all the time. When any visible particle enters the solution, its mass is thousands of times greater than one atom. The Brownian motion of liquid molecules occurs randomly. But nevertheless, all atoms or molecules are a collective, they are connected to each other, like people who join hands. Therefore, sometimes it happens that the atoms of the liquid on one side of the particle move in such a way that they "press" on it, while on the other side of the particle a less dense medium is created. Therefore, the dust particle moves in the space of the solution. Elsewhere, the collective motion of fluid molecules randomly acts on the other side of the more massive component. This is exactly how the Brownian motion of particles takes place.

Time and Einstein

If a substance has a non-zero temperature, its atoms perform thermal vibrations. Therefore, even in a very cold or supercooled liquid, Brownian motion exists. These chaotic jumps of small suspended particles never stop.

Albert Einstein is perhaps the most famous scientist of the twentieth century. Everyone who is at least somewhat interested in physics knows the formula E = mc 2 . Also, many may recall the photoelectric effect, for which he was given the Nobel Prize, and the special theory of relativity. But few people know that Einstein developed the formula for Brownian motion.

Based on the molecular kinetic theory, the scientist derived the diffusion coefficient of suspended particles in a liquid. And it happened in 1905. The formula looks like this:

D = (R * T) / (6 * N A * a * π * ξ),

where D is the desired coefficient, R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature (expressed in Kelvin), N A is the Avogadro constant (corresponding to one mole of a substance, or about 10 23 molecules), a is the approximate average particle radius, ξ is the dynamic viscosity of a liquid or solution.

And already in 1908, the French physicist Jean Perrin and his students experimentally proved the correctness of Einstein's calculations.

One particle in the warrior field

Above, we described the collective action of the medium on many particles. But even one foreign element in a liquid can give some regularities and dependencies. For example, if you observe a Brownian particle for a long time, then you can fix all its movements. And out of this chaos, a coherent system will emerge. The average advance of a Brownian particle along any one direction is proportional to time.

During experiments on a particle in a liquid, the following quantities were refined:

• Boltzmann's constant;
• Avogadro's number.

In addition to linear motion, chaotic rotation is also characteristic. And the average angular displacement is also proportional to the observation time.

Sizes and shapes

After such reasoning, a logical question may arise: why is this effect not observed for large bodies? Because when the length of an object immersed in a liquid is greater than a certain value, then all these random collective “shocks” of molecules turn into constant pressure, as they are averaged. And the general Archimedes is already acting on the body. Thus, a large piece of iron sinks, and metal dust floats in the water.

The particle size, on the example of which the fluctuation of liquid molecules is revealed, should not exceed 5 micrometers. As for objects with large sizes, this effect will not be noticeable here.

BROWNIAN MOTION(Brownian motion) - chaotic movement of small particles suspended in a liquid or gas, occurring under the influence of impacts of environmental molecules. Investigated in 1827 by P. Brown (Brown; R. Brown), to-ry observed in the microscope the movement of pollen suspended in water. Observed particles (Brownian) with a size of ~1 μm and less make disordered independent movements, describing complex zigzag trajectories. The intensity of B. d. does not depend on time, but increases with an increase in the temperature of the medium, a decrease in its viscosity and particle size (regardless of their chemical nature). The complete theory of B. d. was given by A. Einstein and M. Smoluchowski in 1905-06.

The causes of B. D. are the thermal motion of the molecules of the medium and the absence of exact compensation for the impacts experienced by the particle from the molecules surrounding it, i.e., B. D. is due to fluctuations pressure. Impacts of the molecules of the medium lead the particle into random motion: its speed rapidly changes in magnitude and direction. If the position of the particles is fixed at small equal time intervals, then the trajectory constructed by this method turns out to be extremely complex and confusing (Fig.).

B. d. - Naib. visual experiment. confirmation of representations molecular-kinetic. theories about chaos. thermal motion of atoms and molecules. If the observation interval t is large enough so that the forces acting on the particle from the molecules of the medium change their direction many times, then cf. the square of the projection of its displacement on to-l. axis (in the absence of other external forces) is proportional to time t (Einstein's law):