History of the use of biological poisons. The use of poisons in antiquity. Historical essay. Origin of medical knowledge
History of the use of poisons
Poison poisoning is often referred to as the "weapon of cowards". But, if we trace the history of the use of poisons, then such a definition does not seem perfect. We know from archaeological evidence that primitive people sought to find weapons that would be more effective against animals and enemies. In their search, in addition to healing substances, toxic (poisonous) substances were found that could be used as weapons.
Archaeological finds of such hunting tools, which contained harmful substances, such as tubocurarine, prove this.
Data on toxic substances were kept secret, only a few members of the tribe owned the secret. This gave them power and authority. The ritual of preparing poisons was considered the most important step in the act of poisoning.
Toxicology, the name given to the study of poisons, comes from the Greek word, toxon. This is a bow with arrows. The word toxeuma meant an arrow, and toxicos a poisoned arrow, which in ancient times was often used as the most deadly weapon.
In antiquity, poisons were viewed primarily as "mysterious" substances and were defined as substances that kill. However, a typical example - table salt in large quantities also kills. But is salt a poison? Maybe it's all about microdoses? So what is poison?
The use of poisons dates back to the ancient times of mythological beliefs. Perhaps the first records of them appeared among the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). There are references to poison in Greek mythology, although there is no obvious quotation for specific poisons. For example, that Theseus returned to Athens to claim his rights; and Medea, according to the myth, resenting this, tried to poison Theseus with a poisoned goblet.
Or now, Menes is an early record of the Egyptian king about the properties of poisonous plants. Detailed writing during these times was not typical, as it was forbidden to reveal any of the secrets taught in the temples. Exposing these secrets was punishable by death. There is, however, ample evidence, on various papyri, that the Egyptians were versed in antimony, copper, crude arsenic, lead, opium, mandrake, and other poisonous substances.
Some papyri also show how the Egyptians were probably the first people to master distillation and discover a way to extract a powerful poison from peach pits. A translation of Duteuil, on a papyrus in the Louvre, shows the earliest writing of the drug for lethal purposes. Today, this extract is known as hydrocyanic acid (potassium cyanide). Peach kernels contain "cyanogenic glycosides" that release toxic substances in the presence of water.
The ancient Greeks were aware of arsenic and metals such as lead, mercury, gold, silver, copper and their properties to some extent. As for vegetable poisons, the Greeks mainly used hemlock. It was a poison for suicidal purposes.
Under certain conditions, suicide at this time was noted to be noble, and the use of the "poisoned cup" was often sanctioned as a form of capital punishment. "State Poison" is a type of hemlock known as hemlock poison.
The doses, however, were not always lethal, and repeated doses were often required. The Phocian describes it thus: "having drunk all the Hemlock's juice, the amount was considered insufficient, and the executioner refused to cook more unless he was paid 12 drachmas." and the State Poison was made for him to drink.
There is a record in later history of the use of state poison. Dioscorides, in his Materia Medica, made a valuable contribution to the classification of poisons, distinguishing between poisons of plant, animal, and mineral origin. This work remained the most authoritative, for fifteen centuries or more, in the field of toxicology.
The knowledge of poisons seems to have been a common race among the Eastern races. The Persians were very interested in the art of poisoning. Both Plutarch and Ctesias describe an incident that occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II (405 - 359BC). Queen Parysatis allegedly poisoned her daughter-in-law Stateira with a poisoned knife. A knife that is used to cut a bird at the dinner table - one of its sides was smeared with poison. Using the blade of the untainted half, Parysatis remained alive while her sister-in-law died.
Poisoning at the dinner table was certainly not uncommon, especially in ancient Roman times. According to the writer Livy, murder by poisoning happens all the time in the high circles of Roman society. There have been infamous cases of "utilization" of unwanted families, using the poison Locusta. And Locasta was used on behalf of Agrippa, wife of Claudius, to kill him. Nero killed his brother Britanicus with cyanide. Belladonna was also the favorite poison of ancient society.
A custom adopted by the Chinese in 246 BC, which still exists today, is the Zhou Ritual (Dough Tube Ritual). Of the 5 poisons used, 4 are known; cinnabar (mercury), realger (arsenic), iron vitriol (copper sulfate) and loadstone (magnetic iron ore). (Thompson, 1931)
Soon after the discovery of the properties of toxic substances, people began to look for antidotes - methods to prevent their fatal consequences. Mithridates was the king of Pontus (Turkey) during 114-63 BC. He is believed to have lived in constant fear of being poisoned by his enemies, as he studied the subject of antidotes quite extensively.
He tested the potency of various poisons on convicted criminals and experimented with various poisons to find antidotes for them. He took small doses of poisons daily in an attempt to make himself invulnerable. The formula for his antidote was known as Mithridatum, the secret of which he guarded. Pliny describes 54 different poisons, and he also mentions “A duck that lived on poisonous food; and the blood of this duck was afterwards used in the preparation of Mithridatum."
Since ancient times, poison and man have lived hand in hand. They were treated with poisons, sometimes poisoned and poisoned, solving political, amorous and hereditary cases. In the latter case, they acted with special sophistication: in comparison with other means of eliminating opponents, poisons had an undeniable advantage - the unfortunate went to the forefathers only from "indigestion." Quiet, peaceful, no shocks.
But it is worth noting that poisonings did not always occur from the malicious intent of ill-wishers. Far more often, the drugs themselves were to blame for the untimely death. Even in the ancient Egyptian manuscripts it is written that, depending on the method of preparation, the drug can be either harmful or beneficial. Medieval medicines were such that it was enough to increase the dose a little, and it became a poison without any hope of survival.
The Dark Ages have sunk into oblivion, bringing with them unsolved secrets, poisoned boxes, rings and gloves. People have become more pragmatic, medicines have become more diverse, doctors have become more humane. However, there was still no order with potent and toxic substances. Peter the Great tried to restore order by banning trading in "green shops" and ordering the opening of the first free pharmacies. In July 1815, the Russian Empire published "Catalogues of pharmaceutical materials and poisonous substances" and "Rules on the sale of pharmaceutical materials from herbal and mosquito shops"
Historical essay. Origin of medical knowledge
Since the time of ancient Rome, anyone whose body had a bluish-black tint or was covered with spots was considered to have died of poisoning. Sometimes it was considered sufficient that it "smelled badly". They believed that a poisoned heart does not burn. Killers of poisoners were equated with sorcerers. Many have tried to penetrate the secrets of the poison. Someone dreamed of eliminating a rival on the path to wealth and power. Someone was just jealous of a neighbor. The supreme rulers often kept secret services of poisoners who studied the effects of poisons on slaves. Sometimes the lords themselves did not hesitate to participate in such studies. So, the legendary Pontic king Mithridates, together with his court physician, developed a universal antidote, experimenting on prisoners sentenced to death. The antidote they found included 54 ingredients, including opium and the dried organs of poisonous snakes. Mithridates himself, according to ancient sources, managed to develop immunity to poisons, and after the defeat in the war with the Romans, trying to commit suicide, he could not get poisoned. He threw himself on the sword, and his "Secret Memoirs", containing information about poisons and antidotes, were taken to Rome and translated into Latin. So they became the property of other peoples.
Not less often resorted to deliberate poisoning in the East. The perpetrator of the crime was often one of the slaves, who had previously developed immunity to poison. Quite a lot of attention to poisons and antidotes is given in the writings of Avicenna and his students.
History has left evidence of the outstanding poisoners of their time. The attackers' arsenal consisted of plant and animal poisons, antimony, mercury and phosphorus compounds. But white arsenic was destined for the role of "King of Poisons". It was so often used in resolving dynastic disputes that the name "hereditary powder" stuck behind it. It was especially widely used at the French court in the fourteenth century, among the Italian princes of the Renaissance and in papal circles of the time when few wealthy people were not afraid to die from poison.
Until the middle of the last century, poisoners could feel relatively safe. If they were tried, it was only on the basis of circumstantial evidence, and arsenic itself remained elusive.
In 1775, the Swedish pharmacist Carl Schiele discovered a garlic-smelling gas - arsenic hydrogen (arsine). Ten years later, Samuel Hahnemann treated with hydrochloric acid and hydrogen sulfide an extract from the tissues of a person who died from arsenic poisoning and precipitated the poison in the form of a yellowish precipitate. Since then, hydrogen sulfide has become one of the main reagents for the detection of metal poisons. But the first serious work on toxicology was published only in 1813 in France. ITS author Matthieu Orfillat became the first forensic expert on poisons.
In 1900, there was a massive beer poisoning in Manchester. The examination found arsenic in the beer. The Special Investigation Commission began to figure out how he got there, and was horrified: arsenic was in both artificial yeast and malt. There was no time for beer - arsenic was found in vinegar, marmalade, bread and, finally, in the body of perfectly healthy people (about 0.0001%).
Arsenic was truly ubiquitous. Marsh's test (chemist at the British Royal Arsenal) made it possible to detect it even in acid and zinc used for analysis, if they were not previously purified.
The rapid development of physicochemical methods of analysis made it possible by the middle of the last century to solve the problem of quantitative determination of trace amounts of arsenic. Now it was possible to reliably distinguish the background, natural content of arsenic from poisoning doses, which were much higher.
Having removed the terrible harvest of death, arsenic from the second half of the nineteenth century turned to humanity with a completely different side. Starting in 1860, arsenic-containing stimulants became widespread in France. However, a real revolution in the idea of this ancient poison occurred after the work of Paul Ermech, which marked the beginning of synthetic chemotherapy. As a result, arsenic-containing preparations were obtained that are effective in the treatment of many diseases in humans and animals.
It is impossible not to mention the poisons of plant origin. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, alkaloids broke free from laboratories and clinics, the world, as a result, entered a period of mysterious murders and suicides. Plant poisons left no traces. The French prosecutor de Broe made a desperate speech in 1823: “We should have warned the murderers: do not use arsenic and other metal poisons. They leave traces. Use vegetable poisons !!! Poison your fathers, your mothers, poison your relatives - and inheritance will be yours. Do not be afraid! You will not have to bear punishment for this. There is no corpus delicti, because it cannot be established."
Even in the middle of the nineteenth century, doctors could not say with certainty what dose of morphine is fatal, what symptoms accompany poisoning with plant poisons. Orfilla himself, after several years of unsuccessful research, in 1847 was forced to admit defeat to them.
But less than four years later, Jean Stae, professor of chemistry at the Brussels Military School, found a solution to the problem. The guess that made him famous came to the professor while investigating a murder committed with nicotine. The victim of the atrocity that Jean Stae was investigating received a dose much higher than the lethal one, but the perpetrator, frightened, tried to hide the traces of poisoning with the help of wine vinegar. This accident helped to discover a method for extracting alkaloids from body tissues ...
The founder of homeopathy, S. Hahnemann, very subtly felt the quantitative side of the action of substances on the body. He noticed that small doses of quinine cause signs of malaria in a healthy person. And since, according to Hahnemann, two similar diseases cannot coexist in the same organism, one of them must certainly crowd out the other. "Like should be treated with like," Hahnemann taught, using sometimes incredibly low concentrations of medicine to treat. Today, such views may seem naive, but they are filled with new content, given the paradoxical effects known to toxicologists, when as the concentration of the active substance decreases, the strength of the toxic effect increases.
Variety of poisons and their mechanism of action
Lethal doses of some poisons:
White arsenic 60.0mgkg
Muscarine (fly agaric poison) 1.1mgkg
Strychnine 0.5mgkg
Rattlesnake venom 0.2mgkg
Cobra venom 0.075mgkg
Zorin (combat OV) 0.015mgkg
Palitoxin (marine coelenterates toxin) 0.00015mgkg
Botulinum neurotoxin 0.00003mgkg
What is the reason for this difference between poisons?
First of all - in the mechanism of their action. One poison, once in the body, behaves like an elephant in a china shop, destroying everything. Others act more subtle, more selectively, hitting a specific target, such as the nervous system or the key links of metabolism. Such poisons, as a rule, exhibit toxicity at much lower concentrations.
Finally, one cannot ignore the specific circumstances associated with the poisoning. Highly poisonous salts of hydrocyanic acid (cyanides) may be harmless due to their tendency to hydrolysis, which begins already in a humid atmosphere. The resulting hydrocyanic acid either volatilizes or enters into further transformations.
It has long been noted that when working with cyanides, it is useful to hold a piece of sugar behind the cheek. The secret here is that the sugars convert cyanides into relatively harmless cyanohydrins (oxynitrriles).
Poisonous animals contain in the body constantly or periodically substances that are toxic to individuals of other species. In total, there are about 5 thousand species of poisonous animals: protozoa - about 20, coelenterates - about 100, worms - about 70, arthropods - about 4 thousand, molluscs - about 90, echinoderms - about 25, fish - about 500, amphibians - about 40, reptiles - about 100, mammals - 3 species. There are about 1500 species in Russia.
Of the poisonous animals, snakes, scorpions, spiders, etc. are the most studied, the least studied are fish, mollusks and coelenterates. Of the mammals, three species are known: two species of open teeth, three species of shrews, and a platypus.
Paradoxically, the sloth teeth are not immune to their own poison and die even from light bites received during fights among themselves. Shrews are also not immune to their own poison, but they do not fight among themselves. Both open-toothed and shrews use a toxin, a paralytic kllikren-like protein. Platypus venom can kill small animals. For a person, it generally does not cause death, however, it causes very severe pain and swelling, which gradually spreads to the entire limb. Hyperalgia can last for many days and even months. Some of the poisonous animals have special glands that produce poison, others contain toxic substances in certain tissues of the body. Some animals have a wounding apparatus that contributes to the introduction of poison into the body of an enemy or victim.
Some animals are insensitive to certain poisons, for example, pigs - to the poison of a rattlesnake, hedgehogs - to the poison of a viper, Rodents living in the deserts - to the poison of scorpions. There are no poisonous animals that are dangerous to everyone else. Their toxicity is relative.
More than 10,000 species of poisonous plants are known in the world flora, mainly in the tropics and subtropics, and there are many of them in countries with temperate and cold climates. In Russia, about 400 species of poisonous plants are found among mushrooms, horsetails, club mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms. The main active ingredients of poisonous plants are alkaloids, glycosides, essential oils, organic acids, etc. They are usually found in all parts of plants, but often in unequal quantities, and with the general toxicity of the whole plant, some parts are more poisonous than others. Some poisonous plants (for example, ephedra) can be poisonous only if they are used for a long time, since the active principles in their body are not destroyed and not excreted, but accumulated. Most poisonous plants act simultaneously on various organs, but some organ or center is usually more affected.
Plants with absolute toxicity do not seem to exist in nature. For example, belladonna and dope are poisonous to humans, but harmless to rodents and birds; sea onions, which are poisonous to rodents, are harmless to other animals; feverfew is poisonous to insects, but harmless to vertebrates.
Plant poisons. alkaloids
It is known that medicines and poisons were prepared from the same plants. In ancient Egypt, the pulp of the peach fruit was part of the medicines, and the priests prepared a very strong poison containing hydrocyanic acid from the kernels of the seeds and leaves. A person sentenced to "punishment with a peach" was obliged to drink a thicket of poison.
In ancient Greece, criminals could be sentenced to death by a bowl of poison obtained from aconite. Greek mythology connects the origin of the name aconite with the word "akon" (translated from Greek - poisonous juice). According to legend, the guardian of the underworld, Cerberus, during the battle with Hercules, became so furious that he began to emit saliva, from which aconite grew.
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic bases with strong and specific activity. In flowering plants, several groups of alkaloids are most often present simultaneously, differing not only in chemical structure, but also in biological effects.
To date, more than 10,000 alkaloids of various structural types have been isolated, which exceeds the number of known compounds of any other class of natural substances.
Once in the body of an animal or a person, alkaloids bind to receptors intended for regulatory molecules of the body itself, and block or trigger various processes, for example, signal transmission from nerve endings to muscles.
Strykhine (lat. Strychninum) - C21H22N2O2 indole alkaloid, isolated in 1818 by Peltier and Cavent from emetic nuts - chilibuha seeds (Strychnos nux-vomica).
Strychnine.
In case of strychnine poisoning, a pronounced feeling of hunger appears, fearfulness and anxiety develop. Breathing becomes deep and frequent, there is a feeling of pain in the chest. Painful muscle twitching develops and, accompanied by visual sensations of flashing lightning, an attack of tetanic convulsions is played out (simultaneous contraction of all skeletal muscles - both flexors and extensors) - causing opistonus. The pressure in the abdominal cavity increases sharply, breathing stops due to tetanus of the pectoral muscles. Due to the contraction of the facial muscles, a smile expression (sardonic smile) appears. Consciousness is preserved. The attack lasts a few seconds or minutes and is replaced by a state of general weakness. After a short interval, a new attack develops. Death does not occur during an attack, but somewhat later from respiratory depression.
Strychnine leads to an increase in the excitability of the motor areas of the cerebral cortex. Strychnine already in therapeutic doses causes an aggravation of the sense organs. There is an exacerbation of taste, tactile sensations, smell, hearing and vision.
In medicine, it is used for paralysis associated with damage to the central nervous system, for chronic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, and mainly as a general tonic in various states of malnutrition and weakness, as well as for physiological and neuroanatomical studies. Strychnine also helps with poisoning with chloroform, hydrochloride, etc. With heart weakness, strychnine helps in cases where the lack of cardiac activity is caused by insufficient vascular tone. Also used for incomplete atrophy of the optic nerve.
Tubocurarine. Under the name "curare" is known poison prepared by the Indians living in the tropical forests in Brazil along the tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, used to hunt animals. From the subcutaneous tissue, this poison is absorbed extremely quickly and it is enough to anoint an insignificant scratch on the body with curare in order for a person or animal to die. The drug paralyzes the peripheral endings of the motor nerves of all the striated muscles, and therefore the muscles that control breathing, and death occurs due to strangulation with full and almost undisturbed consciousness.
Tubocurarine.
The Indians prepare curare according to different recipes, depending on the purpose of the hunt. There are four orta curare. They got their name from the method of packaging: calabash-curare ("pumpkin", packed in small dried pumpkins, i.e. calabash), pot-curare ("pot", i.e. stored in clay pots), "bag" (in small woven bags) and tubocurare ("pipe", packed in bamboo tubes 25 cm long). Since curare, packaged in bamboo tubes, had the strongest pharmacological action, the main alkaloid was named tubocurarine.
The first alkaloid curarine was isolated from tubocurare in 1828 in Paris.
Toxiferin.
Later, the presence of alkaloids in all types of curare was proved. Curare alkaloids obtained from plants of the genus Strychnos, like strychnine, are derivatives of indole (C8H7N). Such, in particular, are the alkaloids contained in pumpkin curare (dimeric C-toxiferin and other toxiferins). Curare alkaloids obtained from plants of the genus Chodrodendron are derivatives of bisbenzylichinol - such, in particular, is B-tubocurarine contained in tubular curare.
Pharmacologists use curare in animal experiments when it is necessary to immobilize muscles. At present, they began to use this property - to relax skeletal muscles during operations necessary to save people's lives. Curare is used to treat tetanus and convulsions, as well as strychnine poisoning. It is also used for Parkinson's disease, and some nervous diseases accompanied by convulsions.
Morphine is one of the main alkaloids of opium. Morphine and other morphine alkaloids are found in plants of the genus poppy, stephania, synomenium, moonseed.
Morphine was the first alkaloid obtained in its pure form. However, it gained popularity after the invention of the injection needle in 1853. It has been (and continues to be) used for pain relief. In addition, it was used as a "treatment" for opium and alcohol addiction. The widespread use of morphine during the American Civil War is believed to have led to "army sickness" (morphine addiction) in more than 400,000 people. In 1874, diacetylmorphine, better known as heroin, was synthesized from morphine.
Morphine is a powerful pain reliever. Lowering the excitability of pain centers, it also has an anti-shock effect in case of injuries. In large doses, it causes a hypnotic effect, which is more pronounced in sleep disorders associated with pain. Morphine causes a pronounced euphoria, and with its repeated use, a painful addiction quickly develops. It has an inhibitory effect on conditioned reflexes, lowers the summation capacity of the central nervous system, enhances the effect of narcotic, hypnotic and local anesthetics. It reduces the excitability of the cough center. Morphine causes excitation of the center of the vagus nerves with the appearance of bradycardia. As a result of the activation of neurons of the oculomotor nerves under the influence of morphine, miosis appears in humans. Under the influence of morphine, the tone of the smooth muscles of the internal organs increases. There is an increase in the tone of the sphincters of the gastrointestinal tract, the tone of the muscles of the central part of the stomach, the small and large intestines increases, and peristalsis is weakened. There is a spasm of the muscles of the biliary tract. Under the influence of morphine, the secretory activity of the gastrointestinal tract is inhibited. Basal metabolism and body temperature decrease under the influence of morphine. Characteristic of the action of morphine is the inhibition of the respiratory center. Large doses provide a decrease and a decrease in the depth of breathing with a decrease in pulmonary ventilation. Toxic doses cause the appearance of periodic breathing and its subsequent stop.
The possibility of developing drug addiction and respiratory depression are major drawbacks of morphine, which in some cases limit the use of its powerful analgesic properties.
Morphine is used as an analgesic for injuries and various diseases accompanied by severe pain, in preparation for surgery and in the postoperative period, with insomnia associated with severe pain, sometimes with severe coughing, severe shortness of breath due to acute heart failure. Morphine is sometimes used in x-ray practice in the study of the stomach, duodenum, gallbladder.
Cocaine C17H21NO4 is a powerful psychoactive stimulant derived from the South American coca plant. The leaves of this shrub, containing from 0.5 to 1% cocaine, have been used by people since ancient times. Chewing coca leaves helped the Indians of the ancient Inca empire endure the high mountain climate. This way of using cocaine did not cause the drug addiction that is so common today. The content of cocaine in the leaves is still not high.
Cocaine was first isolated from coca leaves in Germany in 1855 and has long been considered a "miracle cure". It was believed that cocaine could treat bronchial asthma, digestive disorders, "general weakness" and even alcoholism and morphinism. It also turned out that cocaine blocks the conduction of pain impulses along the nerve endings and therefore is a powerful anesthetic. Previously, it was often used for local anesthesia in surgical operations, including eye surgery. However, when it became clear that cocaine use leads to addiction and serious mental disorders, and sometimes death, its use in medicine was sharply reduced.
Like other stimulants, cocaine reduces appetite and can lead to physical and mental destruction of the individual. Most often, cocaine addicts resort to inhaling cocaine powder; through the nasal mucosa, it enters the bloodstream. The impact on the psyche appears after a few minutes. A person feels a surge of energy, feels new opportunities in himself. The physiological effect of cocaine is similar to mild stress - blood pressure rises slightly, heart rate and breathing become more frequent. After a while, depression and anxiety sets in, leading to a desire to take a new dose, no matter what the cost. For cocaine addicts, delusional disorders and hallucinations are common: the feeling under the skin of running insects and goosebumps is so clear that inveterate drug addicts, trying to get rid of it, often injure themselves. Due to its unique ability to simultaneously block pain and reduce bleeding, cocaine is still used in medical practice for surgical operations in the oral and nasal cavities. In 1905, novocaine was synthesized from it.
Animal poisons
The symbol of a good deed, health and healing is a snake wrapping around a bowl and bowing its head over it. The use of snake venom and the snake itself is one of the most ancient techniques. There are various legends according to which snakes perform various positive deeds, which is why they deserve to be immortalized.
Snakes in many religions are sacred. It was believed that through the snakes the gods convey their will. Nowadays, a huge number of medicines have been created on the basis of snake venom.
Snake poison. Poisonous snakes are equipped with special glands that produce poison (different species have a different composition of the poison), which causes very serious damage to the body. These are one of the few living creatures on Earth that can easily kill a person.
The strength of snake venom is not always the same. The more angry the snake, the stronger the poison. If, when inflicting a wound, the snake's teeth should bite through the clothes, then some of the poison can be absorbed by the tissue. In addition, the strength of the individual resistance of the bitten subject does not remain without influence. It happens that the effect of poison can be compared with the effect of a lightning strike or with the intake of hydrocyanic acid. Immediately after the bite, the patient shudders with an expression of pain on his face and then falls dead. Some snakes inject poison into the body of the victim, which turns the blood into a thick jelly. It is very difficult to save the victim, you have to act within a few seconds.
But most often the bitten place swells and quickly acquires a dark purple hue, the blood becomes liquid and the patient develops symptoms similar to those of putrefaction. The number of heart contractions increases, but their strength and energy weakens. The patient has an extreme breakdown; the body is covered with cold sweat. Dark spots appear on the body from subcutaneous hemorrhages, the patient weakens from depression of the nervous system or from the decomposition of the blood, falls into a typhoid state and dies.
Snake venom seems to affect mainly the vagus and adnexal nerves, therefore, as characteristic phenomena, negative symptoms from the larynx, respiration and heart.
One of the first pure cobra venom for therapeutic purposes in malignant diseases about 100 years ago was used by the French microbiologist A. Calmet. The obtained positive results attracted the attention of many researchers. Later it was found that cobrotoxin does not have a specific antitumor effect, and its effect is due to the analgesic and stimulating effect on the body. Cobra venom can replace the drug morphine. It has a longer effect and is not addictive to the drug. Cobrotoxin after liberation from hemorrhages by boiling was successfully used to treat bronchial asthma, epilepsy and neurotic diseases. With the same diseases, a positive effect was also obtained after the administration of rattlesnake venom (crotoxin) to patients. Employees of the Leningrad Research Psychoneurological Institute named after V.M. Bekhterev concluded that in the treatment of epilepsy, snake venoms, in terms of their ability to suppress foci of excitation, are in one of the first places among known pharmacological preparations. Preparations containing snake venoms are used mainly as painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs for neuralgia, arthralgia, radiculitis, arthritis, myositis, periarthritis. And also with carbuncle, gangrene, adynamic conditions, typhoid fevers and other diseases. From the poison of the gyurza, the drug "Lebetox" was created, which stops bleeding in patients with various forms of hemophilia.
Spider poison. Spiders are very useful animals that exterminate harmful insects. The venom of most spiders is harmless to humans, even if it is a tarantula bite. It used to be that the antidote to a bite could be dancing until you drop (hence the name of the Italian dance - "tarantella"). But the bite of a karakurt causes severe pain, convulsions, suffocation, vomiting, saliva - and sweating, disruption of the heart.
Poisoning with the venom of a tarantula is characterized by severe pain that spreads from the bite site through the body, as well as involuntary contractions of the skeletal muscles. Sometimes a necrotic focus develops at the site of the bite, but it can also be the result of mechanical damage to the skin and secondary infection.
Spiders living in Tanzania possess neurotoxic venom and cause severe local pain, anxiety, and hypersensitivity to external stimuli in mammals. Then hypersalivation, rhinorrhea, priapis, diarrhea, convulsions develop in poisoned animals, respiratory failure occurs, followed by the development of severe respiratory failure.
Nowadays, spider venom is increasingly used in medicine. The discovered properties of the poison demonstrate their immunopharmacological activity. The distinct biological properties of tarantula venom and its predominant effect on the central nervous system make it promising to study the possibility of its use in medicine. There are reports in the scientific literature of its use as a sleep modifier. It selectively acts on the reticular formation of the brain and has advantages over similar drugs of synthetic origin. Probably, similar spiders are used by the inhabitants of Laos as psychostimulants. The ability of spider venom to influence blood pressure is used in hypertension. Spider venom causes necrosis of muscle tissue and hemolysis.
Scorpion venom. There are about 500 species of scorpions in the world. These creatures have long been a mystery to biologists, as they are able, while maintaining a normal lifestyle and physical activity, to do without food for more than a year. This feature indicates the originality of metabolic processes in scorpions. Scorpion poisoning is characterized by damage to the liver and kidneys. According to many researchers, the neurotopic component of the poison acts like strychnine, causing convulsions. Its influence on the vegetative center of the nervous system is also expressed: in addition to palpitations and respiration, vomiting, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, and chills are observed. Neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by the fear of death. Poisoning with scorpion venom is accompanied by an increase in blood glucose, which in turn affects the function of the pancreas, in which the secretion of insulin, amylase and trypsin increases. This condition often leads to the development of pancreatitis. It should be noted that scorpions themselves are also sensitive to their poison, but in much larger doses. This feature was used in the past to treat their bites. Quintus Serek Samonik wrote: "Burning when a scorpion inflicted a cruel wound, they immediately grab him, and deservedly deprived of life, he, as I heard, is suitable to cleanse the wound of poison." The Roman physician and philosopher Celsus also noted that the scorpion itself is an excellent remedy for its bite.
The literature describes recommendations for the use of scorpions for the treatment of various diseases. Chinese doctors advised: "If living scorpions are insisted on vegetable oil, then it is fashionable to use the resulting remedy for inflammatory processes of the middle ear." Preparations from the scorpion are prescribed in the east as a sedative, its tail part has an antitoxic effect. They also use non-poisonous false scorpions that live under the bark of trees. Residents of Korean villages collect them, prepare a drug for the treatment of rheumatism and sciatica. The venom of some species of scorpions can have a beneficial effect on the body of a person suffering from cancer. Studies show that scorpion venom drugs have a destructive effect on malignant tumors, it has an anti-inflammatory effect and, in general, improves the well-being of patients suffering from cancer.
Batrachotxin.
Bufotoxin.
Toad poison. Toads are poisonous animals. Their skin contains many simple saccular poison glands that accumulate behind the eyes in "parotids". However, toads do not have any piercing and injuring devices. For protection, the cane toad contracts the skin, due to which it is covered with an unpleasantly smelling white foam with the secretion of poisonous glands. If the aga is disturbed, its glands also secrete a milky-white secret, it is even able to "shoot" it at a predator. Aghi poison is potent, affecting mainly the heart and nervous system, causing profuse salivation, convulsions, vomiting, arrhythmia, increased blood pressure, sometimes temporary paralysis and death from cardiac arrest. For poisoning, simple contact with poisonous glands is sufficient. The poison penetrated through the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth causes severe pain, inflammation and temporary blindness.
Toads have been used in folk medicine since ancient times. In China, toads are used as a heart remedy. The dry poison secreted by the cervical tonsils of toads can slow down the progression of oncological diseases. Substances from the venom of toads do not help cure cancer, but they can stabilize the condition of patients and stop the growth of the tumor. Chinese therapists claim that toad venom can improve immune system function.
Bee venom. Poisoning with bee venom can occur in the form of intoxication caused by multiple stings of bees, and also be allergic in nature. When massive doses of poison enter the body, damage to internal organs, especially the kidneys, involved in the removal of poison from the body, is observed. There have been cases when kidney function was restored with the help of repeated hemodialysis. Allergic reactions to bee venom occur in 0.5 - 2% of people. In sensitive individuals, a sharp reaction up to anaphylactic shock may develop in response to a single sting. The clinical picture depends on the number of stings, localization, functional state of the body. As a rule, local symptoms come to the fore: sharp pain, swelling. The latter are especially dangerous when the mucous membranes of the mouth and respiratory tract are affected, as they can lead to asphyxia.
Bee venom increases the amount of hemoglobin, reduces blood viscosity and clotting, reduces the amount of cholesterol in the blood, increases diuresis, dilates blood vessels, increases blood flow to the diseased organ, relieves pain, increases overall tone, performance, improves sleep and appetite. Bee venom activates the pituitary-adrenal system, has an immunocorrective effect, improves adaptive capabilities. Peptides have a preventive and therapeutic anticonvulsant effect, preventing the development of epileptiform syndrome. All this explains the high effectiveness of bee treatment for Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, post-stroke, post-infarction, cerebral palsy. And also bee venom is effective in the treatment of diseases of the peripheral nervous system (radiculitis, neuritis, neuralgia), joint pain, rheumatism and allergic diseases, trophic ulcers and sluggish granulating wounds, varicose veins and thrombophlebitis, bronchial asthma and bronchitis, ischemic disease and the consequences of radioactive exposure and other diseases.
"Metal" poisons. Heavy metals... This group usually includes metals with a density greater than that of iron, namely: lead, copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium, cobalt, antimony, tin, bismuth and mercury. Their release into the environment occurs mainly during the combustion of mineral fuels. Almost all metals are found in the ashes of coal and oil. In coal ash, for example, according to L.G. Bondarev (1984), the presence of 70 elements was established. 1 ton contains on average 200 g of zinc and tin, 300 g of cobalt, 400 g of uranium, 500 g of germanium and arsenic. The maximum content of strontium, vanadium, zinc and germanium can reach 10 kg per 1 ton. Oil ash contains a lot of vanadium, mercury, molybdenum and nickel. Peat ash contains uranium, cobalt, copper, nickel, zinc, and lead. So, L.G. Bondarev, taking into account the current scale of the use of fossil fuels, comes to the following conclusion: not metallurgical production, but coal combustion is the main source of many metals entering the environment. For example, with the annual combustion of 2.4 billion tons of hard and 0.9 billion tons of brown coal, 200 thousand tons of arsenic and 224 thousand tons of uranium are dispersed together with ash, while the world production of these two metals is 40 and 30 thousand tons. tons per year, respectively. It is interesting that technogenic dispersion of metals such as cobalt, molybdenum, uranium and some others during coal combustion began long before the elements themselves began to be used. "To date (including 1981)," continues L.G. Bondarev, "about 160 billion tons of coal and about 64 billion tons of oil have been mined and burned around the world. Together with ash, many millions of tons of various metals.
It is well known that many of these metals and dozens of other trace elements are found in the living matter of the planet and are absolutely necessary for the normal functioning of organisms. But, as they say, "everything is good in moderation." Many of these substances, when they are in excess in the body, turn out to be poisons and begin to be dangerous to health. So, for example, the following are directly related to cancer: arsenic (lung cancer), lead (cancer of the kidneys, stomach, intestines), nickel (oral cavity, large intestine), cadmium (almost all forms of cancer).
The conversation about cadmium should be special. L.G. Bondarev cites the disturbing data of the Swedish researcher M. Piskator that the difference between the content of this substance in the body of modern adolescents and the critical value, when one has to reckon with impaired kidney function, diseases of the lungs and bones, is very small. Especially for smokers. During its growth, tobacco accumulates cadmium very actively and in large quantities: its concentration in dry leaves is thousands of times higher than the average values for the biomass of terrestrial vegetation. Therefore, with each puff of smoke, along with such harmful substances as nicotine and carbon monoxide, cadmium also enters the body. One cigarette contains 1.2 to 2.5 micrograms of this poison. World production of tobacco, according to L.G. Bondarev, is approximately 5.7 million tons per year. One cigarette contains about 1 g of tobacco. Consequently, when smoking all cigarettes, cigarettes and pipes in the world, from 5.7 to 11.4 tons of cadmium is released into the environment, getting not only into the lungs of smokers, but also into the lungs of non-smokers. Finishing a brief note about cadmium, it should also be noted that this substance increases blood pressure.
The relatively higher number of cerebral hemorrhages in Japan, compared to other countries, is naturally associated, including with cadmium pollution, which is very high in the Land of the Rising Sun. The formula "everything is good in moderation" is also confirmed by the fact that not only an excess amount, but also a lack of the above substances (and others, of course) is no less dangerous and harmful to human health. There is, for example, evidence that a lack of molybdenum, manganese, copper and magnesium can also contribute to the development of malignant neoplasms.
Lead. In acute lead intoxication, neurological symptoms, lead encephalopathy, "lead" colic, nausea, constipation, pain throughout the body, decreased heart rate and increased blood pressure are most often noted. In chronic intoxication, there is irritability, hyperactivity (impaired concentration), depression, decreased IQ, hypertension, peripheral neuropathy, loss or decrease in appetite, stomach pain, anemia, nephropathy, "lead border", dystrophy of the muscles of the hands, a decrease in the content of body calcium, zinc, selenium, etc.
Once in the body, lead, like most heavy metals, causes poisoning. And, nevertheless, lead is necessary for medicine. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, lead lotions and plasters have remained in medical practice, but the medical service of lead is not limited to this ...
Bile is one of the important body fluids. The organic acids contained in it - glycolic and taurocholic stimulate the activity of the liver. And since the liver does not always work with the accuracy of a well-established mechanism, these acids in their pure form are needed by medicine. Separate and separate them with acetic lead. But the main work of lead in medicine is connected with X-ray therapy. It protects doctors from constant x-ray exposure. For almost complete absorption of X-rays, it is enough to put a 2-3 mm layer of lead in their path.
Lead preparations have been used in medicine since ancient times as astringents, cauterizers and antiseptics. Lead acetate is used in the form of 0.25-0.5% aqueous solutions for inflammatory diseases of the skin and mucous membranes. Lead plasters (simple and complex) are used for boils, carbuncles, etc.
Mercury. Ancient Indians, Chinese, Egyptians knew about mercury. Mercury and its compounds were used in medicine, red dyes were made from cinnabar. But there were also rather unusual "applications". So, in the middle of the tenth century, the Moorish king Abd al-Rahman built a palace, in the courtyard of which there was a fountain with a continuously flowing stream of mercury (still Spanish deposits of mercury are the richest in the world). Even more original was another king, whose name history has not preserved: he slept on a mattress that floated in a pool of mercury! At that time, the strong toxicity of mercury and its compounds, apparently, was not suspected. Moreover, not only kings were poisoned with mercury, but also many scientists, including Isaac Newton (at one time he was interested in alchemy), and even today careless handling of mercury often leads to sad consequences.
Mercury poisoning is characterized by headache, redness and swelling of the gums, the appearance of a dark border of mercury sulfide on them, swelling of the lymphatic and salivary glands, and digestive disorders. With mild poisoning, after 2-3 weeks, impaired functions are restored as mercury is removed from the body. If mercury enters the body in small doses, but for a long time, chronic poisoning occurs. It is characterized, first of all, by increased fatigue, weakness, drowsiness, apathy, headaches and dizziness. These symptoms are very easy to confuse with manifestations of other diseases, or even with a lack of vitamins. Therefore, it is not easy to recognize such poisoning.
Currently, mercury is widely used in medicine. Despite the fact that mercury and its components are poisonous, it is added in the manufacture of medicines and disinfectants. Approximately one third of all mercury production goes to medicine.
Mercury is known to us for its use in thermometers. This is due to the fact that it quickly and evenly responds to temperature changes. Today, mercury is also used in thermometers, dentistry, the production of chlorine, caustic salt, and electrical equipment.
Arsenic. In acute arsenic poisoning, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, depression of the central nervous system are observed. The similarity of the symptoms of arsenic poisoning with the symptoms of cholera for a long time made it possible to successfully use arsenic compounds as a deadly poison.
IN THE COMMENT CONCLUSION
| Headings: | medicines and poisons 1 user |
Our world is poisonous. Oxygen in the air, water in the tap and salt in the soup, if consumed in excess, can send you to the next world. However, in animate and inanimate nature, there are substances that, not only put in the mouth, but even take it in the hands, are harmful. However, they are very useful. The same compositions can produce alcohol, fertilizers, medicines, and with a favorable wind direction - destroy an entire army on the battlefield. They are very practical. Just one drop in a glass of wine is enough to change the ruling dynasty and change the course of history. They are cheap and can be obtained literally from toothpaste. They must be reckoned with.
The historical career of poisons began with arrows poisoned by the slime of frogs, and went to secret military substances, one drop of which can destroy an entire city. These are no longer the romantic poisons of Shakespeare, inventing deadly charades in the spirit of Agatha Christie. Modern poisons make no difference between Hitler and Tokyo subway riders. They surround us everywhere. Get ready for a journey through the poisoned history of mankind.
Why are you poisoning?
Strychonos is poisonous, the main component of curare. |
The simplest poisons have been known to mankind since the dawn of its existence, when someone very observant noticed that small animals that had eaten berries in that clearing died after five steps, and people clutched at their stomachs and did not crawl out of the bushes for hours.
The idea to use the destructive properties of plants and animals first occurred to hunters. Our distant ancestors went out not just to hunt, but rather to fight. There were still lions in Europe, and the number of animals on the planet was such that they considered man only as an annoying hindrance on the way from point A to point B.
At first, people could oppose the animal kingdom only with spears and clubs. Any increase in their effectiveness made the hunter's life a little longer. Archaeological excavations show that some tools of antiquity had grooves - possibly for poison. However, in Northern Europe there were no available natural substances capable of killing large animals on the spot and, moreover, safe for eating poisoned meat inside.
The greatest experience of using poisons in hunting belongs to Asian, South American and African peoples who had access to strong natural poisons. However, there is no exact dating of this “invention”. Based on the fact that throwing projectiles almost always served as a means of delivering poison, one can estimate the age of poisonous arrows and darts at about 6 thousand years.
The most "advertised" hunting poison is the South American curare- a muscle relaxant of plant origin that stops breathing. It is valuable because it does not penetrate well through the mucous membrane and is relatively safe to use the killed prey for food. Half a century ago, it was used as an anesthetic.
In Africa and Asia, in hunting, and later in war, vegetable juices with a high content of strophanine, which affected the central nervous system, were used. For example, the Ainu (Japan) smeared arrows with milk of aconite and went with them to the bear. One of the first - however, as always - thought of using poisonous arrows in the war, the Chinese.
Hey Pushkin!Thanks to Pushkin, the poison of the anchar (antiaris - literally “against the tip”) or the upas tree, native to Indonesia, is well known in Russia. Legends about the barren desert and the bones around the anchar, as well as about the death of birds flying over it, are clearly fabulous. The fact is that in Java, the anchar grew in volcanic valleys abounding in sulfurous secretions - barren and lifeless places. However, the milky juice of the anchar had nothing to do with it. The only risk for a person climbing an anchar is to fall off and break his neck. Crafts, bags and even construction veneer are made from some types of anchar. |
South American Indians obtained poison by roasting poisonous frogs over coals. The mucus on the skin of the terrible leaf-climber contained such an amount of batrachotoxin that it was enough to lightly pass a dart over it.
The least potent were insect poisons. In the Kalahari Desert (Africa), diamphidian larvae were squeezed onto arrowheads. Their toxins acted very slowly, and a wounded animal could get away from the hunter at a distance of up to 100 kilometers.
The custom of using poisons for hunting was preserved even when it ceased to serve as the main source of food. It is known that in 1143 the Byzantine emperor John the Handsome (named as such in jest because of his rare deformity) died while hunting a boar, accidentally poking himself in the arm with his own poisoned arrow.
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peach punishment
The most ancient civilizations of the planet cannot boast of good knowledge of poisons. In Mesopotamia, the gods of medicine often "combined" these functions with the patronage of war, so doctors had no illusions about their profession and were limited only to spells and herbs *. The development of medicine in Mesopotamia was so weak that, according to Herodotus, the Babylonians brought the sick to the market and asked passers-by what they would recommend to treat them. Archaeologist Leonard Woolley suggested that poisons could have been used at Ur during the funeral of the king to voluntarily kill his retinue in a common grave.
*In Babylon, "shammu" meant both medicine and herb.
The Egyptians understood toxins much better. They knew henbane, strychnine and opium. Medicine was prepared from the pulp of peaches, and hydrocyanic acid was expelled from their bones, which, obviously, was used to execute overly talkative priests. The Louvre has a papyrus that reads: "Do not pronounce the name of Iao under pain of punishment with a peach."
The Greeks and Romans became the true masters of poisons. According to Homer, the Greeks used poisoned arrows during the siege of Troy. Paris was wounded by a poisoned arrow on Mount Ida. Hercules soaked his arrows with the poison of the Lernean hydra, and during his battle with Cerberus, the caustic saliva from the latter's mouth watered the earth so abundantly that aconite (wrestler) grew in that place - the grass from which the poison was prepared.
The Greek words "poison" and "onion" have a common root. However, the use of poisons in war (lubricating weapons or poisoning water) was condemned for the reason that covert killing does not honor the warrior. Both the Greeks and the Romans despised the barbarians for impregnating their arrows with poison. At the same time, the Greeks were not at all shy about poisoning each other “in the rear”.
Poisons were "the last resort of kings." Cleopatra died due to the bite of a viper. And the king Mithridates he was so afraid of poisoners that from childhood he began to develop immunity by taking a special mixture of poisons and antidotes. When a rebellion rose up against him, Mithridates tried to poison himself - but not a single squad took him. The difficulty was resolved by a guard who pierced the king with a sword.
The recipe for the wonderful mixture of Mithridates was allegedly taken to Rome by the commander Pompey. Since then, legends have circulated throughout Europe about "mitridatum" - a powder of 65 ingredients that helped with any ailments. Doctors prescribed this dubious mixture of herbs and dried lizards well into the 18th century.
Plutarch in "Artaxerxes" tells about the deadly enmity between the wife of the Persian king Stateira and his mother Parysatis. Women feared each other and ate the same food from the same plates. The precautions did not help - the mother cut the game with a knife, one side of which was smeared with poison, and swallowed a safe piece. After eating the poison, Stateira died. Furious, Artaxerxes ordered the execution of the entire retinue of Parysatis (according to the customs of Persia, the poisoner was put with his head on a stone and beaten with another stone until the skull was flattened).
In Athens, there was a state poison - hemlock (hemlock juice, paralyzing the endings of the motor nerves, causing convulsions and suffocation). He was "prescribed" to criminals. Hemlock went down in history as the poison of Socrates. The most democratic city of Hellas sentenced the great thinker to death on the absurd charge of denying the gods and corrupting the youth. According to the execution regulations, after taking the poison, the convicts were asked to lie down, as their limbs quickly became numb. When the cold reached the heart, death occurred.
No less famous victim of democratic justice was Demosthenes. The people of Athens sentenced him to death, but the orator got ahead of the "human hunters" sent after him, hid in the temple of Poseidon and took a writing stick, which was filled with hemlock. Feeling death, Demosthenes went to the altar, said a few words and fell down.
Death of Demosthenes. |
Rome was a real paradise for poisoners. Everyone and everything was poisoned here. During the period of civil wars, suicide was actually legalized: if there were good reasons, a decoction of aconite or hemlock could be obtained from the state. Tacitus says that during the trial, the accused often drank poison immediately after the accuser's speech.
Poison in a goblet was considered the main way to move up the social ladder. The tasters were so in demand that they united in a special board. To get the throne, Caligula poisoned his uncle Tiberius (by strangling him, while still alive, with a pile of clothes). The "boot" amused itself by sending poisoned treats to many Romans and testing new compounds on slaves. After his death, a large chest with poisons was found in the chambers of the emperor. According to legend, Claudius ordered to throw this box into the sea, after which dead fish were washed ashore for a long time.
Claudius died from the poison of the famous poisoner Locusta, hired by his wife Agrippina. According to rumors, the murder weapon could have been either mushrooms or a poisoned feather, which was tickled in the throat to induce vomiting after heavy feasts. The son of Agrippina, the infamous Nero, also resorted to the services of Locusta to get rid of the rightful heir to the throne - the young Britannicus. The first dose of poison was too weak - the guy only weakened. Enraged, Nero beat Locusta and forced her to cook poison right in her bedroom. The taster's check was bypassed by poisoning the water to dilute the wine (the taster did not try it). The victim died within hours.
The scale of poisoning was so great that Emperor Trajan forbade the cultivation of aconite, the juice of which was the main component of the poisons of that time. With the transfer of the capital of the empire to Byzantium, the poisonings subsided. The Greeks preferred to blind competitors rather than poison them.
| It's not beer that kills people | ||||
Paracelsus taught that medicine differs from poison only in dose. Aspirin, iodine, caffeine and nicotine are poisonous. For obvious reasons, we do not indicate lethal doses. You can even get poisoned by water if you drink it incredibly much and in a very short time. Most often this happens in the USA at idiotic competitions (who will eat or drink more), in the course of punishing children, during student initiation or drug intoxication. The cause of death is a drop in the level of electrolytes in the blood plasma. Symptoms - fatigue, confusion, nausea, vomiting, convulsions. An adult needs about 2 liters of water per day, but even if you drink more, poisoning will not occur. The "lethal" dose of water is about 10 liters per hour. In the 14th century, the Chinese strategist Chiao Yu proposed filling metal hand grenades with gunpowder mixed with poison to increase the lethal effect. Meanwhile, arsenic * (arsenic oxide, aka white arsenic) came from the East to Europe - the ideal weapon of a medieval killer, dissolving in colorless and odorless water, deadly at a dose of over 60 milligrams and giving symptoms of poisoning that are easily confused with cholera . In those days, it was considered good form to poison people not immediately, but gradually, in small doses, so doctors diagnosed many poisonings as other diseases (up to venereal ones). * Arsenikon, from the Greek "Arsen" - strong, courageous (it was considered a medicine for a long time). The Russian name "arsenic" comes from the custom of poisoning mice with it.
Poorly educated Europeans did not know anything about poisons - except that the easiest way to get poisoned is with pharmacy medicines. Naturally, there were clever businessmen who sold magical amulets against poisoning (it was assumed that jasper or crystal darken when in contact with poison, and “safe” bowls were made from them). Least of all did the Italians spare each other arsenic. The Borgia family was especially distinguished in this field. For example, Pope Alexander VI (in the world Rodrigo de Borgia) received the nickname "Satan's pharmacist." He turned his yard into a nest of debauchery, simultaneously cohabiting with three women (according to other versions, there were much more cohabitants) and, according to rumors, with his own daughter (the same poisoner as her father). The Pope also succeeded in creating poisons, which he generously "treated" ill-wishers. Dad's favorite infernal cocktail was "cantarella" - arsenic, copper salts and phosphorus. In those days, many courtiers could boast: “Today I dine with Borgia,” but few could say, “I dined with Borgia.” In the arsenal of the Borgia family there were ingenious murder weapons. Alexander VI had a key with which he offered his guests to open one of the palace rooms. The key contained a point rubbed with poison. Similarly, the Borgias used poisoned needles to imperceptibly prick a victim in a celebratory crowd. There were also rings with hidden containers pouring poison into the served glass, or with spikes on the back, introducing poison when shaking hands. The death of Alexander VI was ridiculous - he planned to kill three objectionable cardinals, but by mistake he drank the poison himself. The son - Cesare Borgia - diluted the wine with water, so he suffered from the consequences of poisoning for a long time, but remained alive. However, there are other versions that reject the idea of a mistake and develop the idea that the famous hunter eventually became a victim himself. There were poisoners less noble, but more deadly. A certain Tofana from Naples set up the sale of "healing" bottles with the image of St. Nicholas of Baria. 600 people died before the doctors inquired about the contents of the "medicine" and found out that it was a solution of arsenic. In 1589, a certain Giovanni Porta published a practical guide to poisons, recommending that pills of aconite juice, lime, arsenic, bitter almonds, and crushed glass be given to enemies. Non-standard long-term poisonings were carried out by covering coins, letters or saddles with poison (the Spaniards tried to get rid of Queen Elizabeth I in this way). The baton was taken over by Catherine de Medici, who brought the poisonous customs of Spain to France. She had a whole staff of dubious "perfumers" who made perfumes and gloves. The queen of Navarre died from a pair of such gloves (doctors wrote that the poison penetrated "from the gloves into the brain", but modern researchers suspect more prosaic arsenic in food). It got to the point that Henry IV, during his stay in the Louvre, ate only eggs cooked with his own hands and drank water, which he collected from the Seine. Noble poisoners were so unrestrained that the king had to establish a secret court for aristocrats in cases of alchemy, black magic and poisoning. Prohibitions on the free circulation of poisons were issued according to the prevalence of poisoning by country. The first were, of course, the Italians. In 1365, apothecaries in Siena were required to sell arsenic and sublimate only to people they knew. Poison was banned in France in 1662. And in our country such a law was issued only in 1733. It was forbidden to release to private individuals "vitriol and amber oil, strong vodka, arsenic and celibukh *." * "Evomit" containing strychnine. By the 18th century, the need for "countermeasures" had become not just urgent, but desperate. Since ancient times, the diagnosis of poisoning was made by cadaveric changes. If the body of the deceased turned blue (like that of Britannicus, who had to paint over his face before the funeral), his nails fell off (like that of Maria Luisa, the wife of the Spanish king Carlos II) or decomposition, on the contrary, went very slowly, doctors made a conclusion about poisoning. The 19th century brought many surprises to chemists. Investigating poisons, they made the most valuable discoveries one after another. Morphine was isolated from opium in 1803, strychnine in 1818, quinine in 1820, and caffeine in 1826. Further, coniine from hemlock, nicotine from tobacco, and atropine from belladonna were obtained. Scientists have learned to determine the arsenic and mercury in the hair, which gave rise to doubts about the natural causes of Napoleon's death (1821). It would seem that scientific progress will stand in the way of poisoners - however, Paracelsus' formula worked here too. Chemists created new drugs and new poisons. At the end of the 18th century, cyanide was obtained - the favorite poison of characters in spy and detective stories. In the First World War, ricin entered the arena, which later became the poison of the military and special services.
***The time for mass poisonings, fortunately, has passed. The vast majority of mineral and organic poisons are well known to modern toxicologists. Poisoners can no longer operate with impunity, as they did in the arsenic era. For the most part, poisons have become the lot of doctors, military and special services. Poisoning in our days is possible only by accident. But the danger still remains. Progress has brought down on us a whole avalanche of household substances that are “one step away” from poisons. Artificial dyes, insecticides, food additives... Children are especially vulnerable - according to statistics, poisoning is the 4th leading cause of child mortality. Be careful and remember: medicine differs from poison only in dose. |
Here is a list of the most famous poisons that have been used to kill people throughout history.
Hemlock is a genus of highly toxic flowering plants native to Europe and South Africa. The ancient Greeks used it to kill their captives. For an adult, 100 mg is enough. infusion or about 8 hemlock leaves to cause death - your mind is awake, but your body does not react and eventually the respiratory system stops. The most famous case of poisoning is considered to be the one sentenced to death for godlessness in 399 BC. e., the Greek philosopher Socrates, who received a very concentrated infusion of hemlock.
Wrestler or Aconite
Ninth place in the list of the most famous poisons is Wrestler - a genus of perennial poisonous plants growing in wet places along the banks of the rivers of Europe, Asia and North America. The poison of this plant causes asphyxia, which leads to suffocation. Poisoning can occur even after touching the leaves without gloves, as the poison is absorbed very quickly and easily. According to legend, Emperor Claudius was poisoned by the poison of this plant. They also lubricated the bolts for the Chu Ko Nu crossbow, one of the unusual ancient weapons.
Belladonna or Beauty
The name belladonna comes from the Italian word and translates as "beautiful woman". In the old days, this plant was used for cosmetic purposes - Italian women instilled belladonna juice into their eyes, the pupils dilated, and the eyes acquired a special luster. Berries were also rubbed on the cheeks so that they acquired a “natural” blush. It is one of the most poisonous plants in the world. All its parts are toxic and contain atropine, which can cause severe poisoning.
Dimethylmercury is a colorless liquid, one of the strongest neurotoxins. Hit 0.1 ml. this liquid on the skin, is already fatal to humans. Interestingly, the symptoms of poisoning begin to appear after several months, which is already too late for effective treatment. In 1996, inorganic chemist Karen Wetterhahn conducted experiments at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire and spilled one drop of this liquid on her gloved hand - dimethylmercury was absorbed into the skin through latex gloves. Symptoms appeared four months later, and Karen died ten months later.
Tetrodotoxin
Tetrodotoxin is found in two marine creatures, the blue-ringed octopus and the fugu fish. The octopus is the most dangerous because it intentionally injects its venom, killing the prey in minutes. It has enough poison to kill 26 adults within minutes. Bites are very often painless, which is why many realize that they were only bitten when paralysis sets in. On the other hand, puffer fish is deadly only when it is eaten. But if the fish is properly cooked, it is harmless.
Polonium is a radioactive poison and a slow killer. One gram of polonium fumes can kill about 1.5 million people in just a couple of months. The most famous case of poisoning allegedly with polonium-210 was that of Alexander Litvinenko. Polonium was found in his cup of tea - a dose 200 times the average lethal dose. He died three weeks later.
Mercury is a relatively rare element that is a heavy, silvery-white liquid at room temperature. Only vapors and soluble mercury compounds are poisonous, which cause severe poisoning. Metallic mercury does not have a tangible effect on the body. A well-known death from mercury is (presumably) the Austrian composer Amadeus Mozart.
Cyanide is a deadly poison resulting in internal asphyxia. The lethal dose of cyanide for humans is 1.5 mg. per kilogram of body weight. Cyanide was usually sewn into the collar of the shirts of scouts and spies. In addition, in gaseous form, the poison was used in Nazi Germany, for mass murder in gas chambers, during the Holocaust. It is a proven fact that Rasputin was poisoned with several lethal portions of cyanide, but he did not die, but was drowned.
Botulinum toxin is the most powerful poison known to science of organic toxins and substances in general. The poison causes a severe toxic lesion - botulism. Death occurs from hypoxia caused by a violation of the metabolic processes of oxygen, asphyxia of the respiratory tract, paralysis of the respiratory muscles and the heart muscle.
Arsenic has been recognized as the "king of poisons". With arsenic poisoning, symptoms similar to those of cholera (abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea) are observed. Arsenic, like Belladonna (item 8), was used in the old days by women to make their faces pale white. There is an assumption that Napoleon was poisoned with arsenic compounds on the island of St. Helena.
Introduction
Long ago, our distant ancestors noticed that there are substances in nature that are not just inedible, but deadly for both animals and humans - poisons. At first they were used during military operations and hunting - they were smeared with arrowheads and spears. Later, poisons had another area of \u200b\u200bapplication - palace intrigues.
The history of poisons is inextricably linked with the history of the development of society. Poisons were used as "tools" and weapons in the process of hunting wild animals, as well as to eliminate opponents, competitors, enemies. With the development of chemical science and chemical technology and, in parallel with this, the formation of the science of poisons - toxicology - poisons become a formidable weapon, a means of mass destruction of people, chemical warfare agents. The use of chemical warfare agents in the imperialist war in 1914 was their first use on the battlefield. Then - the war in Abyssinia (Ethiopia). The next mass use of poisons was in the gas chambers of fascist monsters, in which thousands and thousands of patriots and prisoners of war from many European countries perished. Apart from tear gases, which are widely used by the police of capitalist states to disperse demonstrations of workers, as a chemical weapon, Vietnam was another "testing ground" for the large-scale use of chemical weapons. It's a landfill. The American military used the dirty war in Vietnam to "field test" the effects of new military poisons. The United States did not sign the well-known Hague Convention on the Prohibition of the Use of Chemical Weapons. US research centers and the chemical industry are filling their arsenals with more and more new chemicals. Such is the history of war poisons.
The study of poisons is a very promising direction today - these substances still frighten people's minds. We must understand more deeply the structure of each poison, and then perhaps it will stop harming humanity and become a cure for some disease. It is the purpose of studying the most famous organic and inorganic poisons that I asked myself in this essay.
History of poisons
The history of poisons dates back to the time of the Ancient World. Even then, people turned their attention to the characteristics of some plants, eating which you experience excruciating pain and sometimes die. Some animals also have such an effect on the human body, from the bite of which a person suffers, and the consequence is his death. In the constant confrontation of people, in the struggle for power and livelihood, man used all possible means. The main one was poison. Poison could be discreetly mixed into food or drink. In addition, any food, if it is not fresh or poorly cooked, can contain toxins that are deadly to human health. The traditional method of killing ancient people was snakes, which were thrown into beds or clothes. The bite of reptiles could bring a quick death. That is why, as soon as the toxic properties of substances, plants and animals began to be revealed, there was an urgent need to create antidotes. Ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian scientists set up numerous experiments in order to find the perfect antidote for poisons. It was assumed that for each poisonous substance there is a specific recipe for an antidote. It was developed on the basis of natural ingredients. Entire collections were created in which one could find a description of poisons, their effects on the body and the existing antidote. Such works were based on numerous developments and experiments set by scientists on people. Often, prisoners or those sentenced to death became experimental subjects. Rules for taking antidotes existed many millennia ago. To have the best effect, it was necessary to take them with food. In addition, drugs that cause vomiting or diarrhea were mixed into the antidote to quickly remove toxins from the human body. The fight against poisons was carried out in the Middle Ages in the New Age. Scientists gradually discovered new properties of substances that made it possible to cleanse the blood or stomach of harmful toxins. Much has changed with the development of the chemical industry and pharmacology in particular. Chemical preparations have become a more versatile tool in the fight against poisons. Modern antidotes are subject to the highest requirements. They should not only remove toxins from the body, but also revive all systems of internal organs that have been damaged.