Antarctica natural areas animals and plants. Flora and fauna of Antarctica. Subject: Continents. Antarctica

Antarctica is the most mysterious and least explored continent on our planet. The honor of discovering Antarctica belongs to two brave explorers - F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev. It was their expedition through the waters of the southern seas that confirmed the presence of a huge continent in the south. And it happened only in 1820.

Until now, the southernmost continent of the Earth holds many mysteries. To date, it has been established that Antarctica is the highest continent. The height of the land surface above sea level is on average 2,000 meters, and in the center of the continent it reaches 4,000.

The Transarctic Mountains cross the mainland and divide Antarctica into two parts: western and eastern. Most of the mainland is covered by ice. And only in the western part about 40 thousand square meters. km are ice-free areas. These are sections of the Pacific coast, small dry plains and several mountain peaks, which are called nunataks. Nunataks rise above the ice sheet.

The Antarctic ice sheet is the most extensive on Earth. This is 30 million cubic meters of ice, which is almost 90% of all ice reserves on the planet. In addition, the ice of Antarctica contains the largest supply of fresh water.

The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. In 1983, an absolute minimum was registered here - minus 89.2ºC. In winter, the temperature in Antarctica is kept at around minus 60-75ºC, in summer the thermometer rises to minus 50ºC. And only on the coast a milder climate prevails with an average temperature of 0ºC to minus 20ºC.

Due to the fact that the air temperature never rises above 0 ºC, precipitation in Antarctica is possible only in the form of snow. The fallen snow is compressed under its own weight and forms more and more layers of ice. Rain is extremely rare for this region.

However, there are lakes and rivers in Antarctica. They appear in the summer, and in the winter they again dress in the ice crust. A total of 140 subglacial lakes have been discovered in Antarctica. And of this amount, only one lake is non-freezing - Lake Vostok.

Flora of Antarctica

The flora of Antarctica, due to special climatic conditions, is extremely poor. Most of all there are algae - about 700 species. The coast of the mainland and its plains, free from ice, are covered with mosses and lichens. But there are only two types of flowering plants. These are colobanthus kito and antarctic meadow grass.

(Colobanthus kito)

Colobanthus kito belongs to the clove family. It is a cushion-shaped herbaceous plant with small white and pale yellow flowers. The growth of an adult plant does not exceed 5 cm.

(Meadow Antarctic)

Meadow antarctic belongs to the grass family. It grows only in areas of land that are well lit by the sun. Meadow bushes can grow up to 20 cm. The plant itself tolerates frost very well. Frost does not harm the plant even during flowering.

All plants of Antarctica have successfully adapted to the eternal cold. Their cells contain little water, and all processes are very slow.

Animal world of Antarctica

The peculiarity of the fauna of Antarctica is directly related to its climate. All animals live only where there is vegetation. Despite the severity of climatic conditions, a person was even born in Antarctica (this happened in 1978). And excavations have shown that dinosaurs once lived on this mainland.

(Indigenous people of Antarctica)

Conventionally, all Antarctic animals can be divided into two groups: terrestrial and aquatic, and there are no completely terrestrial animals in Antarctica.

The waters around the mainland are rich in zooplankton, which is the main food for whales and seals, fur seals and penguins. Ice fish also live here - amazing creatures that have adapted to life in icy water.

(Blue whale)

Of the large animals, blue whales most often visit the shores of Antarctica, which are attracted by the abundance of shrimp.

Roundworms and blue-green algae inhabit the fresh waters of the lakes, as well as copepods and daphnia.

(penguins)

The world of birds is represented by penguins, arctic terns and skuas. There are 4 species of penguins in Antarctica. The largest population is the emperor penguins. Petrels also fly to the southern mainland.

(seals)

There are also few mammals. Basically, these are animals that can live on land and in water. Most of all in Antarctica seals. Leopard seals, elephant seals and Rossa also live on the coast. Of the dolphin family, there are only small groups of black-and-white or sand-colored dolphins, known among whalers under the name "sea cows".

(local beach)

There are a lot of people here - so it's invertebrate arthropods. In Antarctica, 67 species of ticks and 4 species of lice were found. There are fleas, lice and the ubiquitous mosquitoes. And wingless jingle-black mosquitoes live only in Antarctica. These are the only endemic insects that can be classified as completely land animals.

Most of the insects and invertebrates were brought to the shores of the southern continent by birds.

General characteristics of the nature of the mainland

Remark 1

Today, everyone is well aware that the coldest continent on the planet is Antarctica, where during the long polar night the surface cools down. In summer, ice and snow reflect $90$% of solar radiation, so the average daily temperature stays at $30$ degrees. The lowest temperature is typical for Vostok station. Here is the cold pole of the Southern Hemisphere with a temperature of $89.2$ degrees. It is much warmer on the coast - about $0$ degrees in summer, and winter frosts are rather moderate - $10$, - $25$ degrees. Cooling is associated with the formation of a baric maximum in the center of the continent. This is an area of ​​high atmospheric pressure, from which constant katabatic winds blow towards the ocean. With distance from the coast in the band $600$-$800$ km they are especially strong. The average annual precipitation on the mainland is $200$ mm, and closer to the center of the mainland, their amount is reduced to a few tens of millimeters. In such climatic conditions, the Antarctic desert formed on the main part of Antarctica, devoid of flora and fauna. Oases can be regarded as centers of life on the icy continent.

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The flora of Antarctica is represented by lower plants - $80$ species of mosses, $800$ species of lichens and microscopic algae. Bacteria were found in the snow near the Pole of Cold. The animal world is connected with the seas washing the mainland, where in summer dozens of bird species nest on the coastal rocks - albatrosses, skua gulls, petrels, penguins. The most characteristic of the mainland are Adélie penguins and large emperor penguins. They can make long transitions deep into the continent. Sperm whales, killer whales, seals, whales are inhabitants of coastal waters that are rich in plankton, especially small crustaceans (krill). Previously, the Antarctic waters were a prey area for cetaceans, pinnipeds, krill, and today, due to severe depletion, many species of animals are taken under protection.

Antarctica itself and parts of other continents adjacent to it stand out as a special floristic kingdom. In the Mesozoic era, there was a major center for the formation of flora. Changed climatic conditions led to its impoverishment and migration to more favorable northern regions.

Vegetable world

The natural features of Antarctica are explained by harsh climatic conditions, and the flora of the continent is extremely poor. Numerous are algae, of which there are about 700 species. The plains and coast of the mainland are covered with mosses and lichens in summer.

But there are $2$ species of flowering plants in this harsh land - colobanthus kito, belonging to the clove family, and Antarctic meadow grass. Colobanthus kito is a herbaceous, low cushion-shaped plant. Its flowers are very small, pale yellow and white. An adult plant has a height of no more than $ 5 $ centimeters and belongs to the family of cereals. Both plants grow only in well-heated rocky soil, despite being adapted to harsh conditions and withstand frost. Their growing season is short.

Blue-green algae, together with bacteria and mosses, cover the bottom of fresh water bodies, forming a dense slimy crust. Algae are among the most ancient plants of Antarctica, the fossilized remains of which were found on the surfaces of minerals. The entire surface of water bodies is covered with these plants in summer, but they can settle even on melted snow. With a large accumulation, they form bright lawns. The illusion of red snowfall is associated with these microscopic algae, when strong gusts of wind tear them off the surface, lift them into the air and mix with snow grains.

Giant algae are found in the Antarctic seas, having a length of $150$-$300$ m. They bear the common name of maktotsitas, which means "large-celled" in translation. Indeed, in comparison with other plants, algae have huge cell sizes. Colonies of these amazing plants form real underwater forests.

The second, most common representative of the flora of Antarctica after algae, are lichens. These plants, which are a symbiosis of fungi and algae, belong to the lowest class. Some representatives of this plant are more than $10$ thousand years old. Managing to grow among the rocks and catching the rare rays of the sun, plants carry out the process of photosynthesis.

The colors of lichens are surprisingly diverse - light green, orange, yellow, nondescript gray and even completely black. Lichens with black pigment are generally rare on the planet, but in Antarctica they are most common. This is explained by the fact that due to the dark color, the plant absorbs the maximum amount of sunlight and heat. The plant clings to the rocks so tightly that it is impossible to scrape it off with your hands, which is why they are called “scale lichens”. Lichens can also be deciduous, growing like miniature bushes. In the conditions of the Antarctic climate, the growth of lichens takes a very long time, because it is inhibited by low temperatures and strong winds.

Remark 2

The poor species composition of the flora of Antarctica is characterized by endemicity due to the long-term isolation of the development of the mainland, as a result of which a few plants have adapted to the eternal cold.

Animal world

The natural features of Antarctica left their mark on the fauna of the mainland, which can only live in those places where there is vegetation. The fauna of the mainland is conditionally divided into $2$ independent groups - aquatic and terrestrial, while it is important to note that there are no animals permanently living on land in Antarctica.

The terrestrial fauna is very poor, there are some worms, primitive crustaceans and wingless insects. In principle, insects do not need wings here - due to constantly blowing strong winds, they simply cannot rise into the air. On island land, scientists have found several species of beetles, spiders, one species of flightless butterfly. Of the birds living on land, the white plover, the pipit, one species of duck that nests on the island of South Georgia are known. The Adélie penguins are indigenous to Antarctica and spend most of their time in the ocean because the water temperature is higher. They come to the surface only for nesting. Males are very sensitive to the choice of a partner. Having chosen a female, the male brings her a pebble, chosen especially for her. By accepting this gift, the female becomes a companion for life. The chicks gather in the “crèche”, where they spend $2$ of a month, and after this period they already independently get their own food. The penguin's daily ration is $2$ kg of food. Penguins are not the only animals on the mainland.

The seas surrounding Antarctica are home to the largest mammals - cetaceans. They are divided into baleen and toothed whales. Baleen whales are especially well studied because they are the main object of whaling. In this subgroup, blue whales, fin whales, humpback whales, real whales stand out. The largest of the whales, the blue whale (vomited), together with the fin whale, is of the greatest commercial importance. They have an average length of $26m, but the longest whale killed in Antarctic waters was $35m.

Large whales typically weigh up to $160 tons and yield $20 tons of pure blubber. The food for these giants are small crustaceans that live in abundance in cold waters. Toothed whales include sperm whales, bottlenose whales, killer whales, which are very dangerous predators. With the help of a sharp dorsal fin, a killer whale can cause a dangerous injury even to a whale. Killer whales hunt in packs and do it successfully and sophisticatedly, attacking fur seals, seals, sperm whales, dolphins, sea lions.

Killer whales have their own approach to each “victim”, for example, when hunting for seals, they use the ledges of the seabed as an ambush. A group dives under an ice floe when hunting for penguins in order to immediately knock several individuals into the water. Large whales are hunted mainly by males, at the same time attacking the prey and preventing it from rising to the surface of the water. By attacking the sperm whale, killer whales, on the contrary, do not allow it to go into the depths of the sea. These animals are characterized by a developed social structure. They have so-called maternal groups, which include a mother with a cub, her adult sons and several more families headed by relatives of the main killer whale. Such a social grouping can include up to $20$ of individuals that are sufficiently attached to each other. Each flock has its own dialect.

It is interesting that killer whales take care of crippled or old relatives, and their relations within the flock are more than friendly.

The most common true seals include the Weddell seal, which can reach $3$ m in length. Its main habitat is a strip of immobile ice. Other species of seals are found on floating ice. These include the crabeater seal and the leopard seal, which has a peculiar spotted skin. Of the seals, the largest is the elephant seal, which has largely been exterminated. On the Antarctic outskirts, there is an eared seal, so named because of its well-defined mane.

The bird world of Antarctica is peculiar. In summer, petrels, gulls, cormorants, albatrosses fly here, with a wingspan of up to $3.5 m.

Remark 3

In Antarctica, the thesis of evolution - "Survival of the fittest" is fully confirmed. For the inhabitants of the mainland, life is a daily struggle with low temperatures, a struggle for the most convenient place to get food. Strong and formidable to their enemies, the animals of Antarctica are caring and friendly in their pack or colony. The animal world of the continent is dangerous and harsh, but magnificent in its own way.

Due to the harshness of the climate, there is no permanent population in Antarctica. However, scientific stations are located there. The temporary population of Antarctica ranges from 4,000 people in summer (about 150 Russians) to 1,000 people in winter (about 100 Russians).

Climate

Antarctica has an extremely harsh cold climate. In East Antarctica, there is an absolute cold pole, where temperatures up to? 89.2 ° C were recorded (the area of ​​the Vostok station).

Another feature of the meteorology of East Antarctica is katabatic (katabatic) winds due to its dome-shaped topography. These stable winds of southerly directions arise on rather steep slopes of the ice sheet due to the cooling of the air layer near the ice surface, the density of the near-surface layer increases and it flows down the slope under the action of gravity. The thickness of the air flow layer is usually 200--300 m; due to the large amount of ice dust carried by the wind, horizontal visibility in such winds is very low. The strength of the katabatic wind is proportional to the steepness of the slope and reaches its greatest strength in coastal areas with a high slope towards the sea. The katabatic winds reach their maximum strength in the Antarctic winter - from April to November they blow almost continuously around the clock, from November to March - at night or when the Sun is low above the horizon. In summer, during the daytime, due to the heating of the near-surface air layer by the sun, katabatic winds near the coast stop.

Despite global warming, over the past 35 years, the temperature in Antarctica has dropped significantly. The air temperature at the surface decreases by 0.7 °C every ten years. The overall decrease in temperature in Antarctica is a mystery to scientists, since most climate change scenarios assume that the polar regions of the planet should be exposed to global warming faster and more intensively. In the 21st century, the process of melting of Antarctica is considered unlikely. Perhaps due to the high amount of precipitation, the Antarctic ice sheet will even increase. However, the melting of Antarctica is possible in the following centuries, especially if humanity fails to slow down the process of global warming in advance.

Inland waters

Due to the fact that not only average annual, but even summer temperatures in most areas, temperatures in Antarctica do not exceed zero degrees, precipitation there falls only in the form of snow (rain is an extremely rare occurrence). It forms an ice cover (snow is compressed under its own weight) with a thickness of more than 1700 m, in some places reaching 4300 m. Up to 90% of the entire fresh water of the Earth is concentrated in the Antarctic ice.

In the 1990s of the 20th century, Russian scientists discovered the ice-free ice-free Vostok Lake, the largest of the Antarctic lakes, with a length of 250 km and a width of 50 m; the lake holds about 5400 thousand km? water.

In January 2006, geophysicists Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the American Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory discovered the second and third largest subglacial lakes, with an area of ​​​​2000 km? and 1600 km? respectively, located at a depth of about 3 km from the surface of the continent. They reported that this could have been done sooner if the data of the Soviet expedition of 1958-1959 had been analyzed more carefully. In addition to these data, satellite data, radar readings and measurements of the force of gravity on the surface of the continent were used.

In total, in 2007, more than 140 subglacial lakes were discovered in Antarctica.

organic world

The biosphere in Antarctica is represented in 4 “arenas of life”: coastal islands and ice, coastal oases on the mainland (for example, the “Banger oasis”), the nunatak arena (Mount Amundsen near Mirny, Mount Nansen on Victoria Land, etc.) and the arena ice sheet.

Plants and animals are most common in the coastal zone. Ground vegetation in ice-free areas exists mainly in the form of various types of mosses and lichens, and does not form a closed cover (Antarctic moss-lichen deserts). Higher plants are represented by only a few species, the most diverse on the northwestern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula (about a dozen species).

Antarctic animals are completely dependent on the coastal ecosystem of the Southern Ocean: due to the scarcity of vegetation, all significant food chains of coastal ecosystems begin in the waters surrounding Antarctica. Antarctic waters are especially rich in zooplankton, primarily krill. Krill directly or indirectly form the basis of the food chain for many species of fish, cetaceans, squid, seals, penguins and other animals; Completely terrestrial mammals are absent in Antarctica; invertebrates are represented by ~70 species of arthropods (insects and arachnids) and soil-dwelling nematodes.

Terrestrial animals include seals (Weddell, crabeaters, leopard and Ross seals, elephant seals) and birds (several petrel species, 2 skua species, Adélie penguins and emperor penguins).

In freshwater lakes of continental coastal oases - "dry valleys" there are oligotrophic ecosystems inhabited by blue-green algae, roundworms, copepods (cyclops) and daphnia, while birds (petrels and skuas) fly here occasionally.

Nunataks are characterized only by bacteria, algae, lichens and heavily oppressed mosses; only skuas following people occasionally fly onto the ice sheet.

There is an assumption about the presence in the subglacial lakes of Antarctica, such as Lake Vostok, of extremely oligotrophic ecosystems, practically isolated from the outside world.

In 1994, scientists reported a rapid increase in the number of plants in the Antarctic, which seems to confirm the hypothesis of global warming on the planet.

The coldest continent, Antarctica, is located at the South Pole of the planet Earth. The long polar night cools the surface of this continent, and in summer the ice and snow reflect 90% of the sunlight. Because of such conditions, the average daily temperature in Antarctica is -30 degrees. The cold pole of the Southern Hemisphere is the Vostok station. This point is characterized by temperatures reaching 89 degrees below zero. The coastal strip of the mainland is much warmer, in summer the temperature fluctuates around 0 degrees, and in winter the temperature rarely drops to -30 degrees.

Due to cooling in the center of Antarctica, a baric maximum has formed, an anticyclone zone with high atmospheric pressure, from where constant winds blow towards the ocean at speeds of up to 320 km / h. Because of such conditions, the world's largest polar desert appeared on the mainland, its area is 13.8 million square meters. km. There are no plants or animals on the territory of this desert, but in rare oases one can meet single representatives of the living world.

Basically, the flora of Antarctica consists of lower plants. About a hundred species of mosses grow on the mainland, almost a thousand varieties of lichens and microscopic algae. Bacteria were found in the snows near Vostok station. Representatives of the fauna of Antarctica live in areas of coastal seas. In summer, petrels, albatrosses, skua gulls and penguins settle on the rocky shores.

Large emperor penguins and Adélie penguins are the brightest representatives of the bird world of Antarctica. They can make long journeys inland. Killer whales, sperm whales, seals and whales live in seas rich in krill and plankton. Once in the waters of Antarctica, they were actively fished, but due to a strong decline in populations, many species are taken under protection.

The formation of flora in the Mesozoic era singled out Antarctica and the adjacent regions of other continents into a special floristic kingdom. After climate change, the nature of Antarctica became impoverished due to the migration of species to more livable areas.

Flora of Antarctica

Due to the harsh climate on the continent, the flora is scarce. In summer, the plains, coastlines and water bodies are covered with lichens, mosses and blue-green algae. Often they with bacteria form a dense mucous crust at the bottom of fresh water bodies, also appearing on the surface of water and melted snow. When combined with strong winds, a natural phenomenon called red snowfall is formed. This happens when gusts of wind lift microscopic algae into the air, tearing them off the surface and mixing them with snow. Also, often the accumulation of algae on the snow forms bright spots.

In the seas of Antarctica, there are algae called maktotsitas, which translates as "large cell". Their length reaches 300 meters. The cells of these algae are huge in comparison with other representatives of the flora. These unusual plants create underwater forests on the seabed.

In second place after algae in the flora of Antarctica, representatives of the lower class of plants, lichens, are the most common. Due to the impossibility of separating them with bare hands from the rocks on which they hold, these lichens are also called "scum". There are also deciduous representatives of lichens, similar to small bushes. The growth of these plants in the climate of Antarctica is slowed down, because it is oppressed by the constant influence of low temperatures and strong winds. Some crustose Antarctic lichens reach the age of 10 thousand years. These plants carry out the process of photosynthesis, growing on bare rocks in the harsh conditions of the cold continent.

Lichens are striking in their color diversity - there are orange, yellow, light green, gray and even the rarest black specimens on the planet, which are not rare for Antarctica. This is because the black pigment allows them to absorb as much sunlight and heat as possible.

On the rocky soils of Antarctica, 2 types of flowering plants grow. The first of these is colobanthus kito, a member of the clove family, a low herbaceous plant with small, pale yellow flowers. The second belongs to the cereal family, its name is the Antarctic meadow grass. The growing season of these plants is short. They are well adapted to the harsh frosts of Antarctica, but nevertheless prefer well-warmed areas.

The scarce flora of Antarctica is due to endemicity - existence in a limited area. Due to the long isolated development of the continent, plant representatives were able to adapt to low temperatures and a harsh climate.

Animal world of the mainland

Representatives of the fauna of Antarctica live only in those areas of the mainland where there is vegetation. Conventionally, Antarctic animals are divided into two groups - aquatic and terrestrial. It is noteworthy that in Antarctica there are no animals that permanently live on land.

A small number of worms live in the soil of the mainland. Also typical for Antarctica are such organisms as primitive crustaceans and insects, which lack wings due to the constant strong wind that prevents them from rising into the air. On some islands, the terrestrial fauna is more diverse - you can find beetles, spiders, and even one species of flightless butterfly.

Representatives of the bird world in Antarctica are peculiar. In summer, the coastal cliffs are inhabited by petrels, gulls, cormorants and albatrosses. The white plover and the seahorse are birds that live directly on land. One species of duck, the yellow-billed pintail, nests on South Georgia Island.

Adélie penguins are characteristic inhabitants of Antarctica. They spend most of the year in the ocean, because the water temperature is higher than the air temperature. When the nesting season comes, Adélie penguins come to land. These birds have an unusual mating ritual. Choosing a partner, the male brings the stone he has chosen especially for her to the female he likes. If the female accepts it, then for life she will become the companion of the male. Chicks spend the first 2 months of life in a kind of community, reminiscent of a bird's "crèche". After this period, young penguins begin to forage on their own. An adult penguin eats 2 kg of food per day.

Also in the seas of Antarctica live representatives of the largest mammals - cetaceans, which are divided into baleen and toothed whales. Baleen whales are better studied because they are the main object for whaling. The blue whale is the largest of the baleen whales and, along with the fin whale, is of great commercial importance. On average, the length of these cetaceans is about 26 m.

Large whales weigh up to 160 tons, and of this weight, 20 tons is pure fat. These mammals feed on a variety of plankton that live in Antarctic waters. Sperm whales, bottlenose whales and killer whales are toothed whales, which are dangerous predators. Killer whales are the most notable of them - they have a sharp dorsal fin, with which they can inflict a mortal wound even on a whale.

Killer whales hunt in packs. Their sophisticated hunting methods allow them to successfully attack even predators such as seals, fur seals and sea lions. Dolphins and sperm whales also fall prey to killer whales. No less remarkable is the approach of killer whales to each one they have chosen for themselves as a meal. They actively use the relief of the seabed to hide before attacking a seal. When hunting for penguins, killer whales dive under an ice floe in a flock, and knock several individuals into the water at once. A whale for killer whales becomes easy prey when a group of males pounce on it from all sides, preventing the victim from rising to the surface of the water. But a flock of killer whales does not allow the sperm whale to go to the saving depth.

It is noteworthy that with such a bloodthirsty nature inside the flocks of killer whales are friendly and caring, sincerely worrying about the crippled and old relatives. These mammals have so-called maternal groups, the leader of which is the main killer whale with a calf and adult sons. The social structure is supplemented by relatives of the main killer whale with their families. In general, in such a group up to 20 individuals, each flock forms its own dialect.

Seals are widespread in Antarctica. One of the most famous is the Weddell seal, whose body length is about 3 m. It mainly lives in the zone of motionless ice. For other species of seals, floating ice is home to crabeater seals and leopard seals, which are distinguished by their spotted skin. The largest representative of the seals is the elephant seal. In the vastness of Antarctica, there is an eared seal, which was so named because of its pronounced mane.

"Survival of the fittest" is the main principle for the inhabitants of Antarctica. Every living creature on the mainland confronts low temperatures every day, they are forced to get food in extreme conditions. Antarctic animals in flocks and colonies take care of each other. For an external enemy, they become a frightening force. The icy world of Antarctica is harsh and dangerous, but it fascinates with its magnificent fauna and peculiar flora.

Antarctica is a continent with extremely low temperatures located in. Almost all of its territory is covered with ice, with the exception of the area in the west. The difficult living conditions annually attract researchers and tourists.

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Basic geographic information

The area of ​​the mainland exceeds 14 million km². The territory is located in the subantarctic and antarctic belt. Antarctica captures all longitudes, and cannot have a western and eastern extreme. There is only the northern extreme point, Cape Sifre.
The continent is washed by the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, as well as the Amundsen, Ross, Weddell and Bellingshausen seas. The water in the Weddell Sea is the cleanest on the planet. Through it you can see representatives and at a depth of up to 70 m.

The coastline is slightly indented, its length exceeds 30 thousand km. The shores are most often high ice cliffs, ice shelves. The Arctic Peninsula is the largest on the mainland. It extends north of the southern border. Other large peninsulas include Hut Point, Mawson's Peninsula, and the Edward VII Peninsula. Alexander I Land, Deception and Clarence are the large islands of Antarctica.

There is no permanent population on the continent due to the harsh climate. The number of scientists and tourists fluctuates depending on the season. 16 countries of the world conduct research on the territory of Antarctica. The region is studied exclusively for peaceful purposes. States are prohibited from declaring part of the land as their territory. The mainland is not divided into time zones and time zones. Scientists are guided by the time of their country.

Relief

Antarctica is located on the plate of the same name. As a result of tectonic faults, most of it has risen. The surface is dissected due to dense ice cover. It is difficult for scientists to study the true relief: in some places, the thickness of the ice reaches several kilometers.

The average height of the continent reaches 2000 m above sea level. The highest site is the Vinson massif, the highest point of which reaches 4892 m above sea level. The Bentley Basin is the lowest point - 2540 m below sea level. The Transarctic Mountains divided the area into West and East Antarctica. In the western part it is more complex, the ridges break through the ice crust. In the east, mountain rises alternate with deep depressions. The Gamburtsev Mountains rest under a layer of ice. The length of the massif is 1300 km, and the highest point is 3390 m. They are comparable in size to the Alps.

Antarctica has both dormant and active volcanoes. Over the past 200 years, two of them have erupted. To the south of all is the active volcano Erebus. Lava ejection was recorded in 2011.

Inland waters

Ice shelves block the way inland. In Antarctica, you can find sheet and mountain glaciers. Their food comes from rainfall. About 2200 km³ is accumulated per year. Ice is consumed due to the breakaway of the coast. 140 lakes were found under the ice. The largest body of water is Lake Vostok, named after the Soviet scientific station. Its depth is 1200 m. Under-ice reservoirs formed a long time ago: melt water flowed into depressions and was covered with a crust of ice.

There are no permanently flowing rivers. The Onyx River, located in the Wright Oasis, stretches for 30 km. It flows for two months a year, and with the onset of frost, it is covered with ice and snow.

Climate

The continent has very cold winters and equally cold summers. The average annual temperature is -60 ° C. Most of the land is located in the Antarctic belt, the Antarctic Peninsula lies in the subantarctic belt. Due to its location inside the Antarctic Circle, in winter there is a round-the-clock polar night, and in summer - a round-the-clock polar day.

The continent is distant from . It receives less heat due to the large tilt of the earth's axis. The ice surface reflects 80% of the light into space. The territory of Antarctica is an icy desert. The amount of snowfall does not exceed ten centimeters per year. Strong winds blow from high mountains. In some areas, their speed is 320 km / h.

Flora and fauna:

Vegetable world

There is no vegetation in the Antarctic desert; it covers the outskirts of the mainland. Mosses, lichens and fungi grow on ice-free land. Unpretentious undersized bushes are found on the Antarctic Peninsula. Their number includes several dozen species. The flowers are faintly colored, because pollination is carried out by the wind, and not by insects.

Animal world

The islands are inhabited by beetles, butterflies and spiders. Plovers, pipits and several species of ducks nest in South Georgia. Life depends on the seas, the waters of which are rich. Animals are represented by pinnipeds and whales: seals, sea leopards, humpback, blue minke. Adélie penguins, emperor penguins and Sclater penguins settle on the northern coast. Flying birds, cormorant, petrel and gull nest on the rocks.

Minerals

The continent has deposits of coal, copper and iron. According to scientists, the volume of oil exceeds the amount of oil in the Arabian Peninsula. Installation of special equipment and mining will cause irreparable damage. In 1991, a protocol was drawn up banning mining until 2048.

Ecological situation

The main problem of Antarctica are ozone holes. The thinning of the protective layer threatens with an excess of ultraviolet radiation. The sun melts the polar ice. Due to global warming, the air is slowly warming up. Animals have to adapt to new conditions of existence.

Scientists leave a huge amount of waste that cannot be disposed of. Vehicles and generators running on gasoline and diesel emit soot into the atmosphere. Mass tourism is practically not controlled.

In 2015, the Antarctic Alliance, consisting of Greenpeace, the International Fund for Animal Welfare and the World Wide Fund for Nature, put forward demands for the protection of Antarctica. It obliges states to protect the flora and fauna on the mainland. The last untouched territory on Earth has every chance to withstand the destructive actions of man.