The concept of information processes and resources. Information processes and their types. Training in the basics of information technology

23.02.2021

Provision of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by a certain circle of persons or transferring information to a certain circle of persons.

Dissemination of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by an indefinite circle of persons or transferring information to an indefinite circle of persons.

Each of the following stages of the information circulation process has its own objective laws. Studying them will allow you to competently organize the work of any information system.

1. In the sources of information, information is created.

In the field of creation (production) of information, an objective law of incomplete use of information operates, which is determined both by the property of redundancy of information and the inability of subjects to fully use it.

From a legal point of view, the creation of information is the generation of information products and resources in the process of creative, industrial and other socially useful activities of a person and citizen, legal entities, bodies and other subjects of the right to information.

Legal regulation is present here in the form of regulatory norms that contribute to the creation of organizational and economic prerequisites for the development and improvement of information production; in the form of guarantees of freedom of creativity, behavior, education, in the form of protection and protection of intellectual property rights, as well as in the form of prohibitions on the production of "harmful" information, the dissemination of which may harm the legitimate interests of other subjects of information relations.

Information collection is the process of obtaining information from the outside world and bringing it to the form standard for this information system. The necessary stages in the information collection system are its perception and transformation.

The perception of information is the process of converting information entering a social, technical system or a living organism from the outside world into a form suitable for further use. Thanks to the perception of information, the system is connected with the external environment (which can be a person, an observed object, a phenomenon or a process, etc.). The perception of information is necessary for any information system, as long as it claims to be of any utility.

The processes of perception of information are influenced by the following factors: the need for information is the need for the individual to receive and use the information received in practical activities; interest in information is, first of all, the isolation of any information from the flow functioning in a given society. Interest in information is characterized by such parameters as depth, breadth, specialization; sociocultural level of the individual. This factor characterizes a person's possession of a certain amount of cultural values.

Modern information systems, created, as a rule, on the basis of a computer, have a more or less (depending on the purpose of the system) developed system of perception as its component. The information perception system can be a rather complex set of software and hardware. Depending on the analyzers (included in the complex of technical means of the perception system), the perception of visual, acoustic and other types of information is organized.

Information transformation is the second stage of information collection, as a result of which information must be presented in a form suitable for its further use. The main forms of information representation in the information system are analogue and digital forms.

The analog form of information representation is associated with such categories of media used in modern information systems as text, video and voice. One of the first ways prehistoric humans communicated was through sound. Sounds denoted emotions such as pleasure, anger, and danger, as well as objects in the environment, including, for example, food, tools, and so on. The sounds took on their meanings according to certain conventions by using them repeatedly under similar circumstances. The combination of parts of sound allowed more complex concepts to be represented, gradually leading to the emergence of speech and, ultimately, to spoken "natural" languages.

In the field of information collection, an objective law of information growth operates - the number of elements involved in the process of ensuring the growth of information in it, q is the coefficient of the level of organization of communication in the system, i.e. communication of its elements.

Indeed, any system can acquire information from the external environment. But each subject of the system should strive to obtain new information for this system, different from that received by all its other subjects. The latter is possible if their actions are well coordinated, if they are informed about the achievements of all other subjects. Information is acquired from the external environment in the process of material activity, in scientific and design developments, thanks to life experience, in the process of communication, in training, etc. It follows that the largest number of elements (subjects or objects) should operate in information-intensive areas of activity.

The law of information growth is called the basic law of cybernetics, informatics and social systems.

As a result of this law in society from 1900 to 1950, the amount of information increased by 8-10 times, until the 80s the amount of information doubled every 5-7 years; in the 1980s, the doubling was already happening every 20 months; in the 90s - every year. This phenomenon is called "information explosion".

The law of information growth predetermines the continuous objective process of increasing the amount of information in nature and society, which is what we observe in reality.

To search for information of interest in the entire array of circulating information, information must be organized. Consider the main means of organizing information.

Cataloging and classification are tried-and-true tools, often grouped under the general heading of indexing, to provide the necessary level of information organization. Both have been in use for as long as libraries have existed, but their importance in the so-called information age has increased significantly with the use of computers.

The purpose of the catalog is to identify all objects in the collection and to group similar objects together. All the great libraries of the ancient world had to have lists and descriptions on clay tablets, in stone, on papyrus, parchment, palm leaves or on bamboo strips. Examples of this can be found in museums around the world.

Thesauri occupy a special place among catalogs. A new use of the term thesaurus, now in widespread use, dates from the early 1950s in connection with the work of N.R. Luhn at IBM, who was looking for a computer process capable of generating a list of authorized terms for indexing scientific literature. The list was to include a cross-reference structure between concept families. The main thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is Thesaurofacet (1969), a highly detailed list of engineering terms developed by Gene Atchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proven to be very useful for both indexing and searching in machine systems.

Thesauri contain subject headings organized into lists that help users find the appropriate heading for a topic (section) of interest, identify related terms used for narrower or broader subject headings. One of the functions of a managed dictionary is to select from a large group of synonyms a single term that most accurately describes a topic.

The next stage is the transfer of information between various elements of the information system. The transfer of information is carried out in various ways: using a courier, sending by mail, delivery by vehicles, remote transmission via communication channels. Remote transmission via communication channels reduces the time of data transmission, but its implementation requires special technical means (optical fiber networks, modems, faxes, etc.). Automatically collecting information, these technical means can transfer it directly to the computer memory for further processing. It is on this that all modern electronic document management systems are built.

The message from the source to the receiver is transmitted in material and energy form - electrical, light, sound and other signals. A person perceives the message with the senses. Information receivers in technical systems are measuring and recording equipment.

The information channel combines biological, social, technical (radio, television) and psychological processes (information perception, memorization, reproduction). Information channels are complex telecommunication systems and physical fields (electromagnetic, radio waves). And, of course, communication channels can introduce various kinds of distortions into the transmitted information. Accordingly, there is a need to develop transmission methods that reduce information distortion. This is the subject of one of the main theorems of the theory of information about the transmission of signals over communication channels in the presence of interference leading to distortion - Shannon's theorem. Let it be necessary to transmit a sequence of symbols that appear with certain probabilities, and there is some probability that the transmitted symbol will be distorted during transmission. The simplest way to reliably restore the original information from the received one is to repeat each transmitted character a large number of times. However, this will lead to a decrease in the information transfer rate, practically reducing it to zero. Shannon's theorem states that there exists a positive number that depends only on the specified probabilities such that at a transmission rate less than or equal to this number, it is possible to recover the original character sequence with a very small error probability. At the same time, at a speed greater than this number, this is no longer possible.

The central stage in the process of information circulation in an information system is information processing. Depending on the general purpose of the system, at this stage, the collected information is systematized, search, logical or other analytical procedures are implemented. For example, a statistical analysis of the collected data is carried out or automatic translation into another language of the entered texts.

Necessary in the process of information circulation in the information system is the stage of information storage. For information to be disseminated widely, repositories external to human memory are needed; the accumulation of human experience, knowledge and learning would be impossible without such a memory, making the appearance of writing absolutely necessary.

During the 20th century, universal electromagnetic means opened up new possibilities for fixing primary analog information. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, magnetic video recording provides a low-cost means to record analog voice and video signals directly and simultaneously.

Magnetic technology has other areas of application for direct recording of analog information, including alphanumeric. Magnetic symbols, barcodes and special marks are printed on checks, forms and forms for subsequent reading by magnetic or optical devices and converting them into digital form. Banks, educational institutions and retailers are completely switching to this technology. Nevertheless, paper and film continue to be the dominant medium for the direct storage of textual and visual information in analog form.

The versatility of modern information systems is associated with their ability to represent information electronically in the form of digital signals and manipulate them automatically at an extremely high speed. Information is stored in a large number of binary (binary) devices, which are the basic components of digital technology. Since these devices are in only one of two states, information is presented in them either as the absence or presence of energy (electrical impulse). These two states of binary devices are conveniently denoted by binary digits - zero (0) and one (1).

In this way, the alphabetic characters of natural language writing can be represented numerically as combinations of zeros (no pulse) and ones (presence of pulse).

The creation of recording media and recording techniques enabled society to begin building repositories of human knowledge. The idea of collecting and organizing written records seems to have originated in the Sumerians about 5,000 years ago; Egyptian writing appeared shortly thereafter. Early collections of Sumerian and Egyptian texts, written in cuneiform on clay tablets and in hieroglyphs on papyri, contain information on legal and economic transactions.

In these and other early collections of documents (for example, Chinese dating back to the Shang Dynasty in the 2nd millennium BC, and Buddhist in India dating back to the 5th century BC), it is difficult to separate the concepts of archive and library.

From the Middle East, the concept of a collection of documents entered the Greco-Roman world. Roman emperors institutionalized census collections as early as the 6th century BC. The Great Library in Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC, is known as the largest collection of papyri containing inventory records, tax and other payments to citizens, merchants and each other. It is, in short, the ancient equivalent of today's administrative information systems.

The academic brilliance of the Islamic world from the eighth to the thirteenth century can be largely attributed to the existence of public and private book libraries. So, Beit Al-Hikm ("House of Wisdom"), founded in 830. in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of issues, and a library of the 10th century. Caliph Al-Hakam in Cordoy (Spain) has more than 400,000 books.

The belated but rapid development of European libraries in the 16th century followed the invention of type printing, which encouraged the growth of the printed matter and publishing industry. Since the beginning of the 17th century, literature has become the most important medium for the dissemination of knowledge. The concept of "primary literature" is used to refer to source information in various printed publications: newspapers, monographs, conference proceedings, educational and business journals, reports, patents, bulletins and information leaflets. The academic journal, the classic medium of scientific communication, first appeared in 1665. Three hundred years later, the number of periodicals in the world was estimated at more than 60,000, reflecting not only the growth in the number of scientists and the expansion of knowledge due to specialization, but also the maturation of the reward system, which encourages scholars to publish.

Within a short time there was a rapid increase in the amount of printed information, which insured any individual from completely absorbing even a tiny fraction of it. Techniques such as tables of contents, summaries, and indexes of various types, which aid in the identification and retrieval of relevant information in primary literature, have been in use since the 16th century and led to the creation of what has been called "secondary literature" in the 19th century. The purpose of secondary literature is to "filter" primary information sources - usually in a particular area - and provide pointers to this literature in the form of reviews, abstracts and indexes. During the past century, systems of subject, national, and international abstracting and indexing have been established that act as gateways to several attributes of primary literature: authors, subject matter, publishers, dates (and languages) of publication, and citations. The professional activity associated with these accessibility tools is called documentation.

Huge arrays of printed materials make it impossible, as well as undesirable, for any institution to acquire and store even a small part of them. Ownership of recorded information has become a matter of public policy, as many countries have established national libraries and archives to manage the organized collection and acquisition of documents. Since these institutions alone cannot keep up with the release of new documents and records, new forms of cooperative planning and sharing of recorded materials are developing, namely public and private, national and regional library networks and consortiums.

The emergence of digital technology in the middle of the 20th century has actively influenced the storage of information accumulated by mankind. Improvements in computer memory, data communications, computer sharing software, and automated text indexing and retrieval techniques fuel the development of computer databases. Electronic applications to bibliographic management in libraries and archives have led to the development of computerized catalogs and to the integration of catalogs into library networks. They also resulted in the introduction of comprehensive automation programs in these institutions.

The explosive development of communication systems after 1990, especially in the academic world, accelerated the emergence of the "virtual library". Publicly oriented information becomes the leading feature of development. Housed in thousands of databases distributed around the world, a growing portion of this vast resource is now available almost instantly via the Internet - the network of computer networks that links global communities of users. Web-based electronic information resources include selected library catalogs, collected works of literature, some abstracting journals, full-text electronic journals, encyclopedias, scholarly data from numerous disciplines, software archives, demographic guides, hundreds of thousands of bulletin board messages, and e-mail.

As a rule, the information systematized and stored in the information system is intended for a certain circle of users. Moreover, not only people, but also other information systems can act as users. Simultaneous provision of the same information to a wide range of users leads to the need for its replication. In the process of replication, identical copies of information are created, which at the next stage should be distributed to the addressees. From a technical point of view, all copies are absolutely identical. However, in the process of solving legal problems, the problem of distinguishing between the original and copies of the document arises. To protect the original document, additional procedures are applied, such as an electronic digital signature.

The dissemination of information is often associated with the need to overcome information barriers. Today, the following information barriers are distinguished in the scientific literature: a large amount of information. The avalanche-like flow of information that has been observed in recent years does not allow a person to perceive it in full; technical barriers. For example, artificial interference that prevents reliable reception of radio and television programs, i.e. distribution of radio, television and other technical signals in the frequency band on which broadcasting is carried out under a license. Technical barriers can also be industrial interference (i.e., artificial interference that occurs during the operation of technical devices in the course of economic activity); barrier of ignorance (ignorance). The consumer does not know that the information he needs actually exists; communication barrier. The consumer knows that the information he needs exists, but he has no way to get it. The reasons here can be different: from lack of communication between specialists, institutions, countries to explicit or implicit unwillingness to widely disseminate information, delay and concealment of information by ministries, departments and other organizations; interlingual and intralingual barriers. The information is available, but written in a language unfamiliar to the consumer. Information may not be perceived due to the inconsistency of terminology and sign systems used by different disciplines.

In the field of information dissemination, an objective law of information redundancy operates. Positive redundancy of information aims to optimize the entire communication process. Positive redundancy is used actively in the learning process, when repeated repetitions of characteristic situations lead to better assimilation by the audience.

Positive redundancy is often used by the legislator as a technique to improve the efficiency of the perception of regulations. Thus, many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are repeated in federal laws and the legislation of the subjects of the Federation.

Negative redundancy disrupts the normal course of the information process. It represents a kind of "noise" or "interference". These are, for example, declarative norms and provisions that are not provided with an implementation mechanism. Not performing the functions of regulation and self-regulation, such laws are negatively redundant. A means of overcoming negative redundancy is the high level of preparation of regulatory legal acts.

Another objective law that operates during the dissemination of information is the law of distortion of information as it moves. This law is associated with the different ability and readiness of subjects to perceive it. That is why, in cases where the reliability and completeness of information is important, the question arises of fixing information on a material carrier and observing certain requirements for the procedure and method of fixing. So, for example, in order for information to have probative value in the course of a trial, it must be documented in compliance with strictly established procedural requirements.

According to the method of distribution, direct and indirect distribution can be distinguished. With direct distribution, the creator of the information product directly affects the consumer (actual communication, the transfer of ideas in the educational environment: lectures, other group activities, conferences, seminars, rallies, theatrical performances, cultural events). Legal regulation here provides for the establishment of prohibitions on the dissemination of confidential and "harmful" information, including false information and slander, and liability for this, as well as legal protection and protection of copyright and related rights.

In case of indirect distribution, there is an intermediary between the creator of information and the consumer - a means of fixing and transmitting information, the presence of which predetermines the mass nature of such information relations. As the historical development of the means and technologies for disseminating information, the mass character of information exchange and the importance of information in society grew, which predetermined a high degree of legal regulation here.

According to the Law on Information in the Russian Federation, the dissemination of information is carried out freely, subject to the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Information disseminated without the use of the mass media must include reliable information about its owner or about another person distributing information, in the form and to the extent that are sufficient to identify such a person.

When using means to disseminate information that allow identifying the recipients of information, including postal items and electronic messages, the person distributing information is obliged to provide the recipient of information with the opportunity to refuse such information.

It is prohibited to disseminate information that is aimed at propaganda of war, inciting national, racial or religious hatred and enmity, as well as other information, the dissemination of which provides for criminal or administrative liability.

. The commonality of information processes in wildlife, technology, society

Receiving and transforming information is a necessary condition for the life of any organism. Even the simplest unicellular organisms constantly perceive and use information, for example, about the temperature and chemical composition of the environment to select the most favorable conditions for existence. Living beings are able not only to perceive information from the environment with the help of the senses, but also to exchange it among themselves. A person also perceives information through the senses, and languages are used to exchange information between people. During the development of human society, there were a lot of such languages. First of all, these are native languages (Russian, Tatar, English, etc.), which are spoken by numerous peoples of the world. The role of language for humanity is exceptionally great. Without it, without the exchange of information between people, the emergence and development of society would be impossible. Information processes are characteristic not only for wildlife, man, society. Mankind has created technical devices - automata, the operation of which is also associated with the processes of receiving, transmitting and storing information. For example, an automatic device called a thermostat receives information about the room temperature and, depending on the temperature regime set by a person, turns on or off heating devices.

There are three types of information processes:

· storage,

· broadcast

· and processing information.

With the help of the senses, people perceive information, comprehend it, and based on their experience, knowledge, intuition, make certain decisions. These decisions translate into real actions that transform the world around us.

Information in society. Man is a social being, in order to communicate with other people, he must exchange information with them. In everyday life, the concept of "information" is used as a synonym for the words: information, communication, state of affairs awareness

Information processes take place not only in human society. Why do leaves fall in autumn, and all vegetation falls asleep during the cold season, and with the advent of spring, leaves and grass reappear? This is all the result of information processes. The cell of any plant perceives changes in the external environment and reacts to them.

genetic information largely determines the structure and development of living organisms and is inherited. Genetic information is stored in the structure of DNA molecules. DNA molecules are made up of four different constituents (nucleotides) that form the genetic alphabet.

Information in cybernetics

In cybernetics (the science of control), the concept of "information" is used to describe control processes in complex dynamic systems (living organisms or technical devices). The vital activity of any organism or the normal functioning of a technical device is associated with control processes, thanks to which the values of its parameters are maintained within the necessary limits. Management processes include receiving, storing, transforming and transmitting information. In any management process, there is always an interaction of two objects - the manager and the managed, which are connected by direct and feedback channels. Control signals are transmitted via the direct communication channel, and information about the state of the controlled object is transmitted via the feedback channel. Consider, as an example, controlling the temperature in a room using an air conditioner. The control object is a person, and the controlled object is an air conditioner. A thermometer can be placed in the room, which informs a person about the temperature in the room (feedback channel). When the temperature in the room rises or falls beyond certain limits, a person turns on the air conditioner (the direct communication channel works). Thus, the temperature in the room is maintained within a certain temperature range. Similarly, you can analyze the work of a person (control object) at a computer (managed object). A person with the help of the senses (sight and hearing) receives information about the state of the computer via a feedback channel using information output devices (monitor, speakers). This information is analyzed by a person who makes decisions about certain control actions that are transmitted to a computer via a direct communication channel using information input devices (keyboard or mouse). The definitions of information processes (IP) are not much less than the definitions of information. The very abundance of such definitions is a convincing evidence of their shortcomings, showing their private nature, the orientation of each of them to a narrow range of tasks. The process, in the most general case, is the course, the flow of a phenomenon, the successive change of its states. Artificially recreated processes have a utilitarian purpose, therefore they are understood as a set of consistent targeted actions (in accordance, for example, with DSTU 2938-94. Information processing systems. Basic concepts. Terms and definitions). The artificial implementation of the process involves the construction of technology, where the sequence of process operations is matched by a sequence of interrelated means for the implementation of these operations (an operation is understood here as a separate elementary (inseparable) action, a separate completed part of the process). For a number of reasons, this article discusses not information technology, but IP. First, when developing a new information technology, you first need to determine exactly what kind of IP this technology will implement. Secondly, since technologies are considered only artificial implementation of processes, then not all processes are implemented in the form of technologies. And, most importantly, thirdly, different technologies can implement the same process using different means. And since the set of means for implementing each operation of the process is always open (in principle, without restrictions), then construct complete classification of technologies that implement even one process is impossible. Moreover, such classifications are always unproductive are not able to give anything essentially new, since they contain combinations of only known means for implementing operations. At the same time, the set of processes consisting of a countable set of operations is also countable, i.e. provided that the set of all possible operations is determined, the construction of a complete classification of processes is a completely solvable problem. To obtain a complete and productive classification that contains not only well-known, but also all possible (imaginable) IP, it is necessary to rely on the invariant properties (attributes) of any IP. The initial prerequisites for finding such attributes. IP serve, firstly, inseparability of information from subject-object relations, and secondly, that the most complete set of IP is implemented in the subject itself(all artificially created IPs only reproduce, duplicate some IPs performed by the subject, it is the subject that sets the programs for the functioning and control of artificial systems). Therefore, to find the attributes that define IP, it is necessary to investigate the subject and, in particular, its information activity.

Concept definition "subject"

Subject usually defined as a source of activity directed at an object, a carrier of subject-practical activity and cognition. At the same time, the subject is usually understood as an individual, although it can also be a social group [3], and a legal entity - a subject of law, in particular - of international law. Any subject is integral, i.e. system, but in order for the system to be a source of activity (subject), it is necessary and sufficient to simultaneously comply with three conditions:

I. The system must be able in its representations to separate itself from the outside world, other subjects (every system is limited, but not every one can set its own boundaries);

II. The system must have its own (unique) inner world, its own (subjective) representations;

III. The system must be able to interact with the world and with other subjects.

These three conditions are the conditions for the existence of any subject, so they determine all of its invariant properties. Without the fulfillment of any of these conditions, it is impossible to fully fulfill the other two and the very existence of the subject as a source of activity. At the same time, any system in which all three conditions are met simultaneously can be a source of activity, therefore, is a subject. The fulfillment of these three conditions leads, first of all, to the fact that the system becomes informationally isolated, the system (subject) forms its own semantic space, the sphere of internal information processes. This is the main invariant property of any subject. The concept of “semantic field”, introduced by V.V. Nalimov, involves the correlation of meanings with the numerical axis - Kantor's linear continuum, which, in fact, is a one-dimensional semantic space.

Semantic space of the subject

The difference between the concept of "semantic space" used here and the similar concept introduced by Osgood will be considered at the end of this section. First, let us turn to the concept of meaning, as it is interpreted by V.V. Nalimov: “What are the meanings, meanings of the word? These are single objects, their properties and relations, classes of objects, properties and relations. The totality of all this is the typology of the World, its general diversity. Each word is associated with a spot in the typology of the World. The blurring of this spot has always been perceived as a defect of the language. Everywhere, whether in science or jurisprudence, we try to outline this spot as sharply as possible, implying discreteness not only of individuals, but also of taxa.… The probabilistic model of language resigns itself to the blurred semantic field of the word. Perhaps this is the capitulation of the language to the complexity of the World, the complexity of its typology, the countless multitude of its taxa. Or maybe it is a reflection of the properties of the typology of the World? Are the taxa themselves discrete, or are they probabilistic in nature? . We find a similar interpretation of meaning in G.L. Melnikov: " Meaning- a mental unit, an abstraction from the field of not communicative, but actually mental, for example, predictive activity, it has only an indirect relation to linguistics, primarily as an object that is served by the means of language in acts of communication, but has an independent existence and functions independent of language ” .

Now let us return to the conditions of existence of the subject and consider how they are reflected in its semantic space. According to the first condition, in the semantic space there is an area of meanings with which the system identifies itself, - region"I", separating myself from all other meanings - areas of "not-I".(According to I.S. Kohn, “The opposition “I - not-I” contains nothing but the assertion of its difference, separation from the surrounding world”). The “I” area contains meanings, one way or another connected with the specifics of the subject, - “ specialized” knowledge, in contrast to the universal, contained in the area of "not-I". Everything contained in the “I” area is significant (actual) for the subject, affects him, i.e. everything to which the subject gives importance, represented in his "I" area. Meanings , that are included in this area, affect or can potentially affect the activity of the subject, on the processes of perception and on all his activities, i.e., in this area, relevant for the subject and updated meanings. Here his needs and desires, claims, goals and values, i.e. everything that concerns being subject. The motivation (but not motivation) of the subject's actions also comes from this area. Therefore, to enter this area, meanings must have the potential to control the perception, activity and all activities of the subject. We lead to the fact that the boundary of this region can be represented as a barrier (difference) of potentials. Since the meanings that are in this area express what the subject identifies itself, it would be natural to call an identification a function that realizes the first condition. According to the second condition, in the semantic space of the subject, the area of mastered, included in the thesaurus of the subject, is allocated, “internal”meanings (the knowledge contained in this area can be called meaningful) in contrast to the rest (untapped, “external”, including alien, contradicting the thesaurus) meanings (in this area - meaningless knowledge). Inside the thesaurus, everything is interconnected and there are no contradictions; it is this area that is a real semantic continuum for the subject, since it is continuous and indivisible. The entry into this area of something new is possible only when it is linked with the entire thesaurus by rethinking, reflecting the contents of this area. This requires some work, therefore, the concept of the boundary of this region as a barrier (difference) of potentials is justified. The need for such work appears only in the event of a new nontrivial situation. Reflection, as a reflection of one's own cognitive attitudes, is precisely the function that implements the second condition, therefore, we will call the meanings in this area reflective(in order to avoid the tautology "meaningful meanings"). This area contains what the subject is sure of (belief system), what he does not doubt, his skills, capabilities, abilities (what he can realize). According to the third condition, in the semantic space of the subject, an area of meanings is allocated, which can be somehow marked, brought into focus, analyzed (treated abstractly and/or piecemeal sequentially), and transferred other subjects (or taken from them), i.e. in this area of meanings, internal and external communication is possible. This area is separated by a boundary from meanings that are inexpressible (yet or already), incommunicable and inaccessible to report and self-report (even attention). Noticed (and even more so transmitted) can only be that (those meanings) for which the subject (or, accordingly, the subjects) has discrete marks - signs that make up the conceptual apparatus of the subject(similar concepts: “conceptual system” |11], “categorical model of the world”). This manifest discreteness, from which the language is born, is a fairly clear basis for the division of the semantic space of the subject. As in the previous cases, the boundary is a barrier (difference) of potentials, since in order to enter this area of new meanings, work must be done to designate them. The designated meanings can be realized(any subject, as well as a person), so the function that delimits the semantic space according to the third condition, it is natural to call consciousness. Note that behind this concept is not the whole psyche, but only the associated With voluntary activity is a part of it. Now it becomes clear that the semantic space of Osgood, where all the concepts that a person operates in a certain way, corresponds in our model only to the realm of the conscious. Osgood's semantic space is built by correlating words with scales, the edge points of which are antonymous language pairs, therefore, the entire content of this space is verbalizable (already by construction). It should be noted that the three main factors identified by Osgood, onto which almost all the original scales contained in the language are projected - rating scales, strengths and activity, correspond well, respectively, with the areas identification, reflection and consciousness our model, remaining, nevertheless, within the realm of the conscious.

Classification of information operations

Thus, in the semantic space of the subject, there are three different barriers of potentials that single out three corresponding mutually intersecting areas of meanings in it. The passage of any of these boundaries in one direction or the other changes the position (and the corresponding potential) of meaning. We call such an action to change the position of meaning in the semantic space an information operation. Since there are three boundaries and they can be overcome either in one direction or in the opposite direction, there are only three pairs (six) of information operations. Information operations can be local or global character. During a local information operation, a part of the subject's semantic space changes its potential so much that it passes through the barrier, i.e. changes the configuration of the boundary section of the corresponding area. A global information operation changes the configuration all the boundaries of a certain area due to a general change in its potential, which is associated with much greater changes in the subject. Information operations that change the boundaries of the identified area represent the axiological aspect of information (operations on the value, significance of information), change subject's value system. This aspect is explored within the framework of a pragmatic approach to information theory, where the main focus is on the value of information. When entering the area of an identified new meaning (local information operation), this meaning is given a value, it becomes significant for the subject. This meaning acquires the potential sufficient to control the activity of the subject. The reverse local information operation is connected with the fact that a certain meaning ceases to be significant for the subject, becomes indifferent, the potential of its meaning falls, it turns out to be outside this area, beyond the barrier. Meaning ceases to be associated with the existence of the subject, loses the ability to influence his perception and activity, falls out of the system of preferences of the subject. The general decrease in the barrier of potentials of this area (global information operation) leads to the fact that its boundaries are expanding, accommodating meanings that were previously considered insufficiently significant. As a result, confrontation softens, a tolerant attitude towards a wider range of phenomena is established. The global information operation, the opposite of the one described, - a general increase in the potential barrier of the identified area - leads to a narrowing of the boundary of this area, to disidentification. At the same time, a significant part of the meanings loses its meaning for the subject, falling out of the boundaries of his area of "I". The remaining area of meanings becomes more and more significant (due to normalization conditions), the confrontational attitude towards the environment increases. Information operations that change the boundaries of the area of reflection represent the semantic aspect of information (operations on the meaning of information, its connectivity), change the subject's representational system. This aspect is investigated within the framework of the semantic approach to information theory, which considers information as the meaning contained in the message for the subject. When entering the area of a reflected new meaning (local information operation), it is linked with the entire thesaurus of the subject (comprehension), it becomes its own, internal, in which the subject is absolutely sure, on which he relies without hesitation, without doubt. Such an entry into the thesaurus of a new meaning occurs through the discovery of one's own understanding which is the establishment of the connection of this meaning with the meanings of the thesaurus of the subject. The reverse information operation is possible when connections with the thesaurus are lost and the meaning becomes isolated, disbelief in it occurs, it is questioned, falls out of the subject's belief system. The general decrease in the potential barrier of the reflexed region leads to a decrease in criticality. The subject begins to believe in what previously seemed doubtful to him, but then there are vast opportunities for understanding the new. The reverse global information operation leads to the fact that meanings with a lower potential of connectivity fall out of the thesaurus and only rigidly connected ones remain. In this case, the criticality and dogmatism of the subject increases, his zone of confidence narrows. Information operations that change the boundaries of the realm of the conscious, represent the syntactic aspect of information (operations with sign information), change the conceptual apparatus of the subject. This aspect is investigated within the framework of the syntactic approach to information theory. The entry of a new meaning into the realm of the conscious (local information operation) occurs due to its designation, those. establishing a correspondence between this meaning and some other or others contained in the realm of the conscious, capable of acting as a label-sign. Such a mark is a sign or a set of signs and makes it possible to notice and keep in mind the meaning corresponding to it, operate with it, remember it and pass it on to others. The process of awareness is the expression of the new by the available means. Thus, meaning becomes represented in the conceptual apparatus of the subject. The reverse information operation is possible when the correspondence between the sign-label and the designated meaning is eliminated or when the sign-label itself becomes inaccessible for use. The potential of the connection of a sign with the meaning can be reduced to values below the barrier of the potentials of the area of awareness, either in the case when one sign denotes too many meanings (aggregation of meanings, folding), or when one meaning is indicated by many different signs . The general lowering of the barrier of the potentials of the conscious area (global information operation) leads to the “expansion” of consciousness at the expense of previously unconscious, insufficiently distinct (“twilight”) meanings. Simultaneously with the expansion of consciousness, this information operation leads to a decrease in the level of volitional control over what is happening, to irrational behavior.

The reverse global information operation - raising the barrier of the potentials of the conscious area - leads to an increase in the distinctness of consciousness and the level of volitional control due to the transfer of insufficiently distinct meanings beyond the boundaries of the conscious area and, thus, narrowing the area of the conscious. At the same time, the rational component of activity increases. Note that actions that change one of the potentials of the meaning, but do not lead to overcoming the boundaries of the corresponding area by this meaning, are an integral part of a certain information operation (micro-operation). The classification of such actions for each type of information operations is the subject of special consideration, although it is usually such actions that are called information operations.

The above classification of information operations has the property of completeness, since it includes all possible types of information transformation. Therefore, any information process can be correctly represented as a sequence of these information operations.

The structure of the semantic space of the subject

So, any subject has its own conceptual apparatus, belief system and preference system, as well as the corresponding functions - consciousness, reflection and self-identification. The combination of these characteristics uniquely determines subject. The relationships between these concepts are most clearly revealed if in the semantic (semantic) space (as an invariant attribute of any subject of the psyche) we consider the structure and content of not only three areas limited (identified) respectively by self-identification, consciousness and reflection, but also zones that are obtained by crossing these areas, - the structure of the semantic space of the subject.

That these three domains of meanings are not identical is clear by definition. Furthermore; as a rule, they are not concentric either (the concentricity of even some of them is a very rare exception). Indeed, not everything that belongs to the area of “I” is realized or reflected, not everything that is realized is reflected or belongs to the area of self-identification, etc. Visually, this can be represented similarly to a Venn diagram (Fig. 1), where each of the regions is depicted as a circle and the centers of these circles do not coincide. The fact that the contours of the regions constantly fluctuate and may never coincide in shape with a circle does not change the essence of the phenomena under consideration in this case, does not affect the correctness of the model and the conclusions drawn. Two more assumptions - the same sizes and the centrally symmetrical arrangement of the circles - allow us to consider the most generalized case without focusing on individual differences.

Rice. 1. The structure of the semantic space of the subject.

As a result of the intersections of the regions, the entire space is divided into 8 zones:

1 (central) - the intersection of all three areas - contains reflexed conscious senses identified with the "I" - one's (internal) conscious opinion about oneself (sensible conscious specialized knowledge). The presence of this zone is sufficient condition existence of the subject. It contains the tasks on which the subject focuses his attention.

2 - the intersection of the “I” area with the area of the conscious, with the exception of the reflexed one - an external (alien) conscious opinion about oneself (unreasonable conscious specialized knowledge). This zone contains problems (something that needs to be solved, but it is not entirely clear how).

3 - the intersection of the "I" area with the area of the reflexed, with the exception of the conscious - one's unconscious opinion about oneself (meaningful unconscious specialized knowledge). This zone contains the subject's automated skill. Problems are solved without the involvement of consciousness, i.e. the process of solving them takes place automatically, out of the sphere of attention. What is said in this connection about the subconscious refers to this area.

4 - the area of "I" with the exception of intersections with the conscious and reflexed - an external unconscious opinion about oneself (meaningless unconscious specialized knowledge). This zone contains motives and needs for the implementation of which the subject does not have ready-made means. They create problem situations.

5 - the intersection of the areas of the conscious and the reflexed, with the exception of the area of \u200b\u200bI - their conscious opinion about the world (sensible conscious universal knowledge), the worldview of the subject (those knowledge about the world in which he is sure). This zone contains the known possibilities of the subject, trivial situations in which it is not necessary for the subject to act.

6 - the area of the conscious, with the exception of intersections with the areas of "I" and reflexed - an external conscious opinion about the world (unreasonable conscious universal knowledge), erudition of the subject.

7 - the area of the reflexed, with the exception of intersections with the areas of "I" and the conscious - one's unconscious opinion about the world (sensible unconscious universal knowledge). This zone contains the hidden possibilities of the subject. What is said about supra- or superconsciousness refers to this zone.

8 - space, external in relation to all three areas - external unconscious opinion about the world (unreasonable unconscious universal knowledge). This is a zone of meanings that are not manifested in any way - a semantic vacuum. This is the real semantic environment of the subject, with which he interacts against his will.

All activity of the subject is reflected in the indicated zones of the semantic space. So, if the subject has unconscious urges or needs, then this means that the corresponding semantic formation has fallen into zone 4 of the semantic space (for example, from zone 8). If in this zone the potential of a given meaning (its significance) increases, then the corresponding need occupies a significant place in the activity of the subject, directing it towards its satisfaction. If the subject's skill (zone 3) contains a ready-made method for satisfying such needs, then this need is satisfied automatically (even without awareness of its existence), its potential decreases and the corresponding meaning leaves zone 3. If the subject's skill does not contain such a method, then the increased potential of this meaning leads to the emergence of a problematic situation in the consciousness, to the awareness of problems, i.e. this meaning falls into zone 2. Here the ability of consciousness to analyze is realized in breaking the problem into parts. Some of these parts are solved automatically, using subconscious experience, therefore they are not noticed by consciousness, others are trivial tasks (solved in zone 1), and the third, perhaps, are non-trivial (creative) tasks. The mechanism for solving problems (as well as the formation of a skill) is considered in detail by the author in the study of the psychology of creativity. This model (graphical interpretation of the structure of the semantic space) is considered in more detail in , where the axes and sectors of the semantic space of the subject are interpreted. According to the author, this graphic image can be an example of what is commonly called cognitive graphics, because the analysis of its structure contributes to the knowledge of the modeled (correlated with this image) reality. Another graphical representation of the structure of the semantic space of the subject can be a Boolean cube (Fig. 2), where three orthogonal axes correspond to the 3 above-mentioned functions, eight vertices - 8 indicated zones, and six unit vectors - 6 possible information operations. It is interesting to note the analogy between the representation of the semantic space in the form of a Boolean cube and the synsemic cube, especially in terms of vectors (vectors of the synsemic cube are a special case of the information operations defined above). However, it is hardly possible to establish a one-to-one mapping of cube vertices due to differences in the object of analysis.

Rice. 2. Representation of the semantic space of the subject in the form of a Boolean cube (see notation in Section 4.1).

A closer analogy to the representation of a semantic space as a Boolean cube can be noted with a commutative cube. G.Ya. Bush used the creative problem space cubic model to represent a typology of all possible science and technology problems. This model is in good agreement with the one presented above, since it is its particular case (the creative space of problem tasks is contained in the semantic space of the subject).

An unambiguous correspondence can be established between the content of the zones of the semantic space and the information given in the classification of types of information, which was obtained from other initial premises.

Classification of information processes

An information process (IP) is a non-zero sequence of information operations. As a result of IP, a certain section of the semantic continuum falls from one zone of the subject's semantic space to another. The sequence of information operations, as a result of which the section of the semantic continuum falls into the same zone ( non-directional IP), should also be considered IP, since as a result of such a process, the structure of the semantic space of the subject changes. Unlike information operations, defined as changing the content regions semantic space of the subject, IP are defined as "changes in the content zones semantic space of the subject (in this case, the nature (local or global) of the corresponding information operations is not taken into account). This change is considered in relation to a certain section of the semantic continuum. those. considered, how a certain semantic formation falls from one zone of the subject's semantic space to another, how it transforms and how the subject itself changes. IP, as a result of which a certain semantic formation falls into the same zone of the subject's semantic space, were named above non-directional. Eight zones of the semantic space of the subject correspond to 8 classes of such IP. IP, as a result of which a certain semantic formation moves through one barrier (the border of the subject's semantic space area) relative to its initial state, we will call unidirectional. There are 24 classes of such IPs (in each of the 8 zones of the subject's semantic space, the meaning can move, overcoming the border of one of the three areas). IP, as a result of which a certain semantic formation moves through two barriers relative to its initial state, we will call bidirectional. There are also 24 classes of such IPs (for a meaning that has moved to any of the 8 zones of the subject's semantic space, the border of one of the three areas has not been crossed). IP, as a result of which a certain semantic formation moves through three barriers relative to its initial state, we will call three-way. There are 8 classes of such IPs (each of the 8 zones of the subject's semantic space has only one "opposite" zone-antipode to which the meaning can move, overcoming the boundaries of all three areas). When describing IP, it is important to know not only the initial and final states (only 64 options are possible, i.e. there are 64 classes of information processes in total), but also the “route” (the sequence of information operations through which a certain semantic formation enters from one zone of the semantic space subject to another). Next, we will consider simple IP - not containing mutually opposite information operations (without regard to their nature: local or global). A simple UI, by definition, cannot be undirected or contain one. IP containing mutually opposite information operations will be called complex and considered as consisting of several simple ones.

Since there are only three boundaries of the regions of the subject's semantic space, simple IPs contain a maximum of three information operations. This means that no more than three information operations are sufficient to move a certain semantic formation from one zone of the subject's semantic space to any other. Simple IP can consist of one, two or three stages. The stages containing two or three simultaneous information operations are called critical, respectively critical we will also name the IS that contain such stages (the routes of such stages do not pass along the edges of the Boolean cube (see Fig. 2), but along the resultant unit vectors). Since, as was said, a simple IP cannot be undirected, none of the 8 classes of non-directional IPs contains simple IPs. Each of the 24 classes of unidirectional UIs contains one simple one. Each of the 24 classes of bidirectional IPs contains 3 simple ones, one of which is critical. Each of the 8 classes of three-way IP contains 13 simple ones, 7 of which are critical. Thus, there are 200 simple PIs in total, 80 of which are critical (120 simple non-critical PIs). Any IP is a reflection of the interaction of the subject with the environment. If the subject interacts not just with an object from the environment, but with another subject (or subjects), then the corresponding IP will be called intersubjective. It consists of interconnected IPs of each of the interacting subjects. If in the process of interaction of subjects in the intersection of their areas of the semantic space a common zone 1 was formed (see clause 4.1), then we can talk about the formation collective subject .

Cognitive Information Processes

In the broadest interpretation, the cognitive information process (CIP) is the process of processing information by a system in which it receives new information, for example, the processes of perception, memory, thinking, studied by cognitive psychology. In terms of our model, these representations mean that any event that leads to an increase in the potential of a section of the semantic space is a CIP. However, not every change in potential leads to overcoming the barrier and is an information process (operation). On the other hand, PIs that lead to a decrease in potential can also be cognitive. For example, the refutation of a representation, opinion or theory is an act of cognition, although it reduces the potential of the corresponding meanings. In a narrower sense, IE is called cognitive for the processing of knowledge, which takes place with the participation of consciousness (at least at separate stages), i.e. contain logical transformations. Examples of such processes can be: decision making, reasoning, understanding, etc., as they are studied in the framework of cognitive linguistics and artificial intelligence. However, the process of cognition is not necessarily associated with awareness. First, not every conscious information is knowledge (even of the information available to consciousness, some part is the knowledge of others, and the subject can operate with them only as data). Secondly, there are non-verbalized and even non-verbalized knowledge (as was shown, for example, by Michael Polanyi).

The concept of “knowledge” is often (for example, in the theory of knowledge representation) associated with the concept of “intension”. “An extension is a set of specific data given in a declarative form. The intension, as a rule, specifies a certain procedure that allows you to determine whether a particular fact belongs to a certain concept. The intension singles out knowledge by separating it from data, which is always given extensionally” . On the other hand, the concept of "intension" is associated with the concept of "meaning". In our model of the semantic space, what is comprehended by the subject is in the field of reflection. This area also contains non-verbalized knowledge. Thus, cognition in our model can be represented as overcoming the boundaries of the area of reflected meanings. Entry into this area of new meanings is possible through one of 16 simple non-critical IPs (4 unidirectional, 8 bidirectional and 4 three-directional). Overcoming the border of this area in the other direction is possible by means of the same number of simple IPs, the reverse of those listed. Therefore, there are only 32 simple non-critical IPs that can be classified as cognitive ones.

Obtaining information is closely related to information processes, so it makes sense to consider their types separately.

Data collection - it is the activity of the subject for the accumulation of data in order to ensure sufficient completeness. When combined with adequate methods, data generates information that can help in decision making. For example, being interested in the price of a product, its consumer properties, we collect information in order to make a decision: to buy or not to buy it.

Data transfer – it is a data exchange process. It is assumed that there is a source of information, a communication channel, a receiver of information, and agreements have been adopted between them on the procedure for exchanging data, these agreements are called exchange protocols. For example, in a normal conversation between two people, an agreement is tacitly accepted not to interrupt each other during a conversation.

Data storage - it is the maintenance of data in a form that is constantly ready for issuance to the consumer. The same data may be required more than once, therefore, a method of storing them (usually on physical media) and methods of accessing them at the request of the consumer are being developed.

Data processing – it is the process of transforming information from its original form to a specific result. The collection, accumulation, storage of information is often not the ultimate goal of the information process. Most often, raw data is used to solve a problem, then it is transformed step by step in accordance with the algorithm for solving the problem until the output data is obtained, which, after analysis by the user, provides the necessary information.

Subject and structure of informatics

Term Informatics became widespread in the mid-1980s. last century. It consists of the root inform - "information" and the suffix matics - "the science of ...". Thus, computer science is the science of information. In English-speaking countries, the term did not take root, computer science is called Computer Science there - the science of computers.

Informatics is a young, very rapidly developing science, therefore, a strict and precise definition of its subject has not yet been formulated. In some sources, computer science is defined as a science that studies algorithms, i.e. procedures that allow for a finite number of steps to transform the initial data into the final result, in others - the study of computer technology is put in the foreground. The most well-established assumptions in the definition of the subject of informatics at present are indications of study of information processes(i.e. collection, storage, processing, transmission of data) using computer technology. With this approach, the most accurate, in our opinion, is the following definition:

It follows from the definition that computer science is an applied science that uses the scientific achievements of many sciences. In addition, computer science is a practical science that not only deals with the descriptive study of these issues, but also in many cases suggests ways to solve them. In this sense, computer science is technological and often merges with information technologies.

Methods implementation of information processes are at the intersection of informatics with information theory, statistics, coding theory, mathematical logic, document management etc. This section explores the questions:

presentation of various types of data (numbers, symbols, text, sound, graphics, video, etc.) in a form convenient for CBT processing (data coding);

data presentation formats (it is assumed that the same data can be represented in different ways);

theoretical problems of data compression;

data structures, i.e. storage methods for easy access to data.

In the study of the composition, structure, principles of functioning of computer equipment, scientific provisions from electronics, automation, cybernetics. In general, this branch of computer science is known as hardware (AO) of information processes. This section explores:

the basics of building elements digital devices;

basic principles of functioning of digital computing devices;

SVT architecture - basic principles of functioning of systems designed for automatic data processing;

computing systems;

devices and devices that make up the hardware configuration computer networks.

In developing management methods means of computer technology (and the means of digital computer technology are controlled programs, indicating the sequence of actions to be performed by the CVT) use scientific provisions from theory of algorithms, logic, graph theory, linguistics, game theory. This branch of computer science is known as software (SW) SVT. This section explores:

means of interaction between hardware and software;

means of human interaction with hardware and software, united by the concept interface;

SVT software (software).

Summarizing what has been said, we can propose the following structural scheme:

	INFORMATICS
	Information processes	Hardware	Software
Theoretical level	Coding theory, information theory, graph theory, set theory, logic, etc.	Electronics, automation, cybernetics, etc.	Theory of algorithms, game theory, linguistics, logic, etc.
Practical level	Data encoding, data formats, data compression, data structures, etc.	Synthesis of digital devices, SVT architecture, devices and devices systems and networks, etc.	Operating systems, auxiliary programs, programming systems, applied software products.

The third component of computer science is software - heterogeneous and has a complex structure, including several levels: systemic, service, instrumental, applied.

At the lowest level, there are software complexes that perform interface functions (intermediary between a person and a computer, hardware and software, between simultaneously running programs), i.e. distribution of various computer resources. Programs at this level are called systemic. Any user programs run under the control of system programs called operating systems.

The next level is service software. Programs of this level are called utilities and perform various auxiliary functions. These can be repair or diagnostic programs used in the maintenance of various devices (floppy and hard disk), test programs representing a set of maintenance programs, archivers, antiviruses, etc. Utilities typically run under the operating system (although they can access hardware directly), so they are considered a higher level. In some classifications, the system and service levels are combined into one class - system software.

Tool software represents a set of programs for creating other programs. The process of creating new programs in the language of machine instructions is very complex and painstaking, so it is low-productive. In practice, most programs are compiled in formal programming languages, which are closer to mathematical, therefore, easier and more productive to work with, and the translation of programs into machine code language is carried out by a computer through tool software. Tool software programs are controlled by system programs, so they belong to a higher level.

Application software- the largest class of programs in terms of volume, these are end-user programs. Application software is also controlled by system programs, and has a higher level.

Summarizing what has been said, we can propose the following software structure.

SOFTWARE

System software

Application software

Tool software

Operating Systems

Drivers

Archivers

Antivirus

Diagnostic programs

Text editors

Spreadsheets

Database management systems (DBMS)

translators

Professional PPO

Code editors

Translators

Debuggers

Rapid Application Development (RAD) systems

The proposed classification of software is largely conditional, since at present the software products of many companies have begun to combine software elements from different classes. For example, the Windows operating system, being a complex of system programs, contains a block of utility programs (defragmentation, disk cleanup check, etc.), as well as a WordPad word processor, a Paint graphics editor, which belong to the class of application programs.

Lecture:

The concept of the information process

information process is an action performed on information to change it.

Types of information processes

Let's try to identify the main types of information processes, some of which have already been touched upon.

Information can be:

receive;

transfer;

process;
encode.

The listed processes are the main ones. It is without them that it is impossible to perform secondary information processes. For example, searching for information is impossible if it has not been previously reproduced and saved. However, the main process, without which no others are possible, is coding.

And now let's look at all the main types of information process in more detail:

Receiving the information. So, the first thing you need to pay attention to when receiving information is the way it is presented, as well as the possibility of reproduction. For example, to hear a saved phone call, you don't need to open it in a photo viewer because the audio track is important to you. In the same way, it is absolutely useless to show the beauty of a picture to a person who cannot see. In order to receive some information, mankind has come up with a large number of devices. For example, how scientists would find cures for diseases if there were no microscope, how journalists could memorize a large amount of information received if there were no voice recorders. In other words, to obtain information, scientists and technicians have invented a large number of devices that are analogous to human feelings, with varying accuracy. In what follows, we will refer to receiving information as input. If we write some message to our interlocutor in a social network, then we want to convey some information to him. However, initially this information is entered using the keyboard (information input tool). In addition to the keyboard, a microphone, a scanner, a mouse are considered to be the means of entering information in a personal computer.

Transfer of information. To transmit some information to the recipient, it is initially encoded, after which it is transmitted through a communication channel using various signals.

Pay attention to the diagram above. It shows that initially the information comes from the source to the encoder, where the information is encoded in a way that perceives this particular channel. After encoding, the information enters the communication channel, through which it passes to the receiver (recipient). However, before getting to the receiver, it must be returned from the code to its original state. This is what the decoder does. If decoding would not have happened, then the information to the recipient, instead of video, pictures, audio or meaningful text, came in the form of a set of characters, numbers and letters. You can see similar information if you open, for example, a picture using a notepad.

To get intelligible information at the output, each communication channel assumes a certain language that allows you to encode and decode. These languages include Morse code, which is still successfully used in emergency situations, as well as Braille. However, encoding on a personal computer takes place in a different way, with the help of a secret cipher.

But very often you can meet information errors due to various interferences. And as a result, if even one character is lost, the entire cipher changes. Interference can be caused by adverse weather conditions, human error, and technical errors in encryption.

Data processing. Processing information means changing it. For example, if you write off some information from a book, then you process it. If the teacher dictates new material, and you write it down, then you also process it. In mathematics lessons, you count examples - from the point of view of computer science, you also process information. If you do this with a calculator, then computer technology is involved in the processing. Encoding information is a special case of its processing.

Data storage. With the help of a certain carrier, information can be stored in order to subsequently process, transmit or receive it. For a person, the brain is considered the carrier of information. However, we know that much that our brain does not remember can be found on other sources. It is important not to know everything, but to know where to find it. The carrier is sites on the Internet, the cloud, flash drives, hard drives, sheets of paper, and so on. The most ancient carriers of information were rock paintings, which to this day have conveyed a large amount of information about ancient settlements.

information process- the process of obtaining, creating, collecting, processing, accumulating, storing, searching, distributing and using information. . People familiar with computer science, of course, know this term, and not only them. It can be argued that information processes are the basis of the life that we know. This article presents the main algorithm of the information process, various forms of its execution.

Information process as a scientific concept

Any actions performed with information are called information processes. The main role here is played by the collection, processing, creation, storage and transmission of information. Throughout its history, mankind has developed these and other processes, as well as related industries. One of the main criteria for the development of society was precisely the improvement of information processes. Art, religion, writing, encryption, typography, copyright, telegraph, radio electronics, computers, the Internet - this is only the main part of mankind's achievements in the field of information.
It should be noted that despite the apparent certainty, the scientific community does not stop arguing about the universality of the very term "information". In particular, "information" is not synonymous with "data", although in colloquial speech this is often the case. "Data" is information interpreted, processed and recorded in an understandable form, a product of the information process. That is, information is a resource, data is the final, processed product that has been processed by the information process. But like any product, data is consumed to produce some result. In its simplest form, you can imagine the following scheme:

SOURCE	INFORMATION	RECEIVER/PROCESSOR	DATA
Star XXX	Light, radio and other waves	Telescope and computer	Temperature, brightness, size, range, etc.
Foreigner	Speaking in an unknown language	Interpreter	Speaking in understandable language

Information processes are inherent in all biological organisms on the planet, from the simplest to humans. But man created computing systems and specific channels of information, which gave rise to a special kind of them - informatics. Despite the unified scheme of the information process algorithm, both in nature and in computer science, they differ quite a lot in their essence. And differences, first of all, in interpretation.
In particular, if you place a person, a dog, a snake, a flower in a room and give a voice signal through the loudspeaker, everyone will have a fundamentally different reaction, which means that from the same information, each processor will give completely different data. In particular, the dog and the snake are both able to hear, but if the dog can somehow understand the commands of a person, then the snake is incapable of this. A flower will not even be able to perceive a sound signal at all, although in principle it is able to receive and process information - some plants can even move after the sun or if they are disturbed. So, the next scheme is the possibility of interpretation:

Basic elements of the information process

information process- these are sequential actions built into an algorithm, performed with information presented in any form (digital / analog data, rumors, theories, facts, observations, etc.) to achieve a certain goal (any). This algorithm consists of a number of steps that may differ significantly in a given situation, but the general concept is as follows:

Main types of information processes

Collection of information. Finding and collecting primary information, extracting it from its "environment". Sometimes, perhaps even without a specific final goal. The information obtained as a result of the collection can be used by various processors for various purposes. So, archaeologists leading excavations collect all the objects they find that seem interesting to them, but only after a thorough analysis they turn into some kind of scientific data, and the result of the analysis may turn out to be completely unexpected, and in addition to fragments of ancient jugs, deposits of useful fossils.

Search for information. Finding more or less specific information on a specific issue with a specific purpose from specific sources. At the same time, the search takes place among information previously collected and possibly processed by someone, and not from the “environment”. For search, various databases (information storage places) are mainly used, for example, a question to the search network “how to cook borscht”.

Data processing. A set of actions aimed at one or another transformation of the original information into a new one. Probably the most important and complex information process. Although sometimes in society it can be difficult to distinguish it from others, for example, from the presentation of information, but the processing of information always has the task of achieving something new from already existing information, in fact, creating a new information object. A writer who writes down his thoughts on paper actually leads the presentation of information, but the processing took place in his brain a little earlier - he created words from his own knowledge, experience and emotions, which he eventually presented in the form of a text.

Presentation of information. Change the original information into a form convenient and relevant for its use in the current situation. Most often found in computer science - in the computer's memory, all information is stored in the form of a binary code, but the user is presented in the form of graphic data and sounds. But a person very often presents information, for example, in the form of compiling card files from disparate documents, translating foreign texts or playing music from notes on paper.

Data storage. Perhaps the most widely used type of information process. One way or another, all biological objects store information, at least in the form of a genome. Storage of information is divided into two main types - long-term and short-term. They are intended, of course, for completely different purposes. Only those actions that should eventually lead to the reuse of the stored information can be suitable for storing information.

Transfer of information. Delivery of information from the source to the consumer without the actual participation of the transmitter in any other parts of the information process. Absolutely any object can act as a transmitter, both biological (a messenger with a dispatch, a dog barking at a stranger in the yard), and any physical media or repeaters (a book, a radio transmitter, a flash card). The transfer of information is not always identical to communications, since here the transmitting object acts only as an instrument.

Data protection. Any action that uses some additional means to protect information from use by another party. Information protection is relevant only in complex information systems with many participants, in view of the fact that it is needed solely to prevent an undesirable element from using some information. In fact, the only way to protect information is encryption of one kind or another. Hiding information would be wrong to call it a way to protect it, since hidden information does not require protection, because it does not participate in any process.
Use of information. The most voluminous information process. Represents informed decision-making in various types of human activity in the broadest sense.

List of sources:

State Standard of the Russian Federation “Information Protection. The procedure for creating protected automated systems” (GOST R 51583-2000 p. 3.1.10).
ISO/IEC/IEEE 24765-2010 Systems and software engineering p 3.704

Information process, concept updated: September 22, 2018 by: Roman Boldyrev

The concept of information processes and resources. Information processes and their types. Training in the basics of information technology

Subject and structure of informatics

Information process as a scientific concept

Basic elements of the information process

Main types of information processes

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