Thermal regime of the atmosphere and the earth's surface. Thermal regime of the earth's surface and atmosphere Average daily temperature variation

22.04.2020

Its value and change on the surface that is directly heated by the sun's rays. When heated, this surface transfers heat (in the long-wave range) both to the underlying layers and to the atmosphere. The surface itself is called active surface.

The maximum value of all elements of the heat balance is observed in the near noon hours. The exception is the maximum heat exchange in the soil, which falls on the morning hours. The maximum amplitudes of the diurnal variation of the heat balance components are observed in summer, and the minimum amplitudes are observed in winter.

In the diurnal course of surface temperature, dry and devoid of vegetation, on a clear day, the maximum occurs after 14 hours, and the minimum is around sunrise. Cloudiness can disrupt the diurnal variation of temperature, causing a shift in the maximum and minimum. Humidity and surface vegetation have a great influence on the course of temperature.

Daily surface temperature maximums can be +80 o C or more. Daily fluctuations reach 40 o. The values of extreme values and temperature amplitudes depend on the latitude of the place, season, cloudiness, thermal properties of the surface, its color, roughness, nature of the vegetation cover, slope orientation (exposure).

The spread of heat from the active surface depends on the composition of the underlying substrate, and will be determined by its heat capacity and thermal conductivity. On the surface of the continents, the underlying substrate is soil, in the oceans (seas) - water.

Soils in general have a lower heat capacity than water and a higher thermal conductivity. Therefore, they heat up and cool down faster than water.

Time is spent on the transfer of heat from layer to layer, and the moments of the onset of maximum and minimum temperature values during the day are delayed by every 10 cm by about 3 hours. The deeper the layer, the less heat it receives and the weaker the temperature fluctuations in it. The amplitude of diurnal temperature fluctuations with depth decreases by 2 times for every 15 cm. At an average depth of about 1 m, the daily fluctuations in soil temperature "fade out". The layer where they stop is called layer of constant daily temperature.

The longer the period of temperature fluctuations, the deeper they spread. Thus, in the middle latitudes, the layer of constant annual temperature is located at a depth of 19–20 m, in high latitudes, at a depth of 25 m, and in tropical latitudes, where annual temperature amplitudes are small, at a depth of 5–10 m. years are delayed by an average of 20-30 days per meter.

The temperature in the layer of constant annual temperature is close to the average annual air temperature above the surface.

Thermal regime of the atmosphere

local temperature

The total temperature change in the fixed
geographic point, depending on individual
changes in the state of the air, and from advection, are called
local (local) change.
Any meteorological station that does not change
its position on the earth's surface,
be considered as such a point.
Meteorological instruments - thermometers and
thermographs, fixedly placed in one or another
place, register exactly local changes
air temperature.
A thermometer on a balloon flying in the wind and,
therefore remaining in the same mass
air, shows individual change
temperature in this mass.

Thermal regime of the atmosphere

Air temperature distribution in
space and its change in time
Thermal state of the atmosphere
defined:
1. Heat exchange with the environment
(with underlying surface, adjacent
air masses and outer space).
2. Adiabatic processes
(associated with changes in air pressure,
especially when moving vertically
3. Advection processes
(the transfer of warm or cold air that affects the temperature in
given point)

Heat exchange

Heat transfer paths
1) Radiation
in absorption
air radiation from the sun and the earth
surfaces.
2) Thermal conductivity.
3) Evaporation or condensation.
4) Formation or melting of ice and snow.

Radiative heat transfer path

1. Direct absorption
there is little solar radiation in the troposphere;
it can cause an increase
air temperature by just
about 0.5° per day.
2. Somewhat more important is
loss of heat from the air
longwave radiation.

B = S + D + Ea – Rk – Rd – Ez, kW/m2
where
S - direct solar radiation on
horizontal surface;
D - scattered solar radiation on
horizontal surface;
Ea is the counter radiation of the atmosphere;
Rk and Rd - reflected from the underlying surface
short and long wave radiation;
Ez - long-wave radiation of the underlying
surfaces.

Radiation balance of the underlying surface

B = S + D + Ea– Rk – Rd – Ez, kW/m2
Pay attention to:
Q = S + D This is the total radiation;
Rd is a very small value and is usually not
take into account;
Rk =Q *Ak, where A is the albedo of the surface;
Eef \u003d Ez - Ea
We get:
B \u003d Q (1 - Ak) - Eef

Thermal balance of the underlying surface

B \u003d Lt-f * Mp + Lzh-g * Mk + Qa + Qp-p
where Lt-zh and Lzh-g - specific heat of fusion
and vaporization (condensation), respectively;
Mn and Mk are the masses of water involved in
corresponding phase transitions;
Qa and Qp-p - heat flux into the atmosphere and through
underlying surface to underlying layers
soil or water.

surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying

The underlying surface is
ground surface (soil, water, snow and
etc.), interacting with the atmosphere
in the process of heat and moisture exchange.
The active layer is the layer of soil (including
vegetation and snow cover) or water,
participating in heat exchange with the environment,
to the depth of which the daily and
annual temperature fluctuations.

10. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
In the soil, solar radiation, penetrating
to a depth of tenths of a mm,
converted into heat, which
transmitted to the underlying layers
molecular thermal conductivity.
In water, solar radiation penetrates
depths up to tens of meters, and the transfer
heat to the underlying layers occurs in
turbulent
mixing, thermal
convection and evaporation

11. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
Daily temperature fluctuations
apply:
in water - up to tens of meters,
in the soil - less than a meter
Annual temperature fluctuations
apply:
in water - up to hundreds of meters,
in the soil - 10-20 meters

12. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
The heat that comes to the surface of the water during the day and summer penetrates
to a considerable depth and heats a large water column.
The temperature of the upper layer and the very surface of the water
it rises little.
In the soil, the incoming heat is distributed in a thin upper
layer, which thus becomes very hot.
At night and in winter, water loses heat from the surface layer, but
instead of it comes the accumulated heat from the underlying layers.
Therefore, the temperature at the surface of the water decreases
slowly.
On the surface of the soil, the temperature drops when heat is released
fast:
heat accumulated in a thin upper layer quickly leaves it
without replenishment from below.

13. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
During the day and summer, the temperature on the soil surface is higher than the temperature on
water surface; lower at night and in winter.
The daily and annual fluctuations in temperature on the soil surface are greater,
moreover, much more than on the surface of the water.
During the warm season, the water basin accumulates in a fairly thick layer
water, a large amount of heat, which gives off to the atmosphere in a cold
season.
The soil during the warm season gives off most of the heat at night,
which receives during the day, and accumulates little of it by winter.
In the middle latitudes, during the warm half of the year, 1.5-3
kcal of heat per square centimeter of surface.
In cold weather, the soil gives off this heat to the atmosphere. Value ±1.5-3
kcal/cm2 per year is the annual heat cycle of the soil.
Under the influence of snow cover and vegetation in summer, the annual
soil heat circulation decreases; for example, near Leningrad by 30%.
In the tropics, the annual heat turnover is less than in temperate latitudes, since
there are less annual differences in the influx of solar radiation.

14. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
The annual heat turnover of large reservoirs is about 20
times more than the annual heat turnover
soil.
The Baltic Sea gives off air in cold weather 52
kcal / cm2 and accumulates the same amount in the warm season.
Annual heat turnover of the Black Sea ±48 kcal/cm2,
As a result of these differences, the air temperature above
lower by sea in summer and higher in winter than over land.

15. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

The temperature regime of the underlying
surface and active layer
The land heats up quickly and
cools down.
The water heats up slowly and slowly
cools down
(specific heat capacity of water in
3-4 times more soil)
Vegetation reduces the amplitude
diurnal temperature fluctuations
soil surface.
The snow cover protects the soil from
intense heat loss (in winter, the soil
freezes less)

16.

key role in creating
temperature regime of the troposphere
heat exchange plays
air with the earth's surface
by conduction

17. Processes affecting the heat transfer of the atmosphere

Processes affecting heat transfer
atmosphere
1).Turbulence
(mixing
air with disordered
chaotic movement).
2).Thermal
convection
(air transport in vertical
direction that occurs when
heating of the underlying layer)

18. Changes in air temperature

Changes in air temperature
1).
Periodic
2). Non-periodic
Non-periodic changes
air temperature
Associated with advection of air masses
from other parts of the earth
Such changes are frequent and significant in
temperate latitudes,
they are associated with cyclonic
activities, in small
scales - with local winds.

19. Periodic changes in air temperature

Daily and annual temperature changes are
periodic character.
Diurnal Changes
The air temperature changes in
daily course following the temperature
earth's surface, from which
air is heated

20. Daily temperature variation

Daily temperature variation
Multi-annual diurnal curves
temperatures are smooth curves,
similar to sinusoids.
In climatology, it is considered
diurnal change in air temperature,
averaged over many years.

21. on the soil surface (1) and in the air at a height of 2m (2). Moscow (MSU)

The average diurnal temperature variation at the surface
soil (1) and
in the air at a height of 2m (2). Moscow (MGU)

22. Average daily temperature variation

Average daily temperature variation
The temperature on the soil surface has a diurnal variation.
Its minimum is observed approximately half an hour after
sunrise.
By this time, the radiation balance of the soil surface
becomes equal to zero - heat transfer from the upper layer
soil effective radiation is balanced
increased influx of total radiation.
The non-radiative heat exchange at this time is negligible.

23. Average daily temperature variation

Average daily temperature variation
The temperature on the soil surface rises up to 13-14 hours,
when it reaches its maximum in the daily course.
After that, the temperature starts to drop.
The radiation balance in the afternoon hours, however,
remains positive; but
heat transfer in the daytime from the top layer of soil to
atmosphere occurs not only through effective
radiation, but also through increased thermal conductivity, and
also with increased evaporation of water.
The transfer of heat into the depth of the soil also continues.
Therefore, the temperature on the surface of the soil and falls
from 13-14 hours to the morning low.

24. 25. Soil surface temperature

The maximum temperatures at the soil surface are usually higher
than in the air at the height of the meteorological booth. This is clear:
during the day, solar radiation primarily heats the soil, and already
it heats up the air.
In the Moscow region in the summer on the surface of bare soil
temperatures up to + 55 ° are observed, and in deserts - even up to + 80 °.
Nighttime temperature minima, on the contrary, occur at
the soil surface is lower than in the air,
since, first of all, the soil is cooled by effective
radiation, and already from it the air is cooled.
In winter in the Moscow region, night temperatures on the surface (at this time
covered with snow) can fall below -50 °, in summer (except July) - to zero. On the
snow surface in the interior of Antarctica, even the average
the monthly temperature in June is about -70°, and in some cases it can
fall to -90°.

26. Daily temperature range

Daily temperature range
This is the difference between the maximum
and daily minimum temperature.
Daily temperature range
air changes:
by the seasons of the year,
by latitude
depending on the nature
underlying surface,
depending on the terrain.

27. Changes in the daily temperature amplitude (Asut)

Changes

1. In winter, Asut is less than in summer
2. With increasing latitude, A day. decreasing:
at latitude 20 - 30°
on land A days = 12 ° С
at a latitude of 60° A day. = 6°C
3. Open spaces
are characterized by a greater A day. :
for steppes and deserts medium
Asut \u003d 15-20 ° С (up to 30 ° С),

28. Changes in the daily temperature amplitude (Asut)

Changes
daily temperature amplitude (Asut)
4. Proximity of water basins
reduces A day.
5.On convex landforms
(tops and slopes of mountains) A day. smaller,
than on the plain
6. In concave landforms
(hollows, valleys, ravines, etc. And more days.

29. Influence of soil cover on soil surface temperature

Vegetation cover reduces soil cooling at night.
Night radiation occurs mainly with
the surface of the vegetation itself, which will be the most
cool.
The soil under vegetation retains a higher
temperature.
However, during the day, vegetation prevents radiation
heating the soil.
Daily temperature range under vegetation,
thus reduced, and the average daily temperature
lowered.
So, vegetation cover generally cools the soil.
In the Leningrad Region, the soil surface under field
crops may be 15° colder during the daytime than
fallow soil. On average, it is colder per day
exposed soil by 6°, and even at a depth of 5-10 cm remains
a difference of 3-4°.

30. Influence of soil cover on soil surface temperature

Snow cover protects the soil in winter from excessive heat loss.
Radiation comes from the surface of the snow cover itself, and the soil under it
stays warmer than bare soil. At the same time, the daily amplitude
temperatures on the soil surface under the snow drops sharply.
In the middle zone of the European territory of Russia with a snow cover of height
40-50 cm, the temperature of the soil surface under it is 6-7 ° higher than
the temperature of the bare soil, and 10° higher than the temperature on
the surface of the snow cover itself.
Winter soil freezing under snow reaches depths of about 40 cm, and without
snow can extend to depths of more than 100 cm.
So, the vegetation cover in summer reduces the temperature on the soil surface, and
snow cover in winter, on the contrary, increases it.
The combined effect of vegetation cover in summer and snow cover in winter reduces
annual amplitude of temperature on the soil surface; this reduction is
about 10° compared to bare soil.

31. Distribution of heat deep into the soil

The greater the density and moisture content of the soil, the
the better it conducts heat, the faster
spread deeper and deeper
temperature fluctuations penetrate.
Regardless of soil type, the oscillation period
temperature does not change with depth.
This means that not only on the surface, but also on
depths remains a daily course with a period of 24
hours between each two consecutive
highs or lows
and an annual course with a period of 12 months.

32. Distribution of heat deep into the soil

The oscillation amplitudes decrease with depth.
Increasing depth in arithmetic progression
leads to a progressive decrease in amplitude
geometric.
So, if on the surface the daily amplitude is 30°, and
at a depth of 20 cm 5 °, then at a depth of 40 cm it will be narrower
less than 1°.
At some relatively shallow depth, the daily
amplitude decreases so much that it becomes
practically equal to zero.
At this depth (about 70-100 cm, in different cases
different) begins a layer of constant daily
temperature.

33. Daily variation of temperature in the soil at different depths from 1 to 80 cm. Pavlovsk, May.

34. Annual temperature fluctuations

The amplitude of annual temperature fluctuations decreases from
depth.
However, annual fluctuations extend to a larger
depth, which is quite understandable: for their distribution
there is more time.
The amplitudes of annual fluctuations decrease almost to
zero at a depth of about 30 m in polar latitudes,
about 15-20 m in middle latitudes,
about 10 m in the tropics
(where and on the soil surface the annual amplitudes are smaller,
than in mid-latitudes).
At these depths begins, a layer of constant annual
temperature.

35.

The timing of the maximum and minimum temperatures
both in the daily and in the annual course they lag with depth
in proportion to her.
This is understandable, since it takes time for the heat to spread through
depth.
Daily extremes for every 10 cm of depth are delayed by
2.5-3.5 hours.
This means that at a depth of, for example, 50 cm, the daily maximum
seen after midnight.
Annual highs and lows are 20-30 days late by
every meter of depth.
So, in Kaliningrad at a depth of 5 m, the minimum temperature
observed not in January, as on the soil surface, but in May,
maximum - not in July, but in October

36. Annual variation of temperature in the soil at different depths from 3 to 753 cm in Kaliningrad.

37. Temperature distribution in the soil vertically in different seasons

In summer, the temperature drops from the soil surface to the depth.
Grows in winter.
In the spring, it first grows, and then decreases.
In autumn, it first decreases and then grows.
Changes in temperature in the soil with depth during the day or year can be represented with
using an isopleth chart.
The x-axis represents time in hours or months of the year.
The y-axis is the depth in the soil.
Each point on the graph corresponds to a certain time and a certain depth. On the
graph plots average temperatures at different depths at different hours or
months.
After drawing isolines connecting points with equal temperatures,
for example, every degree or every 2 degrees, we get a family
thermal isopleth.
According to this graph, you can determine the temperature value for any moment of the day.
or day of the year and for any depth within the graph.

38. Isopleths of the annual temperature variation in the soil in Tbilisi

Isoplets of the annual temperature variation in the soil in
Tbilisi

39. Daily and annual course of temperature on the surface of reservoirs and in the upper layers of water

Heating and cooling spreads in water bodies for more than
thick layer than in the soil, and in addition having a greater
heat capacity than soil.
As a result of this change in temperature at the surface of the water
very small.
Their amplitude is of the order of tenths of a degree: about 0.1-
0.2° in temperate latitudes,
about 0.5° in the tropics.
In the southern seas of the USSR, the daily temperature amplitude is greater:
1-2°;
on the surface of large lakes in temperate latitudes even more:
2-5°.
Diurnal fluctuations in ocean surface water temperature
have a maximum of about 15-16 hours and a minimum after 2-3 hours
after sunrise.

Fig. 40. Daily temperature variation at the sea surface (solid curve) and at a height of 6 m in the air (dashed curve) in a tropical

Atlantic

41. Daily and annual course of temperature on the surface of reservoirs and in the upper layers of water

Annual amplitude of surface temperature fluctuations
ocean much more than the daily.
But it is less than the annual amplitude on the soil surface.
In the tropics, it is about 2-3 °, at 40 ° N. sh. about 10 °, and at 40 ° S.
sh. around 5°.
On inland seas and deep-sea lakes,
significantly large annual amplitudes - up to 20° or more.
Both daily and annual fluctuations propagate in water
(also, of course, belatedly) to greater depths than in soil.
Daily fluctuations are found in the sea at depths up to 15
20 m and more, and annual - up to 150-400 m.

42. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

Air temperature changes daily
following the temperature of the earth's surface.
As the air is heated and cooled by
the earth's surface, the amplitude of the diurnal variation
the temperature in the meteorological booth is lower,
than on the soil surface, on average about
by one third.

43. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

An increase in air temperature begins with an increase in
soil temperature (15 minutes later) in the morning,
after sunrise. At 13-14 hours the soil temperature,
starts to drop.
At 14-15 hours it equalizes with the air temperature;
From now on, with a further drop in temperature
the soil starts to drop and the air temperature.
Thus, the minimum in the daily course of temperature
air at the earth's surface falls on time
shortly after sunrise,
and a maximum of 14-15 hours.

44. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

The daily course of air temperature is quite correct
manifests itself only in stable clear weather.
It seems even more logical on average from a large
number of observations: long-term diurnal curves
temperature - smooth curves, similar to sinusoids.
But on some days, the diurnal variation of air temperature can
be very wrong.
It depends on changes in cloudiness that change the radiative
conditions on the earth's surface, as well as from advection, i.e. from
inflow of air masses with a different temperature.
As a result of these reasons, the temperature minimum may shift
even during the daytime, and a maximum - at night.
The diurnal variation of temperature may disappear altogether or the curve
diurnal change will take a complex and irregular form.

45. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

The regular diurnal course is overlapped or masked
non-periodic temperature changes.
For example, in Helsinki in January there are 24%
the probability that the daily temperature maximum
be between midnight and one in the morning, and
only 13% chance that it will fall on
time interval from 12 to 14 hours.
Even in the tropics, where non-periodic temperature changes are weaker than in temperate latitudes, the maximum
temperatures are in the afternoon
only in 50% of all cases.

46. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

In climatology, the diurnal variation is usually considered
air temperature averaged over a long period.
In such an average daily course, non-periodic changes
temperatures that fall more or less evenly across
all hours of the day cancel each other out.
As a result, the long-term diurnal variation curve has
simple character close to sinusoidal.
For example, consider the daily variation of air temperature in
Moscow in January and July, calculated by multi-year
data.
The long-term average temperature was calculated for each hour
January or July days, and then according to the obtained average
hourly values were constructed long-term curves
daily course for January and July.

47. Daily course of air temperature in Moscow in January and July. The figures indicate the average monthly temperatures of January and July.

48. Daily changes in the amplitude of air temperature

The daily amplitude of air temperature varies by season,
latitude, as well as depending on the nature of the soil and
terrain.
In winter, it is less than in summer, as well as the amplitude
underlying surface temperature.
With increasing latitude, the daily temperature amplitude
air decreases as the midday height of the sun decreases
over the horizon.
Under latitudes of 20-30 ° on land, the annual average daily
temperature amplitude about 12°,
under latitude 60° about 6°,
under latitude 70° only 3°.
In the highest latitudes where the sun does not rise or
comes many days in a row, regular daily course
no temperature at all.

49. Influence of the nature of the soil and soil cover

The greater the diurnal range of temperature itself
soil surface, the greater the daily amplitude
air temperature above it.
In the steppes and deserts, the average daily amplitude
reaches 15-20°, sometimes 30°.
It is smaller above the abundant vegetation cover.
The proximity of water sources also affects the diurnal amplitude.
basins: in coastal areas it is lowered.

50. Relief influence

On convex landforms (on the peaks and on
slopes of mountains and hills) daily temperature range
air is reduced in comparison with the flat terrain.
In concave landforms (in valleys, ravines and hollows)
increased.
The reason is that on convex landforms
air has a reduced area of contact with
underlying surface and is quickly removed from it, being replaced
new masses of air.
In concave landforms, the air heats up more strongly from
surface and stagnates more during the daytime, and at night
cools more strongly and flows down the slopes. But in narrow
gorges, where both the influx of radiation and effective radiation
reduced, diurnal amplitudes are less than in wide
valleys

51. Influence of the seas and oceans

Small diurnal temperature amplitudes on the surface
seas also have small diurnal amplitudes
air temperature over the sea.
However, these latter are still higher than the daily
amplitudes on the sea surface itself.
Diurnal amplitudes on the surface of the open ocean
measured only in tenths of a degree;
but in the lower layer of air above the ocean they reach 1 -
1.5°),
and more over inland seas.
The temperature amplitudes in the air are increased because
they are influenced by the advection of air masses.
Direct absorption also plays a role.
solar radiation by the lower layers of air during the day and
radiation from them at night.

52. Change in daily temperature amplitude with height

Daily temperature fluctuations in the atmosphere extend to
a more powerful layer than the diurnal fluctuations in the ocean.
At an altitude of 300 m above land, the amplitude of the daily temperature variation
about 50% of the amplitude at the earth's surface, and the extreme values
temperatures come 1.5-2 hours later.
At an altitude of 1 km, the daily temperature range over land is 1-2°,
at a height of 2-5 km 0.5-1 °, and the daytime maximum shifts to
evening.
Over the sea, the daily temperature amplitude slightly increases with
high in the lower kilometers, but still remains small.
Small diurnal temperature fluctuations are detected even
in the upper troposphere and in the lower stratosphere.
But there they are already determined by the processes of absorption and emission
radiation by air, and not by the influences of the earth's surface.

53. The influence of the terrain

In the mountains, where the influence of the underlying surface is greater than on
corresponding altitudes in free atmosphere, daily
amplitude decreases with height more slowly.
On individual mountain peaks, at altitudes of 3000 m and more,
the daily amplitude can still be 3-4°.
On high, vast plateaus, the diurnal temperature range
air of the same order as in the lowlands: absorbed radiation
and the effective radiation is large here, as is the surface
contact of air with soil.
The daily range of air temperature at Murghab station at
In the Pamirs, the annual average is 15.5°, while in Tashkent it is 12°.

54. 55. Radiation of the earth's surface

Top layers of soil and water, snowy
cover and vegetation themselves radiate
longwave radiation; this earthly
radiation is often referred to as intrinsic
radiation from the earth's surface.

56. Radiation of the earth's surface

Absolute temperatures of the earth's surface
are between 180 and 350°.
At these temperatures, the emitted radiation
practically lies within
4-120 microns,
and the maximum of its energy falls on the wavelengths
10-15 microns.
Therefore, all this radiation
infrared, invisible to the eye.

57. 58. Atmospheric radiation

The atmosphere heats up by absorbing both solar radiation
(although in a relatively small proportion, about 15% of its total
amount coming to the Earth), and its own
radiation from the earth's surface.
In addition, it receives heat from the earth's surface.
by conduction of heat, as well as by evaporation and
subsequent condensation of water vapor.
Being heated, the atmosphere radiates itself.
Just like the earth's surface, it radiates an invisible
infrared radiation in the same range
wavelengths.

59. Counter radiation

Most (70%) of atmospheric radiation comes from
the earth's surface, the rest goes into the world
space.
Atmospheric radiation reaching the earth's surface is called counterradiation.
Oncoming because it is directed towards
self-radiation of the earth's surface.
The earth's surface absorbs this counter radiation
almost entirely (by 90-99%). Thus, it is
for the earth's surface an important source of heat in
addition to the absorbed solar radiation.

60. Counter radiation

Counter radiation increases with increasing cloudiness,
because the clouds themselves radiate strongly.
For flat stations of temperate latitudes, the average
counter radiation intensity (for each
square centimeter of horizontal earth
surface per minute)
about 0.3-0.4 cal,
at mountain stations - about 0.1-0.2 cal.
This is a decrease in counter radiation with height
due to the decrease in water vapor content.
The largest counter radiation is at the equator, where
the atmosphere is the hottest and richest in water vapor.
At the equator 0.5-0.6 cal/cm2 min on average,
In polar latitudes up to 0.3 cal/cm2 min.

61. Counter radiation

The main substance in the atmosphere that absorbs
terrestrial radiation and sending oncoming
radiation, is water vapor.
It absorbs infrared radiation in a large
spectral region - from 4.5 to 80 microns, with the exception of
interval between 8.5 and 11 microns.
With an average content of water vapor in the atmosphere
radiation with wavelengths from 5.5 to 7.0 microns or more
absorbed almost completely.
Only in the range of 8.5-11 microns terrestrial radiation
passes through the atmosphere into outer space.

62.

63. 64. Effective Radiation

The counter radiation is always somewhat less than the terrestrial one.
At night, when there is no solar radiation, the earth's surface comes
only counter radiation.
The earth's surface loses heat due to the positive difference between
own and counter radiation.
The difference between the earth's own radiation
surface and counter radiation of the atmosphere
called effective radiation

65. Efficient Radiation

Effective radiation is
net loss of radiant energy, and
hence the heat from the earth's surface
at night

66. Effective Radiation

With increasing cloudiness, increasing
counter radiation, effective radiation
decreases.
In cloudy weather, effective radiation
much less than in clear;
In cloudy weather less and night
cooling of the earth's surface.

67. Effective Radiation

Effective radiation, of course,
also exists during the day.
But during the day it overlaps or partially
compensated by the absorbed solar
radiation. Therefore, the earth's surface
warmer during the day than at night, as a result of which,
among other things, and effective radiation
more during the day.

68. Effective Radiation

Absorbing terrestrial radiation and sending oncoming
radiation to the earth's surface, atmosphere
most reduces the cooling of the latter in
night time.
During the day, it does little to prevent the heating of the earth.
surface by solar radiation.
This is the influence of the atmosphere on the thermal regime of the earth
surface is called the greenhouse effect.
due to external analogy with the action of glasses
greenhouses.

69. Effective Radiation

In general, the earth's surface in medium
latitudes loses effective
radiation about half that
the amount of heat she receives
from absorbed radiation.

70. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

The difference between the absorbed radiation and the radiation balance of the earth's surface In the presence of snow cover, the radiation balance
goes to positive values only at height
the sun is about 20-25 °, since with a large snow albedo
its absorption of total radiation is small.
During the day, the radiation balance increases with increasing altitude.
sun and decreases with its decrease.
At night, when there is no total radiation,
the negative radiation balance is
effective radiation
and therefore changes little during the night, unless
cloud conditions remain the same.

76. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

Mean noon values
radiation balance in Moscow:
in summer with a clear sky - 0.51 kW / m2,
in winter with a clear sky - 0.03 kW / m2
summer under average conditions
cloudiness - 0.3 kW / m2,
winter under average conditions
cloud cover is about 0 kW/m2.

77.

78. 79. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

The radiation balance is determined by a balance meter.
It has one blackened receiving plate
pointing up towards the sky
and the other - down to the earth's surface.
The difference in plate heating allows
determine the value of the radiation balance.
At night, it is equal to the value of the effective
radiation.

80. Radiation into world space

Most of the radiation from the earth's surface
absorbed in the atmosphere.
Only in the wavelength range of 8.5-11 microns passes through
atmosphere in the world space.
This outgoing amount is only 10%, of
influx of solar radiation to the boundary of the atmosphere.
But, in addition, the atmosphere itself radiates into the world
space about 55% of the energy from the incoming
solar radiation,
i.e., several times larger than the earth's surface.

81. Radiation into the world space

Radiation from the lower layers of the atmosphere is absorbed in
its overlying layers.
But, as you move away from the earth's surface, the content
water vapor, the main absorber of radiation,
decreases, and an increasingly thicker layer of air is needed,
to absorb radiation coming from
the underlying layers.
Starting from some height of water vapor in general
not enough to absorb all the radiation,
coming from below, and from these upper layers part
atmospheric radiation will go into the world
space.
Calculations show that the most strongly radiating in
Space layers of the atmosphere lie at altitudes of 6-10 km.

82. Radiation into the world space

Long-wave radiation of the earth's surface and
atmosphere going into space is called
outgoing radiation.
It is about 65 units, if we take for 100 units
influx of solar radiation into the atmosphere. Together with
reflected and scattered shortwave solar
radiation that escapes the atmosphere in
an amount of about 35 units (planetary albedo of the Earth),
this outgoing radiation compensates for the influx of solar
radiation to the earth.
Thus, the Earth, along with the atmosphere, loses
as much radiation as it receives, i.e.
is in a state of radiant (radiation)
balance.

83. Radiation balance

Qincoming = Qoutput
Qincoming \u003d I * S projections * (1-A)
σ
1/4
T =
Q flow = S earth * * T4
T=
0
252K

84. Physical constants

I - Solar constant - 1378 W/m2
R(Earth) - 6367 km.
A - the average albedo of the Earth - 0.33.
Σ - Stefan-Boltzmann constant -5.67 * 10 -8
W/m2K4

transcript

1 THERMAL REGIME OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE EARTH'S SURFACE

2 Heat balance of the earth's surface The total radiation and the counter radiation of the atmosphere enter the earth's surface. They are absorbed by the surface, that is, they go to heat the upper layers of soil and water. At the same time, the earth's surface itself radiates and loses heat in the process.

3 The earth's surface (active surface, underlying surface), i.e., the surface of soil or water (vegetation, snow, ice cover), continuously receives and loses heat in various ways. Through the earth's surface, heat is transferred up into the atmosphere and down into the soil or water. In any period of time, the same amount of heat goes up and down from the earth's surface as it receives from above and below during this time. If it were otherwise, the law of conservation of energy would not be fulfilled: it would be necessary to assume that energy arises or disappears on the earth's surface. The algebraic sum of all heat inputs and outputs on the earth's surface should be equal to zero. This is expressed by the equation of the heat balance of the earth's surface.

4 heat balance equation To write the heat balance equation, firstly, we combine the absorbed radiation Q (1- A) and the effective radiation Eef = Ez - Ea into a radiation balance: B=S +D R + Ea Ez or B= Q (1 - A) - Eef

5 Radiation balance of the earth's surface - This is the difference between absorbed radiation (total radiation minus reflected) and effective radiation (radiation of the earth's surface minus counterradiation) B=S +D R + Ea Ez B=Q(1-A)-Eef 0 Therefore V= - Eeff

6 1) The arrival of heat from the air or its release into the air by thermal conductivity, we denote P 2) The same income or consumption by heat exchange with deeper layers of soil or water, we will call A. 3) The loss of heat during evaporation or its arrival during condensation on the earth's surface, we denote LE where L is the specific heat of vaporization and E is evaporation/condensation (mass of water). Then the equation for the heat balance of the earth's surface will be written as follows: B \u003d P + A + LE The heat balance equation refers to the unit area of the active surface All its members are energy flows They have the dimension of W / m 2

7, the meaning of the equation is that the radiative balance on the earth's surface is balanced by non-radiative heat transfer. The equation is valid for any period of time, including for many years.

8 Components of the heat balance of the Earth-atmosphere system Received from the sun Released by the earth's surface

9 Heat balance options Q Radiation balance LE Evaporation heat loss H Turbulent heat flux from (into) the atmosphere from the underlying surface G -- heat flux into (from) the depth of the soil

10 Arrival and consumption B=Q(1-A)-Eef B= P+A+LE Q(1-A)- The flux of solar radiation, partially reflecting, penetrates deep into the active layer to different depths and always heats it Effective radiation usually cools the surface Eeff Evaporation also always cools the surface LE The heat flux into the atmosphere Р cools the surface during the day when it is hotter than the air, but warms it at night when the atmosphere is warmer than the earth's surface. Heat flow into the soil A, removes excess heat during the day (cools the surface), but brings the missing heat from the depths at night

11 The average annual temperature of the earth's surface and the active layer varies little from year to year From day to day and from year to year, the average temperature of the active layer and the earth's surface varies little in any place. This means that during the day, almost as much heat enters the depths of the soil or water during the day as it leaves it at night. But still, during the summer days, the heat goes down a little more than it comes from below. Therefore, the layers of soil and water, and their surface, are heated day by day. In winter, the reverse process occurs. These seasonal changes in the heat input and output in soil and water are almost balanced over the year, and the average annual temperature of the earth's surface and the active layer varies little from year to year.

12 The underlying surface is the earth's surface that interacts directly with the atmosphere.

13 Active surface Types of heat transfer of the active surface This is the surface of soil, vegetation and any other type of land and ocean surface (water), which absorbs and gives off heat. It regulates the thermal regime of the body itself and the adjacent air layer (surface layer)

14 Approximate values of the parameters of the thermal properties of the active layer of the Earth Substance Density Kg / m 3 Heat capacity J / (kg K) Thermal conductivity W / (m K) air 1.02 water, 63 ice, 5 snow, 11 wood, 0 sand, 25 rock, 0

15 How the earth warms up: thermal conductivity is one of the types of heat transfer

16 Mechanism of heat conduction (transfer of heat deep into bodies) Heat conduction is one of the types of heat transfer from more heated parts of the body to less heated ones, leading to temperature equalization. At the same time, energy is transferred in the body from particles (molecules, atoms, electrons) with higher energy to particles with lower energy. flow q is proportional to grad T, that is, where λ is the thermal conductivity coefficient, or simply thermal conductivity, does not depend on grad T. λ depends on the state of aggregation of the substance (see table), its atomic and molecular structure, temperature and pressure, composition (in the case of mixture or solution), etc. Heat flux into the soil In the heat balance equation, this is A G T c z

17 The transfer of heat to the soil obeys the laws of Fourier thermal conductivity (1 and 2) 1) The period of temperature fluctuation does not change with depth 2) The amplitude of fluctuation decays exponentially with depth

18 The spread of heat into the soil The greater the density and moisture of the soil, the better it conducts heat, the faster it spreads to the depth and the deeper the temperature fluctuations penetrate. But, regardless of the type of soil, the period of temperature fluctuations does not change with depth. This means that not only on the surface, but also at depths, there remains a daily course with a period of 24 hours between each two successive maximums or minimums, and an annual course with a period of 12 months.

19 Formation of temperature in the upper soil layer (What cranked thermometers show) The amplitude of fluctuations decreases exponentially. Below a certain depth (about cm cm), the temperature hardly changes during the day.

20 Daily and annual variation of soil surface temperature The temperature on the soil surface has a daily variation: The minimum is observed approximately half an hour after sunrise. By this time, the radiation balance of the soil surface becomes equal to zero; the heat transfer from the upper soil layer by effective radiation is balanced by the increased influx of total radiation. The non-radiative heat exchange at this time is negligible. Then the temperature on the soil surface rises up to hours, when it reaches a maximum in the daily course. After that, the temperature starts to drop. The radiation balance in the afternoon remains positive; however, during the daytime heat is released from the upper soil layer to the atmosphere not only through effective radiation, but also through increased thermal conductivity, as well as increased evaporation of water. The transfer of heat into the depth of the soil also continues. Therefore, the temperature on the soil surface drops from the hours to the morning low.

21 Daily variation of temperature in the soil at different depths, the amplitudes of fluctuations decrease with depth. So, if on the surface the daily amplitude is 30, and at a depth of 20 cm - 5, then at a depth of 40 cm it will already be less than 1. At some relatively shallow depth, the daily amplitude decreases to zero. At this depth (about cm), a layer of constant daily temperature begins. Pavlovsk, May. The amplitude of annual temperature fluctuations decreases with depth according to the same law. However, annual fluctuations propagate to a greater depth, which is quite understandable: there is more time for their propagation. The amplitudes of annual fluctuations decrease to zero at a depth of about 30 m in the polar latitudes, about 10 m in the middle latitudes, and about 10 m in the tropics (where the annual amplitudes are also lower on the soil surface than in the middle latitudes). At these depths begins, a layer of constant annual temperature. The diurnal cycle in the soil attenuates with depth in amplitude and lags in phase depending on soil moisture: the maximum occurs in the evening on land and at night on the water (the same is true for the minimum in the morning and afternoon)

22 Fourier heat conduction laws (3) 3) The oscillation phase delay increases linearly with depth. the time of the onset of the temperature maximum shifts relative to the higher layers by several hours (towards evening and even night)

23 The fourth Fourier law The depths of the layers of constant daily and annual temperature are related to each other as the square roots of the periods of oscillations, i.e. as 1: 365. This means that the depth at which the annual oscillations decay is 19 times greater than the depth where the diurnal fluctuations are damped. And this law, like the rest of Fourier's laws, is quite well confirmed by observations.

24 Formation of temperature in the entire active layer of the soil (What is shown by exhaust thermometers) 1. The period of temperature fluctuations does not change with depth 2. Below a certain depth, the temperature does not change over the year. 3. Depths of propagation of annual fluctuations are approximately 19 times greater than daily fluctuations

25 Penetration of temperature fluctuations deep into the soil in accordance with the thermal conductivity model

26 . The average daily temperature variation on the soil surface (P) and in the air at a height of 2 m (V). Pavlovsk, June. The maximum temperatures on the soil surface are usually higher than in the air at the height of the meteorological booth. This is understandable: during the day, solar radiation primarily heats the soil, and already the air heats up from it.

27 annual course of soil temperature The temperature of the soil surface, of course, also changes in the annual course. In tropical latitudes, its annual amplitude, i.e., the difference in long-term average temperatures of the warmest and coldest months of the year, is small and increases with latitude. In the northern hemisphere at latitude 10 it is about 3, at latitude 30 about 10, at latitude 50 it averages about 25.

28 Temperature fluctuations in the soil attenuate with depth in amplitude and lag in phase, the maximum shifts to autumn, and the minimum to spring Annual maxima and minima are delayed by days for each meter of depth. Annual variation of temperature in the soil at different depths from 3 to 753 cm in Kaliningrad. In tropical latitudes, the annual amplitude, i.e., the difference in long-term average temperatures of the warmest and coldest months of the year, is small and increases with latitude. In the northern hemisphere at latitude 10 it is about 3, at latitude 30 about 10, at latitude 50 it averages about 25.

29 Thermal isopleth method Visually represents all the features of temperature variation both in time and with depth (in one point) Example of annual variation and daily variation Isoplets of annual temperature variation in soil in Tbilisi

30 Daily course of air temperature of the surface layer The air temperature changes in the daily course following the temperature of the earth's surface. Since the air is heated and cooled from the earth's surface, the amplitude of the daily temperature variation in the meteorological booth is less than on the soil surface, on average by about one third. The rise in air temperature begins with the rise in soil temperature (15 minutes later) in the morning, after sunrise. In hours, the temperature of the soil, as we know, begins to drop. In hours it equalizes with the air temperature; from that time on, with a further drop in soil temperature, the air temperature also begins to fall. Thus, the minimum in the daily course of air temperature near the earth's surface falls on the time shortly after sunrise, and the maximum is at hours.

32 Differences in the thermal regime of soil and water bodies There are sharp differences in the heating and thermal characteristics of the surface layers of soil and the upper layers of water bodies. In soil, heat is distributed vertically by molecular heat conduction, and in lightly moving water also by turbulent mixing of water layers, which is much more efficient. Turbulence in water bodies is primarily due to waves and currents. But at night and in the cold season, thermal convection also joins this kind of turbulence: water cooled on the surface sinks down due to increased density and is replaced by warmer water from the lower layers.

33 Features of the temperature of water bodies associated with large coefficients of turbulent heat transfer Daily and annual fluctuations in water penetrate to much greater depths than in soil Temperature amplitudes are much smaller and almost the same in the UML of lakes and seas Heat fluxes in the active water layer are many times in soil

34 Daily and annual fluctuations As a result, daily fluctuations in water temperature extend to a depth of about tens of meters, and in the soil to less than one meter. Annual fluctuations in temperature in water extend to a depth of hundreds of meters, and in soil only to m. So, the heat that comes to the surface of the water during the day and summer penetrates to a considerable depth and heats up a large thickness of water. The temperature of the upper layer and the surface of the water itself rises little at the same time. In the soil, the incoming heat is distributed in a thin upper layer, which is thus strongly heated. Heat exchange with deeper layers in the heat balance equation "A" for water is much greater than for soil, and the heat flux into the atmosphere "P" (turbulence) is correspondingly less. At night and in winter, water loses heat from the surface layer, but instead of it comes the accumulated heat from the underlying layers. Therefore, the temperature at the surface of the water decreases slowly. On the soil surface, the temperature drops rapidly during heat release: the heat accumulated in the thin upper layer quickly leaves it without being replenished from below.

35 Maps of turbulent heat transfer of the atmosphere and the underlying surface were obtained

36 In the oceans and seas, evaporation also plays a role in the mixing of layers and the associated heat transfer. With significant evaporation from the sea surface, the upper layer of water becomes more salty and dense, as a result of which the water sinks from the surface to the depths. In addition, radiation penetrates deeper into water compared to soil. Finally, the heat capacity of water is large in comparison with soil, and the same amount of heat heats a mass of water to a lower temperature than the same mass of soil. HEAT CAPACITY - The amount of heat absorbed by the body when heated by 1 degree (Celsius) or given off when cooled by 1 degree (Celsius) or the ability of the material to accumulate thermal energy.

37 Due to these differences in the distribution of heat: 1. during the warm season, water accumulates a large amount of heat in a sufficiently thick layer of water, which is released into the atmosphere during the cold season. 2. during the warm season, the soil gives off at night most of the heat that it receives during the day, and accumulates little of it by winter. As a result of these differences, the air temperature over the sea is lower in summer and higher in winter than over land. In the middle latitudes, during the warm half of the year, 1.5-3 kcal of heat is accumulated in the soil per square centimeter of surface. In cold weather, the soil gives off this heat to the atmosphere. The value of ±1.5 3 kcal / cm 2 per year is the annual heat cycle of the soil.

38 The amplitudes of the annual temperature variation determine the continental climate or the sea. Map of the amplitudes of the annual temperature variation near the Earth's surface

39 The position of the place relative to the coastline significantly affects the regime of temperature, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation and determines the degree of continentality of the climate.

40 Climate continentality Climate continentality is a set of characteristic features of the climate, determined by the influence of the continent on the processes of climate formation. In a climate over the sea (marine climate), small annual air temperature amplitudes are observed in comparison with the continental climate over land with large annual temperature amplitudes.

41 The annual variation of air temperature at latitude 62 N: in the Faroe Islands and Yakutsk reflects the geographical position of these points: in the first case - near the western coast of Europe, in the second - in the eastern part of Asia

42 Average annual amplitude in Torshavn 8, in Yakutsk 62 C. On the continent of Eurasia, an increase in the annual amplitude in the direction from west to east is observed.

43 Eurasia - the continent with the greatest distribution of continental climate This type of climate is typical for the inner regions of the continents. The continental climate is dominant in a significant part of the territory of Russia, Ukraine, Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan), Inner China, Mongolia, the interior regions of the USA and Canada. The continental climate leads to the formation of steppes and deserts, since most of the moisture of the seas and oceans does not reach the inland regions.

44 continentality index is a numerical characteristic of climate continentality. There are a number of options for I K, which are based on one or another function of the annual amplitude of air temperature A: according to Gorchinsky, according to Konrad, according to Zenker, according to Khromov. There are indices built on other grounds. For example, the ratio of the frequency of occurrence of continental air masses to the frequency of sea air masses has been proposed as an IC. L. G. Polozova proposed to characterize the continentality separately for January and July in relation to the greatest continentality at a given latitude; this latter is determined from temperature anomalies. Η. Η. Ivanov proposed I.K. as a function of latitude, annual and daily temperature amplitudes, and humidity deficit in the driest month.

45 continentality index The magnitude of the annual amplitude of air temperature depends on the geographical latitude. At low latitudes, the annual temperature amplitudes are smaller compared to high latitudes. This provision leads to the need to exclude the influence of latitude on the annual amplitude. For this, various indicators of climate continentality are proposed, represented as a function of the annual temperature amplitude and latitude. Formula L. Gorchinsky where A is the annual temperature amplitude. The average continentality over the ocean is zero, and for Verkhoyansk it is 100.

47 Marine and Continental The temperate maritime climate area is characterized by rather warm winters (from -8 C to 0 C), cool summers (+16 C) and high precipitation (over 800 mm), evenly falling throughout the year. The temperate continental climate is characterized by fluctuations in air temperature from about -8 C in January to +18 C in July, precipitation here is more than mm, which falls mostly in summer. The continental climate area is characterized by lower temperatures in winter (down to -20 C) and less precipitation (about 600 mm). In the temperate sharply continental climate, winter will be even colder down to -40 C, and precipitation will be even less than mm.

48 Extremes Temperatures up to +55, and even up to +80 in deserts are observed in summer on the surface of bare soil in the Moscow region. Night temperature minima, on the contrary, are lower on the soil surface than in the air, since, first of all, the soil is cooled by effective radiation, and the air is already cooled from it. In winter in the Moscow region, nighttime temperatures on the surface (covered with snow at this time) can drop below 50, in summer (except July) to zero. On the snowy surface in the interior of Antarctica, even the average monthly temperature in June is about 70, and in some cases it can drop to 90.

49 Maps of average Air temperature January and July

50 Air temperature distribution (distribution zoning is the main factor of climatic zoning) Average annual Average summer (July) Average for January Average for latitudinal zones

51 Temperature regime of the territory of Russia It is characterized by great contrasts in winter. In Eastern Siberia, the winter anticyclone, which is an extremely stable baric formation, contributes to the formation of a cold pole in northeastern Russia with an average monthly air temperature in winter of 42 C. The average minimum temperature in winter is 55 C. in winter it changes from C in the southwest, reaching positive values on the Black Sea coast, to C in the central regions.

52 Average surface air temperature (С) in winter

53 Average surface air temperature (С) in summer The average air temperature varies from 4 5 C on the northern coasts to C in the southwest, where its average maximum is C and the absolute maximum is 45 C. The amplitude of extreme temperatures reaches 90 C. A feature of the air temperature regime in Russia is its large daily and annual amplitudes, especially in the sharply continental climate of the Asian territory. The annual amplitude varies from 8 10 C ETR to 63 C in Eastern Siberia in the region of the Verkhoyansk Range.

54 Effect of vegetation cover on soil surface temperature Vegetation cover reduces soil cooling at night. In this case, night radiation occurs mainly from the surface of the vegetation itself, which will be the most cooled. The soil under vegetation maintains a higher temperature. However, during the day, vegetation prevents the radiative heating of the soil. The daily temperature range under vegetation is reduced, and the average daily temperature is lowered. So, vegetation cover generally cools the soil. In the Leningrad region, the surface of the soil under field crops can be 15 degrees colder during the daytime than the soil under fallow. On average, per day it is colder than bare soil by 6, and even at a depth of 5-10 cm there is a difference of 3-4.

55 Effect of snow cover on soil temperature Snow cover protects the soil from heat loss in winter. The radiation comes from the surface of the snow cover itself, and the soil underneath remains warmer than the bare soil. At the same time, the daily temperature amplitude on the soil surface under snow sharply decreases. In the middle zone of the European territory of Russia, with a snow cover of 50 cm, the temperature of the soil surface under it is 6-7 higher than the temperature of the bare soil, and 10 higher than the temperature on the surface of the snow cover itself. Winter soil freezing under snow reaches depths of about 40 cm, and without snow it can spread to depths of more than 100 cm. Thus, vegetation cover in summer reduces the temperature on the soil surface, and snow cover in winter, on the contrary, increases it. The combined effect of vegetation cover in summer and snow cover in winter reduces the annual temperature amplitude on the soil surface; this is a decrease of the order of 10 compared to bare soil.

56 HAZARDOUS METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND THEIR CRITERIA 1. very strong wind (including squalls) of at least 25 m/s, (including gusts), on sea coasts and in mountainous areas of at least 35 m/s; 2. very heavy rain of at least 50 mm for a period of not more than 12 hours 3. heavy rain of at least 30 mm for a period of not more than 1 hour; 4. very heavy snow of at least 20 mm for a period of no more than 12 hours; 5. large hail - not less than 20mm; 6. heavy snowstorm - with an average wind speed of at least 15 m/s and visibility of less than 500 m;

57 7. Severe dust storm with an average wind speed of at least 15 m/s and visibility of no more than 500 m; 8. Heavy fog visibility no more than 50m; 9. Severe ice-frost deposits of at least 20 mm for ice, at least 35 mm for complex deposits or wet snow, at least 50 mm for hoarfrost. 10. Extreme heat - High maximum air temperature of at least 35 ºС for more than 5 days. 11. Severe frost - The minimum air temperature is not less than minus 35ºС for at least 5 days.

58 High temperature hazards Fire hazard Extreme heat

59 Low temperature hazards

60 Freeze. Freezing is a short-term decrease in air temperature or an active surface (soil surface) to 0 C and below against a general background of positive average daily temperatures.

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Alentyeva Elena Yuryevna Municipal Autonomous General Educational Institution Secondary School 118 named after the Hero of the Soviet Union N. I. Kuznetsov of the city of Chelyabinsk GEOGRAPHY LESSON SUMMARY

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

THERMAL PROPERTIES AND THERMAL REGIME OF THE SOIL 1. Thermal properties of the soil. 2. Thermal regime and ways of its regulation. 1. Thermal properties of soil The thermal regime of soils is one of the important indicators that largely determines

MATERIALS for preparing for computer testing in geography Grade 5 (in-depth study of geography) Teacher: Yu.

1.2.8. Climatic conditions (GU "Irkutsk TsGMS-R" of the Irkutsk UGMS of Roshydromet; Zabaikalskoe UGMS of Roshydromet; State Institution "Buryatsky TsGMS" of the Zabaikalsky UGMS of Roshydromet) As a result of a significant negative

Tasks A2 in geography 1. Which of the following rocks is metamorphic in origin? 1) sandstone 2) tuff 3) limestone 4) marble Marble belongs to metamorphic rocks. Sandstone

The heat balance determines the temperature, its magnitude and change on the surface that is directly heated by the sun's rays. When heated, this surface transfers heat (in the long-wave range) both to the underlying layers and to the atmosphere. The surface itself is called active surface.

Soils in general have a lower heat capacity than water and a higher thermal conductivity. Therefore, they heat up and cool down faster than water.

The longer the period of temperature fluctuations, the deeper they spread. Thus, in the middle latitudes, the layer of constant annual temperature is at a depth of 19–20 m, in high latitudes, at a depth of 25 m, and in tropical latitudes, where the annual temperature amplitudes are small, at a depth of 5–10 m. years are delayed by an average of 20-30 days per meter.

The temperature in the layer of constant annual temperature is close to the average annual air temperature above the surface.

Water heats up more slowly and releases heat more slowly. In addition, the sun's rays can penetrate to great depths, directly heating the deeper layers. The transfer of heat to depth is not so much due to molecular thermal conductivity, but to a greater extent due to the mixing of waters in a turbulent way or currents. When the surface layers of water cool, thermal convection occurs, which is also accompanied by mixing.

Daily temperature fluctuations on the surface of the ocean in high latitudes are on average only 0.1ºС, in temperate - 0.4ºС, in tropical - 0.5ºС, The penetration depth of these fluctuations is 15-20 m.

Annual temperature amplitudes on the ocean surface from 1ºС in equatorial latitudes to 10.2ºС in temperate latitudes. Annual temperature fluctuations penetrate to a depth of 200-300 m.

The moments of temperature maxima in water bodies are delayed compared to land. The maximum is around 15-16 hours, at least 2-3 hours after sunrise. The annual maximum temperature on the surface of the ocean in the northern hemisphere occurs in August, the minimum - in February.

Question 7 (atmosphere) - change in air temperature with height. The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases called air, in which liquid and solid particles are suspended. The total mass of the latter is insignificant in comparison with the entire mass of the atmosphere. Atmospheric air near the earth's surface, as a rule, is humid. This means that its composition, along with other gases, includes water vapor, i.e. water in gaseous state. The content of water vapor in the air varies considerably, in contrast to other components of the air: at the earth's surface, it varies between hundredths of a percent and several percent. This is explained by the fact that, under the conditions existing in the atmosphere, water vapor can pass into a liquid and solid state and, conversely, can enter the atmosphere again due to evaporation from the earth's surface. Air, like any body, always has a temperature different from absolute zero. The air temperature at every point in the atmosphere changes continuously; in different places on the Earth at the same time it is also different. At the earth's surface, the air temperature varies within a fairly wide range: its extreme values, observed so far, are slightly below +60 ° (in tropical deserts) and about -90 ° (on the mainland of Antarctica). With height, the air temperature varies in different layers and in different cases in different ways. On average, it first decreases to a height of 10-15 km, then grows to 50-60 km, then falls again, etc. . - VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENT syn. VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENT - vertical temperature gradient - change in temperature with increasing height above sea level, taken per unit distance. It is considered positive if the temperature decreases with height. In the opposite case, for example, in the stratosphere, the temperature rises during the rise, and then an inverse (inversion) vertical gradient is formed, which is assigned a minus sign. In the troposphere, the WT averages 0.65°/100 m, but in some cases it may exceed 1°/100 m or take negative values during temperature inversions. In the surface layer on land during the warm season, it can be ten times higher. - adiabatic process- Adiabatic process (adiabatic process) - a thermodynamic process that occurs in a system without heat exchange with the environment (), i.e., in an adiabatically isolated system, the state of which can only be changed by changing external parameters. The concept of adiabatic isolation is an idealization of heat-insulating shells or Dewar vessels (adiabatic shells). A change in the temperature of external bodies does not affect an adiabatically isolated system, and their energy U can change only due to the work done by the system (or on it). According to the first law of thermodynamics, in a reversible adiabatic process for a homogeneous system, where V is the volume of the system, p is pressure, and in the general case, where aj are external parameters, Aj are thermodynamic forces. According to the second law of thermodynamics, in a reversible adiabatic process, the entropy is constant, and in an irreversible process, it increases. Very fast processes in which heat exchange with the environment does not have time, for example, during the propagation of sound, can be considered as an adiabatic process. The entropy of each small element of the fluid remains constant during its movement with a speed v, therefore the total derivative of the entropy s, per unit mass, is equal to zero (adiabaticity condition). A simple example of an adiabatic process is the compression (or expansion) of a gas in a thermally insulated cylinder with a thermally insulated piston: the temperature increases during compression, and decreases during expansion. Another example of an adiabatic process is adiabatic demagnetization, which is used in the magnetic cooling method. A reversible adiabatic process, also called an isentropic process, is depicted on the state diagram by an adiabat (isentrope). Rising air, getting into a rarefied medium, expands, it is cooled, and descending, on the contrary, heats up due to compression. Such a change in temperature due to internal energy, without the inflow and release of heat, is called adiabatic. Adiabatic temperature changes occur according to dry adiabatic and wet adiabatic laws. Accordingly, vertical gradients of temperature change with height are also distinguished. The dry adiabatic gradient is a change in the temperature of dry or moist unsaturated air by 1 ° C for every 100 meters of elevation or lowering, and the wet adiabatic gradient is a decrease in the temperature of moist saturated air by less than 1 ° C for every 100 meters of elevation.

-Inversion in meteorology, it means the anomalous nature of a change in a parameter in the atmosphere with increasing altitude. Most often this refers to a temperature inversion, that is, an increase in temperature with height in a certain layer of the atmosphere instead of the usual decrease (see Earth's atmosphere).

There are two types of inversion:

1. surface temperature inversions starting directly from the earth's surface (the thickness of the inversion layer is tens of meters)

2.Temperature inversions in the free atmosphere (the thickness of the inversion layer reaches hundreds of meters)

Temperature inversion prevents vertical movement of air and contributes to the formation of haze, fog, smog, clouds, mirages. The inversion is highly dependent on local terrain features. The temperature increase in the inversion layer ranges from tenths of degrees to 15-20 °C and more. The surface temperature inversions in Eastern Siberia and Antarctica in winter are the most powerful.

Ticket.

The daily course of air temperature - change in air temperature during the day. The daily course of air temperature in general reflects the course of the temperature of the earth's surface, but the moments of the onset of maxima and minima are somewhat late, the maximum is observed at 2 pm, the minimum after sunrise. Daily fluctuations in air temperature in winter are noticeable up to a height of 0.5 km, in summer - up to 2 km.

Daily amplitude of air temperature - the difference between the maximum and minimum air temperatures during the day. The daily amplitude of air temperature is greatest in tropical deserts - up to 40 0, in equatorial and temperate latitudes it decreases. The daily amplitude is less in winter and in cloudy weather. Above the water surface, it is much less than over land; over vegetation cover is less than over bare surfaces.

The annual course of air temperature is determined primarily by the latitude of the place. The annual course of air temperature - change in the average monthly temperature during the year. Annual amplitude of air temperature - the difference between the maximum and minimum average monthly temperatures. There are four types of annual temperature variation; Each type has two subtypes maritime and continental characterized by different annual temperature amplitudes. AT equatorial The type of annual temperature variation shows two small maximums and two small minimums. The maxima occur after the equinoxes, when the sun is at its zenith over the equator. In the marine subtype, the annual amplitude of air temperature is 1-2 0 , in the continental 4-6 0 . The temperature is positive throughout the year. AT tropical The type of annual temperature variation has one maximum after the summer solstice and one minimum after the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere. In the marine subtype, the annual temperature amplitude is 5 0 , in the continental 10-20 0 . AT moderate In the type of annual temperature variation, there is also one maximum after the summer solstice and one minimum after the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere; temperatures are negative in winter. Over the ocean, the amplitude is 10-15 0 , over land it increases with distance from the ocean: on the coast - 10 0 , in the center of the mainland - up to 60 0 . AT polar In the type of annual temperature variation, there is one maximum after the summer solstice and one minimum after the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the temperature is negative for most of the year. The annual amplitude at sea is 20-30 0 , on land - 60 0 . The selected types reflect the zonal temperature variation due to the influx of solar radiation. The movement of air masses has a great influence on the annual course of temperature.

Ticket.

Isotherms Lines connecting points on the map with the same temperature.

In summer, the continents are more warm, the isotherms over land bend towards the poles.

On the map of winter temperatures (December in the Northern Hemisphere and July in the Southern Hemisphere), the isotherms deviate significantly from the parallels. Above the oceans, isotherms move far to high latitudes, forming "heat tongues"; over land, isotherms deviate toward the equator.

The average annual temperature of the Northern Hemisphere is +15.2 0 С, and that of the Southern Hemisphere is +13.2 0 С. The minimum temperature in the Northern Hemisphere reached -77 0 С (Oymyakon) and -68 0 С (Verkhoyansk). In the Southern Hemisphere, minimum temperatures are much lower; at the stations "Sovetskaya" and "Vostok" the temperature was -89.2 0 С. The minimum temperature in cloudless weather in Antarctica can drop to -93 0 С. in California, in Death Valley, a temperature of +56.7 0 was noted.

About how much the continents and oceans affect the distribution of temperatures, give the representation of the maps and anomalies. Isanomals- lines connecting points with the same temperature anomalies. Anomalies are deviations of actual temperatures from mid-latitude ones. Anomalies are positive and negative. Positive are observed in summer over warmed continents

The tropics and arctic circles cannot be considered valid borders thermal zones (climate classification system by air temperature), since a number of other factors influence the temperature distribution: the distribution of land and water, currents. Isotherms are taken beyond the boundaries of thermal zones. The hot zone is located between the annual isotherms of 20 0 C and delineates the strip of wild palms. The boundaries of the temperate zone are drawn along the isotherm 10 0 From the warmest month. In the Northern Hemisphere, the boundary coincides with the distribution of the forest-tundra. The boundary of the cold belt runs along the 0 0 isotherm from the warmest month. Frost belts are located around the poles.

Thermal energy enters the lower layers of the atmosphere mainly from the underlying surface. The thermal regime of these layers

is closely related to the thermal regime of the earth's surface, so its study is also one of the important tasks of meteorology.

The main physical processes in which the soil receives or gives off heat are: 1) radiant heat transfer; 2) turbulent heat exchange between the underlying surface and the atmosphere; 3) molecular heat exchange between the soil surface and the lower fixed adjacent air layer; 4) heat exchange between soil layers; 5) phase heat transfer: heat consumption for water evaporation, melting of ice and snow on the surface and in the depth of the soil, or its release during reverse processes.

The thermal regime of the surface of the earth and water bodies is determined by their thermophysical characteristics. During preparation, special attention should be paid to the derivation and analysis of the soil thermal conductivity equation (Fourier equation). If the soil is uniform vertically, then its temperature t at a depth z at time t can be determined from the Fourier equation

where a- thermal diffusivity of the soil.

The consequence of this equation are the basic laws of the propagation of temperature fluctuations in the soil:

1. The law of invariance of the oscillation period with depth:

T(z) = const(2)

2. The law of decrease in the amplitude of oscillations with depth:

(3)

where and are amplitudes at depths a- thermal diffusivity of the soil layer lying between the depths ;

3. The law of the phase shift of oscillations with depth (the law of delay):

(4)

where is the delay, i.e. the difference between the moments of the onset of the same phase of oscillations (for example, maximum) at depths and Temperature fluctuations penetrate the soil to a depth znp defined by the ratio:

(5)

In addition, it is necessary to pay attention to a number of consequences from the law of decrease in the amplitude of oscillations with depth:

a) the depths at which in different soils ( ) amplitudes of temperature fluctuations with the same period ( = T 2) decrease by the same number of times relate to each other as square roots of the thermal diffusivity of these soils

b) the depths at which in the same soil ( a= const) amplitudes of temperature fluctuations with different periods ( ) decrease by the same amount =const, are related to each other as the square roots of the periods of oscillations

(7)

It is necessary to clearly understand the physical meaning and features of the formation of heat flow into the soil.

The surface density of the heat flux in the soil is determined by the formula:

where λ is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the soil vertical temperature gradient.

Instant value R are expressed in kW/m to the nearest hundredth, the sums R - in MJ / m 2 (hourly and daily - up to hundredths, monthly - up to units, annual - up to tens).

The average surface heat flux density through the soil surface over a time interval t is described by the formula

where C is the volumetric heat capacity of the soil; interval; z „ p- depth of penetration of temperature fluctuations; ∆tcp- the difference between the average temperatures of the soil layer to the depth znp at the end and at the beginning of the interval m. Let us give the main examples of tasks on the topic “Thermal regime of the soil”.

Task 1. At what depth does it decrease in e times the amplitude of diurnal fluctuations in soil with a coefficient of thermal diffusivity a\u003d 18.84 cm 2 / h?

Decision. It follows from equation (3) that the amplitude of diurnal fluctuations will decrease by a factor of e at a depth corresponding to the condition

Task 2. Find the depth of penetration of daily temperature fluctuations into granite and dry sand, if the extreme surface temperatures of adjacent areas with granite soil are 34.8 °C and 14.5 °C, and with dry sandy soil 42.3 °C and 7.8 °C . thermal diffusivity of granite a g \u003d 72.0 cm 2 / h, dry sand a n \u003d 23.0 cm 2 / h.

Decision. The temperature amplitude on the surface of granite and sand is equal to:

The penetration depth is considered by the formula (5):

Due to the greater thermal diffusivity of granite, we also obtained a greater penetration depth of daily temperature fluctuations.

Task 3. Assuming that the temperature of the upper soil layer changes linearly with depth, one should calculate the surface heat flux density in dry sand if its surface temperature is 23.6 "WITH, and the temperature at a depth of 5 cm is 19.4 °C.

Decision. The temperature gradient of the soil in this case is equal to:

Thermal conductivity of dry sand λ= 1.0 W/m*K. The heat flux into the soil is determined by the formula:

P = -λ - = 1.0 84.0 10 "3 \u003d 0.08 kW / m 2

The thermal regime of the surface layer of the atmosphere is determined mainly by turbulent mixing, the intensity of which depends on dynamic factors (roughness of the earth's surface and wind speed gradients at different levels, scale of movement) and thermal factors (inhomogeneity of heating of various parts of the surface and vertical temperature distribution).

To characterize the intensity of turbulent mixing, the turbulent exchange coefficient is used BUT and turbulence coefficient TO. They are related by the relation

K \u003d A / p(10)

where R - air density.

Turbulence coefficient To measured in m 2 / s, accurate to hundredths. Usually, in the surface layer of the atmosphere, the turbulence coefficient is used TO] on high G"= 1 m. Within the surface layer:

where z- height (m).

You need to know the basic methods for determining TO\.

Task 1. Calculate the surface density of the vertical heat flux in the surface layer of the atmosphere through the area at which the air density is normal, the turbulence coefficient is 0.40 m 2 /s, and the vertical temperature gradient is 30.0 °C/100m.

Decision. We calculate the surface density of the vertical heat flux by the formula

L=1.3*1005*0.40*

Study the factors affecting the thermal regime of the surface layer of the atmosphere, as well as periodic and non-periodic changes in the temperature of the free atmosphere. The equations of heat balance of the earth's surface and atmosphere describe the law of conservation of energy received by the active layer of the Earth. Consider the daily and annual course of the heat balance and the reasons for its changes.

Literature

Chapter Sh, ch. 2, § 1 -8.

Questions for self-examination

1. What factors determine the thermal regime of soil and water bodies?

2. What is the physical meaning of thermophysical characteristics and how do they affect the temperature regime of soil, air, water?

3. What do the amplitudes of daily and annual fluctuations in soil surface temperature depend on and how do they depend on?

4. Formulate the basic laws of distribution of temperature fluctuations in the soil?

5. What are the consequences of the basic laws of the distribution of temperature fluctuations in the soil?

6. What are the average depths of penetration of daily and annual temperature fluctuations in the soil and in water bodies?

7. What is the effect of vegetation and snow cover on the thermal regime of the soil?

8. What are the features of the thermal regime of water bodies, in contrast to the thermal regime of the soil?

9. What factors influence the intensity of turbulence in the atmosphere?

10. What quantitative characteristics of turbulence do you know?

11. What are the main methods for determining the turbulence coefficient, their advantages and disadvantages?

12. Draw and analyze the daily course of the turbulence coefficient over land and water surfaces. What are the reasons for their difference?

13. How is the surface density of the vertical turbulent heat flux in the surface layer of the atmosphere determined?

local temperature

Thermal regime of the atmosphere

Heat exchange

Radiative heat transfer path

Radiation balance of the underlying surface

Thermal balance of the underlying surface

surface and active layer

10. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

11. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

12. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

13. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

14. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

15. Temperature regime of the underlying surface and active layer

16.

17. Processes affecting the heat transfer of the atmosphere

18. Changes in air temperature

19. Periodic changes in air temperature

20. Daily temperature variation

21. on the soil surface (1) and in the air at a height of 2m (2). Moscow (MSU)

22. Average daily temperature variation

23. Average daily temperature variation

24.

25. Soil surface temperature

26. Daily temperature range

27. Changes in the daily temperature amplitude (Asut)

28. Changes in the daily temperature amplitude (Asut)

29. Influence of soil cover on soil surface temperature

30. Influence of soil cover on soil surface temperature

31. Distribution of heat deep into the soil

32. Distribution of heat deep into the soil

33. Daily variation of temperature in the soil at different depths from 1 to 80 cm. Pavlovsk, May.

34. Annual temperature fluctuations

35.

36. Annual variation of temperature in the soil at different depths from 3 to 753 cm in Kaliningrad.

37. Temperature distribution in the soil vertically in different seasons

38. Isopleths of the annual temperature variation in the soil in Tbilisi

39. Daily and annual course of temperature on the surface of reservoirs and in the upper layers of water

Fig. 40. Daily temperature variation at the sea surface (solid curve) and at a height of 6 m in the air (dashed curve) in a tropical

41. Daily and annual course of temperature on the surface of reservoirs and in the upper layers of water

42. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

43. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

44. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

45. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

46. ​​Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface

47. Daily course of air temperature in Moscow in January and July. The figures indicate the average monthly temperatures of January and July.

48. Daily changes in the amplitude of air temperature

49. Influence of the nature of the soil and soil cover

50. Relief influence

51. Influence of the seas and oceans

52. Change in daily temperature amplitude with height

53. The influence of the terrain

54.

55. Radiation of the earth's surface

56. Radiation of the earth's surface

57.

58. Atmospheric radiation

59. Counter radiation

60. Counter radiation

61. Counter radiation

62.

63.

64. Effective Radiation

65. Efficient Radiation

66. Effective Radiation

67. Effective Radiation

68. Effective Radiation

69. Effective Radiation

70. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

76. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

77.

78.

79. Radiation balance of the earth's surface

80. Radiation into world space

81. Radiation into the world space

82. Radiation into the world space

83. Radiation balance

84. Physical constants

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46. Daily variation of air temperature near the earth's surface