Dr Rome armor is a weapon of battle. Armament and armor of ancient warriors. The main unit of the army of ancient Rome is the legion.

Trajan, who ruled in Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called "five good emperors." The contemporaries of the emperor would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan "the best ruler" (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words during the accession "to be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan" (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its history.

The equipment of the Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army was harmoniously combined in it with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the Warspot interactive special project.

Helmet

As early as the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic helmet model that had previously existed in Gaul, began to make combat headpieces with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from those applied from above chopping blows, and large cheek-pieces, equipped with chased ornaments. On the front, the dome of the helmet was decorated with chased ornaments in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Lark Legion (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was cutouts for the ears, which were closed on top with bronze lining. Bronze decorations and onlays are also characteristic, which look very effective against the background of the light surface of the helmet's polished iron. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series by the end of the 1st century became the predominant model of the battle headgear in the Roman army. According to his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature that appeared, apparently, during the Dacian wars of Trajan, was an iron cross, which began to reinforce the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible dac scythes.

Plate armor

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliaries infantry and cavalry wear mail or scale armor. But such a division is certainly not true. Contemporary reliefs of the Trajan's Trophy Columns at Adamiklissia depict legionnaires dressed in chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in the frontier forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that the soldiers in these units wore lorica.

The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for the name of the plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st-3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if any, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations near Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Thus its appearance and distribution date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not earlier. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators crupellari, others see it as an oriental development, better adapted to hold the arrows of the Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was distributed in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some separate special units. The degree of distribution of finds of individual parts of the armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no question of the uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of the reliefs of Trajan's Column.

In the absence of real finds, many different hypotheses were put forward about the structure of plate armor. Finally, in 1964, during excavations of the border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved pieces of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as to draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted on the inside of a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of each other and formed an extremely flexible metal coating for the hull. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps, they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. With the help of straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. From above, flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands into the side cutouts and fasten it on your chest, as you fasten a vest.

Plate armor was strong, flexible, light and at the same time very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Bracers

On the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of oriental origin and is a vertical row of plates riveted on the inside to a belt in the full length of the arm. In the Roman army, this type of protective equipment was used quite rarely, however, judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian braids, he ordered to protect the hands of his soldiers with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

Sword

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and with a rather short edge became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportion of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting the enemy, who did not wear protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, whose enemies from now on were the barbarians - Germans and Dacians.

Legionnaires carried a sword in a frame scabbard. On the front side, they were decorated with bronze cut-out plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt was passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. Such a mount provided a secure fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly draw the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.

Dagger

On the left side on the waist belt, the Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated point. The length of the blade could reach 30-35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a frame sheath. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was hung from the belt with a pair of belts passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upwards, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.

Pilum

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionaries carry a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by the archaeological finds, its design has not changed since earlier times.

Some soldiers, who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the shaft of the pilum with spherical lead nozzles, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow inflicted by it. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but among the real archaeological finds have not yet been found.

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Shield

At the end of the 1st century BC, the oval shield, known from the images of the era of the Republic, straightened the upper and lower faces, and by the middle of the century, the side faces also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of an earlier time, continued to be in use.

The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the figures of warriors, were 1 × 0.5 m. These figures are in good agreement with archaeological finds of a later time. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbons, was about 6 mm.

From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. The depicted scenes included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, as well as emblems of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from the blows of enemy swords. In the hand, the shield was held by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the field of the shield, a semicircular cut was made, into which the brush holding the handle was inserted. Outside, the cutout was closed with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.

Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much since previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric about 1.5 × 1.3 m, sewn on the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could lower one of her sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered in folds and girdled with a belt. A high-belted tunic that opened the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, while the lower one was made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most of the soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions dressed in bright white tunics. To decorate tunics, two strips of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Pants

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered trousers an attribute of barbarism. In the cold season, they wore woolen windings on their legs. Short pants to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who had served in the Roman army en masse since the time of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by the foot soldiers of the auxiliary troops, also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.

The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for a long time are depicted wearing narrow and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for these clothes spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short trousers are already worn by all categories of troops.

Tie

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by armor. Another purpose of the tie is clarified by its late name "sudarion", which comes from the Latin sudor - "sweat".

Penula

In inclement weather or in the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. Penula was one of the most common raincoat models. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer dressing. The shape of the penula resembled a half oval, the straight sides of which closed in front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.

On some sculptural images, the incision is missing. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect against the weather, she was supplied with a deep hood. In a civilian lacerne, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed the soldiers to freely operate with their hands without removing their cloak. On frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

Kaligi

The soldier's shoes were heavy boots of the Kaliga. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick bovine leather. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps covering the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided good ventilation to the legs.

The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched with each other. For greater strength, it was nailed from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, while the weight of a pair of caligas reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were located in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that wore out more during the campaign.

According to the observations of modern reenactors, nailed shoes were worn well on dirt roads and in the field, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slid over stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for about 500-1000 km of the march, while every 100 km of the way, 10 percent of the nails had to be changed. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.

Belt

The belt was an important part of the men's clothing of the Romans. Boys wore a belt as a sign of coming of age. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved overlays. For a decorative effect, the lining was sometimes covered with silver and provided with enamel inserts.

Roman belts of the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD had a kind of apron of 4-8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal ornaments. Apparently, this detail performed a purely decorative function and was worn for the sake of the sound effect it created. A dagger was hung from the belt, sometimes a purse with small money. The Romans usually wore a sword on a shoulder harness.

Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on the monuments of the 1st-2nd centuries were often depicted in greaves, the wearing of which was something like a symbol of their rank. Their greaves were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral ornaments. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.

During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from the blows of the Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in the depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in the sculptures and frescoes of a later period. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffener, devoid of any decor. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

Regular army of ancient Rome

The ancient Roman army (Latin exercitus, formerly classis) is the regular army of Ancient Rome, one of the main elements of Roman society and the state, a decisive factor in the development of the power of the ancient Roman state.

During the heyday of ancient Rome, the total number of the army was usually up to 100 thousand people, but could increase to 250-300 thousand people. and more. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, experienced and well-trained command personnel, was distinguished by strict discipline and high military art of generals who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

Infantry - the main branch of the armies of Ancient Rome

The main arm of the army was the infantry. The fleet ensured the actions of the ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, field camps, the ability to make quick transitions over long distances, the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

The main unit of the army of ancient Rome is the legion.

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was the legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniples (infantry) and 10 turmas (cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniples (each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turmas. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical dismemberment of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 B.C. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts (each of which united three maniples). The legion also included wall and throwing vehicles and a convoy. In the 1st century A.D. e. the number of the legion reached approx. 7 thousand people (including approx. 800 horsemen).

Organizational structure of the army of ancient Rome

Almost in all periods existed simultaneously:
contubernia - 8-10 people;
centuria - 80-100 people;
maniple - 120-200 people;
cohort - ok. 960 people in the first and 480 in the rest.

Under the concept of signum, either maniples or centuries were understood.
Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and alas (in the Late Empire they are replaced by wedges - cunei). Irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical strength, as they corresponded with the traditional preferences of the peoples who made them up, for example mauri (Moors). Vexillations were called separate detachments that stood out from any unit, such as a legion. So vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Armament

Under Servius Tullia:
1st class: offensive - gladius, gasta and darts (tela), protective - helmet (galea), shell (lorica), bronze shield (clipeus) and leggings (ocrea);
2nd class - the same, without shell and scutum instead of clipeus;
3rd class - the same, without leggings;
4th class - gasta and peak (verutum).
After Scipio's reform:
offensive - spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis)
After the reform Mary:
offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
protective - iron chain mail (lorica hamata).
Under Augustus:
offensive - dagger (pugio).
At the beginning of the Empire:
protective - Lorica Segmentata shell (Lorica Segmentata), segmented lorica late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use from the 1st c. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the gladiators-croupellari who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail (lorica hamata) also appears during this period—83.234.14.245 03:32, January 25, 2013 (UTC) with double mail coverage on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units.

From the middle of the 1st century:
offensive - "Pompeian" sword, weighted pilums.
Starting from the North:
protective - scaly armor (lorica squamata)

A uniform

In I-II centuries:
paenula (a short woolen dark cloak with a hood).
From the 3rd century:
tunic with long sleeves, sagum (sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military.

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Manipulative tactics

It is practically generally accepted that during the period of their rule, the Etruscans introduced the phalanx among the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and built a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the first was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.
Roughly since the Latin War or earlier, the Romans began to adopt manipulative tactics. According to Livy and Polybius, it was carried out in three-line formation at intervals (hastati, principes and triarii in the rear reserve), with the maniples of the principles opposed to the intervals between the maniples of the hastati.

The legions were located next to each other, although in some battles of the Second Punic War they stood one behind the other.
To fill the too widened intervals when moving over rough terrain, a second line served, individual detachments of which could move into the first line, and if this was not enough, a third line was used. In a collision with the enemy, the small remaining intervals were filled by themselves, due to the freer location of the soldiers for the convenience of using weapons. The use of the second and third lines to bypass the enemy flanks, the Romans began to use at the end of the Second Punic War.

The opinion that the Romans threw pilums during the attack, after which they switched to swords and during the battle they changed the lines of battle formation, was refuted by Delbrück, who showed that it was impossible to change lines during close combat with swords. This was explained by the fact that for a quick and organized retreat of the hastati behind the principles, the maniples should be placed at intervals equal to the width of the front of an individual maniple. At the same time, it would be extremely dangerous to engage in hand-to-hand combat with such intervals in the line, since this would allow the enemy to cover the maniples of the hastati from the flanks, which would lead to an early defeat of the first line. According to Delbrück, in reality, the line was not changed in battle - the intervals between the maniples were small and served only to facilitate maneuvering. However, at the same time, most of the infantry was intended only for plugging gaps in the first line. Later, relying in particular on Caesar's Notes on the Gallic War, the opposite was again proven, although it was recognized that it was not well-coordinated maneuvers of slender units.
On the other hand, even the hastati maniple covered from all sides could not be quickly destroyed, and kept the enemy in place, simply surrounding itself with shields from all sides (the huge shield of the legionnaires, absolutely unsuitable for individual combat, reliably protected it in the ranks and the legionnaire was only vulnerable for piercing blows from above, or for a retaliatory strike), and the enemy who penetrated through the gaps could simply be thrown with darts (tela) of the principles (which apparently were attached to the inside of the shield in the amount of seven pieces), independently climbing into the fire bag and not having no protection from flanking fire. The change of lines could represent a retreat of the hastati during a throwing battle, or a simple advance of the principles forward, with the hastati remaining in place. But the breakthrough of a continuous front, followed by confusion and the massacre of defenseless heavy infantry (English) Russian, who had lost their formation, was much more dangerous and could lead to a general flight (the surrounded maniple simply had nowhere to run).

Cohort tactics

Since about the 80s. BC e. cohort tactics began to be used. The reason for the introduction of a new formation was the need to effectively resist the massive frontal onslaught, used by the union of the Celtic-Germanic tribes. The new tactic supposedly found its first application in the Allied War of 91? 88 BC e. By the time of Caesar, cohort tactics were commonplace.
The cohorts themselves were built in a checkerboard pattern (quincunx), on the battlefield they could be used in particular:
triplex acies - 3 lines of four cohorts in the 1st and three in the 2nd and 3rd at a distance of 150-200 feet (45-65 meters) from each other;
duplex acies - 2 lines, 5 cohorts each;
simplex acies - 1 line from 10 cohorts.

Quincunx

3 cohorts of 360 people. in non-deployed formation with gaps
On the march, usually on enemy territory, they were built in four parallel columns in order to make it easier to rebuild in triplex acies on an alarm signal, or they formed the so-called orbis ("circle"), which facilitated the retreat under intense fire.
Under Caesar, each legion deployed 4 cohorts in the first line, and 3 in the second and third. When the cohorts stood in close formation, the distance separating one cohort from another was equal to the length of the cohort along the front. This gap was destroyed as soon as the ranks of the cohort were deployed for battle. Then the cohort stretched along the front almost twice as compared with the usual system.
The interaction of cohorts, due to the larger size of a separate detachment and the simplification of maneuvering, did not place such high demands on the individual training of each legionnaire.

Evocati

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but re-enlisted in the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, the consul, were called evocati - letters. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class guarding his sleeping quarters; presumably, such guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. Gigin’s evocati Augusti). Usually they were listed in almost every unit, and apparently, if the commander was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with vexillarii, evocati were exempted from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc., and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared with horsemen or even were candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his former evocati to centurion after the end of the civil war, however, in the aggregate, all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. The entire evocati contingent was usually commanded by a separate prefect (praefectus evocatorum).

This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume "Military History" by Razin and the book "On the Seven Hills" by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those involved in the manufacture of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but not always it was iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were also cruel defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier's boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome, there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into ranks. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who possessed property, which was estimated at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5 -mu - 11.500 ass. All the poor were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; a total of 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 centuries of lightly armed and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as convoy servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed foot soldiers and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took over not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from him from the salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased, and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, formation, training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla (1st century BC) came to power.

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law “divide and rule”.

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 cavalry, not counting the 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's line-up.

Consul Mark Claudius changed the order of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) went ahead of the legion in a loose storyu and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.

Hastati (from the Latin "hasta" - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple. Second line. Triaria (third) - 60 people in the maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.

The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the application of the manipulative order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a break in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the place of the maniple from the second line was occupied by the maniple from the third line . During the fight with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort system of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Commanding staff of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right of a soldier for misdemeanors. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus spoke of one centurion, whom the whole army knew under the nickname: “Pass another!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the Triarii gained great influence. They were invited to the military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, pipes, horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which a banner made of a single-color material hung. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (a wolf, an elephant, a horse, a boar…). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has been preserved to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or a bronze one. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In a difficult moment, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies to encourage the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. The standard-bearers were selected from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livius, the banners were a square cloth, laced to a horizontal bar, mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the commissary service is the quaestor, who was in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each centuria had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in the modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave out salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, signal trumpeters.

All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. At the changing of the guard, they blew a fucina trumpet. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.

Training in the Roman army

The training of the fighters of the Roman manipulative legion, first of all, was to learn the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into the general mass. The execution of these maneuvers required more complex training than in the training of a warrior who fought in the phalanx.

The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, reminiscent of the training system for gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like that. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 cavalry.

Fig. 3 - Cohort battle order.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquata, during reconnaissance, without an order from the commander in chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with enthusiasm. However, the consul condemned him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fascia, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's authority over his subordinates. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then they cut off their heads with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor infractions, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced salaries, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.

But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase salaries, rewarded with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award was given by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (falers) depicting the face of a god or a commander. Wreaths (crowns) were the highest insignia. Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden prows of ships, to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege from the city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest award - a triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies were to be killed.

The victor rode in a gilded chariot, robed in purple and embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four white horses. War booty was carried in front of the chariot and prisoners were led. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the victor. There were triumphal songs. Every now and then the cries of “Io!” and "Triumph!" (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurrah!”). The slave standing behind the victor on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and that he should not be conceited.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, joking and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army was said to drag the fortress behind them. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even broken for a short time, it differed from the one-day one by more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army stayed in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called a winter camp; houses and barracks were built instead of tents. By the way, on the site of some Roman tagers, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps… Cities, at the end of which there is “…chester” or “…kastr”, arose on the site of Roman camps. "Castrum" - camp.

The place for the camp was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for cart cattle, fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were set up here; it was here that the court and the gathering of troops took place. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left the legates' tent. On both sides were placed the tents of the tribunes. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the entire camp, the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. There were gates and towers at the ends of the streets. They were equipped with ballistas and catapults. (the same throwing weapon, got its name from a projectile, a ballista, a metal core, a catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on either side. From the camp, the troops could set out on a campaign without hustle and disorder. Each centuria occupied ten tents, maniples twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof and were covered with leather or coarse linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 sq. m. The decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and the cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the tents of the legionnaires. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. An obstacle course was arranged in front of the camp from several countervailing lines and barriers from pointed stakes, wolf pits, trees with pointed branches and woven together, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Greaves have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. Under the emperors they were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. Leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes they were painted.

In the time of Marius the banners were silver, in the time of the empire they were gold. The cloths were multicolored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 - Weapons.

The cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than the infantry. The swords are single-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. Wooden tree. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly coil to coil with a cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the rod were made of soft forged iron, up to iron - of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that stuck into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to drop the shield, as the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 - Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and on top with bull skin. Along the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and strips were placed in a cross through the center of the shield. In the center was placed a pointed plaque (umbon) - the pommel of the shield. Legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal clip, the name of the owner and the number of the centurion or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was pushed into the belt loop and taken by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is an earlier one, the one on the left is a later one. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated in the form of snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. At the top of the Roman helmet was a ring through which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or on the lower back, as a modern helmet is worn.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all the legionnaires began to wear trousers as well. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over the left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be anything except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or go barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus under Brundisium.

Fig 12 - Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, no shields, and the sword was worn on the right side. They had leggings and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had the image of a vine folded into a ring. During the manipulative and cohort construction of the legions, the centurions were on the right flank of the centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all the legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 vols., Moscow, 1987

2. On the seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livius; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartacus. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Library of the Military History Commission - 44, 1989

At the beginning of the Imperial era, around 1 AD, a Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 cavalry. Typically, Roman legions also had an equal number of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from among the populations of the Roman provinces. In contrast, legionnaire recruitment took place exclusively among the citizens of Rome. The legions also accompanied the convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.

Weapon

The equipment of the legionnaires included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attacking weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and a gladius, a short sword.

Pilum

The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which is an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards the enemy's battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of the use of pilums as follows: “... One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since their hands were now so heavy that they could not fight properly, (…) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.

“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”

The sword of the legionnaires, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used for striking at close range. Later, during the heyday of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatu, the long sword, primarily as a club.

Roman shield in action

The scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges for better protection of the body, was used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. In the center of the shield was a cone, and on the opposite side - a handle. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the form of lightnings of Jupiter.

The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were applied to the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.

clothing

The soldiers wore a linen tunic (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic that went down to the knees in front. The legs of the men were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. The wearing of trousers (lat. bracae) was considered alien and inappropriate for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long underpants made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.

Legionnaires' shoes were of high quality and skillful work, mainly heavy sandals with multi-layered soles were used. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could put wool or fur in cold clothes.

Armor

Armor has changed over the years. Different types of armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with the "lorica segmentata" - this was an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates that were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled in one piece and laced up in front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into separate segments for cleaning and repair.

“Legionnaires circa 70 AD.”

From the year 100, scale armor appears, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.

The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached neck and face protection. On both sides of the helmet there was protection for the cheeks. Legionnaires wound a scarf around the neck so that the iron elements of the helmet do not damage the skin.

Helmet of the Centurion

Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached in front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably used mainly as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio”, was attached to the side of the belt.

“Works on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”

Roman Hatchet

Field inventory

In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. The legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for dredging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. In the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick, which was called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the existence of the Empire, part of this inventory was loaded onto wagons in carts and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and bulkiest items of equipment for legionnaires were the so-called "papilio" - leather tents. They were transported on horsebacks along with two millstones for grinding grain.

Centurion gear

As a rule, the centurion had a bright extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd of ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, mail, or scale armor and metal pauldrons, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a double-pleated kilt-like skirt, and metal greaves were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from the left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.