The course of events of the Thirty Years' War. Thirty Years' War: Religious and Political Causes

Reference table for thirty years war contains the main periods, events, dates, battles, participating countries and the results of this war. The table will be useful to schoolchildren and students in preparing for tests, exams and the exam in history.

Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1625)

Danish period of the Thirty Years' War (1625-1629)

Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1630-1635)

Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1635-1648)

The results of the war: Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all segments of the population. In Western history, it has remained one of the most difficult European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars of the 20th century. The greatest damage was inflicted on Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died. Many regions of the country were devastated and for a long time remained deserted. A crushing blow was dealt to the productive forces of Germany. In the armies of both opposing sides, epidemics broke out, constant companions of wars. The influx of soldiers from abroad, the constant deployment of troops from one front to another, as well as the flight of the civilian population, spread the plague farther and farther from the centers of disease. The plague became a significant factor in the war. The immediate result of the war was that over 300 small German states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806. The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Them foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests. It is customary to count from the Peace of Westphalia modern era in international relations.

Thirty Years' War 1618-1648

The reasons for this war were both religious and political. Catholic reaction, established in Europe from the second half of the 16th century, set itself the task of eradicating Protestantism and, together with the latter, of all modern individualistic culture and restoring Catholicism and Romanism. The Jesuit Order, the Council of Trent, and the Inquisition were the three powerful instruments through which reaction was also established in Germany. The religious peace of Augsburg in 1555 was only a truce and contained a number of decrees that hampered the individual freedom of the Protestants. Misunderstandings between Catholics and Protestants soon resumed, leading to major conflicts in the Reichstags. The reaction goes on the offensive. Since the beginning of the 17th century, the idea of ​​Habsburg universalism has been combined with a purely ultramontane tendency. Rome remains the ecclesiastical center of Catholic propaganda, Madrid and Vienna its political centers. The Catholic Church has to fight against Protestantism, the emperors of Germany - against the territorial autonomy of the princes. By the beginning of the 17th century, relations escalated to the point that two unions were formed, Catholic and Protestant. Each of them had its adherents outside of Germany: the first was patronized by Rome and Spain, the second by France and partly by the Netherlands and England. The Protestant union, or union, was formed in 1608 at Aghausen, the Catholic league in 1609 at Munich; the Palatinate was at the head of the first, and Bavaria was at the head of the second. Emperor's reign Rudolph II, everything went in unrest and movements caused by religious persecution. In 1608, he was forced to limit himself to Bohemia alone, ceding Hungary, Moravia and Austria to his brother Matthias. Events in the duchies of Cleve, Berg and Jülich and in Donauwert (see) aggravated relations between Protestants and Catholics to an extreme degree. With the death of Henry IV (1610), the Protestants no longer had anyone to rely on, and the slightest spark was enough to cause a bitter war. She broke out in Bohemia. In July 1609, Rudolf granted religious freedom to the evangelical Bohemia and guaranteed the rights of Protestants (the so-called letter of majesty). He died in 1612; Matthias became emperor. The Protestants had some hope in him, as he once spoke out against the Spanish course of action in the Netherlands. At the Regensburg Imperial Diet of 1613, there was a heated debate between Protestants and Catholics, and Matthias did nothing for the Protestants. The situation worsened when the childless Matthias had to appoint as his heir in Bohemia and Hungary his cousin, the fanatic Ferdinand of Styria (cf. ). Based on the charter of 1609, the Protestants gathered in Prague in 1618 and decided to resort to force. On May 23, the famous "defenestration" of Slavata, Martinitz and Fabricius took place (these advisers to the emperor were thrown out of the window of the Prague castle into the moat). Relations between Bohemia and the House of Habsburg were broken; a provisional government was established, consisting of 30 directors, an army was formed, the chiefs of which were Count Thurn and Count Ernst Mansfeld, a Catholic, but an opponent of the Habsburgs. The Czechs entered into relations with the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor. Matthias died during negotiations with the directors, in March 1619 the throne passed to Ferdinand II. The Czechs refused to recognize him and elected the twenty-three-year-old Elector of the Palatinate Frederick as their king. The Czech uprising was the pretext for a 30-year war, the theater of which became Central Germany.

The first period of the war - the Czech-Palatinate - lasted from 1618 to 1623. From the Czech Republic, hostilities spread to Silesia and Moravia. Under the command of Turn, part of the Czech army moved to Vienna. Frederick hoped for the help of his co-religionists in Germany and for his father-in-law James of England, but in vain: he had to fight alone. At White Mountain, November 8, 1620, the Czechs were utterly defeated; Friedrich fled. The reprisal against the vanquished was cruel: the Czechs were deprived of religious freedom, Protestantism was eradicated, the kingdom was closely connected with the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. Ernst Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick and Margrave Georg-Friedrich of Baden-Durlach were now at the head of the Protestant troops. Under Wiesloch, Mansfeld inflicted a significant defeat on the ligists (April 27, 1622), while the other two commanders were defeated: Georg-Friedrich - at Wimpfen, May 6, Christian - at Göchst, June 20, and at Stadtlon (1623). In all these battles Tilly and Córdoba commanded the Catholic troops. The conquest of the entire Palatinate, however, was still a long way off. Only by clever deceit did Ferdinand II achieve his goal: he convinced Frederick to release the troops of Mansfeld and Christian (both retired to the Netherlands) and promised to begin negotiations to end the war, but in fact he ordered the Ligists and the Spaniards to invade Frederick's possessions from all sides; in March 1623, the last Palatinate fortress, Frankenthal, fell. At a meeting of princes in Regensburg, Frederick was deprived of the electoral title, which was transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria, as a result of which Catholics received a numerical superiority in the college of electors. Although the Upper Palatinate had to swear allegiance to Maximilian already in 1621, however, the formal accession took place only in 1629. The second period of the war was the Lower Saxon-Danish period, from 1625 to 1629. From the very beginning of the war, lively diplomatic relations began between all the Protestant sovereigns of Europe , in order to work out some measures against the overwhelming power of the Habsburgs. Restricted by the emperor and the Ligists, the German Protestant princes entered into early relations with the Scandinavian kings. In 1624, negotiations began on an evangelical union, in which, in addition to German Protestants, Sweden, Denmark, England and the Netherlands were to take part. Gustavus Adolphus, busy at that time fighting Poland, could not provide direct assistance to the Protestants; they found the conditions set by him excessive and therefore turned to Christian IV of Denmark. To understand the determination of this king to intervene in German war, one should keep in mind his claims to dominance in the Baltic Sea and the desire to expand his possessions in the south, concentrating in the hands of his dynasty the bishoprics of Bremen, Verden, Halberstadt and Osnabrück, that is, lands along the Elbe and Weser. These political motives of Christian IV were joined by religious ones: the spread of Catholic reaction threatened Schleswig-Holstein as well. On the side of Christian IV were Wolfenbüttel, Weimar, Mecklenburg and Magdeburg. The command of the troops was divided between Christian IV and Mansfeld. The imperial army, under the command of Wallenstein (40,000 people), also joined the Ligist army (Tilli). Mansfeld was defeated on April 25, 1626 at the Dessau bridge and fled to Bethlen Gabor, and then to Bosnia, where he died; Christian IV was defeated at Lutter on August 27 of the same year; Tilly forced the king to retreat behind the Elbe and, together with Wallenstein, occupied all of Jutland and Mecklenburg, whose dukes were subjected to imperial disgrace and were deprived of their possessions. In February 1628, the title of Duke of Mecklenburg was granted to Wallenstein, who in April of the same year was appointed General of the Oceanic and Baltic Seas. Ferdinand II had in mind to establish himself on the banks Baltic Sea , subjugate the free Hanseatic cities and thus seize dominance at sea, to the detriment of the Netherlands and the Scandinavian kingdoms. The success of Catholic propaganda in the north and east of Europe also depended on its approval in the Baltic Sea. After unsuccessful attempts to win over the Hanseatic cities by peaceful means, Ferdinand decided to achieve his goal by force and instructed Wallenstein to occupy the most important harbors in the south. coast of the Baltic Sea. Wallenstein began with the siege of Stralsund; it dragged on due to the assistance provided to the city by Gustav-Adolf, who was afraid of the establishment of the Habsburgs in northern Germany, mainly because of his relations with Poland. On June 25, 1628, an agreement was concluded between Gustavus Adolphus and Stralsund; the protectorate over the city was transferred to the king. Ferdinand, in order to further win over the Catholic princes of Germany, issued, in March 1629, a restitution edict, by virtue of which all the lands taken from them since 1552 were returned to the Catholics. The execution of the edict began primarily in the imperial cities - Augsburg, Ulm, Regensburg and Kaufbeyern. In 1629 Christian IV, having exhausted all resources, had to conclude a separate peace with the emperor in Lübeck. Wallenstein was also in favor of making peace, not without reason fearing the imminent intervention of Sweden. Peace was signed on May 2 (12). All lands occupied by the imperial and Ligist troops were returned to the king. The Danish period of the war was over; the third began - Swedish, from 1630 to 1635. The reasons that caused Sweden's participation in the Thirty Years' War were mainly political - the desire for dominance in the Baltic Sea; the latter, according to the king, depended on the economic well-being of Sweden. Protestants at first saw in the Swedish king only a religious fighter; later it became clear to them that the struggle was not de religione, but de regione. Gustavus Adolphus landed on the island of Usedom in June 1630. His appearance in the theater of war coincides with a split in the Catholic League. The Catholic princes, true to their principle, willingly supported the emperor against the Protestants; but, noticing in the policy of the emperor the desire for absolute dominance in the empire and fearing for their autonomy, they demanded the resignation of Wallenstein from the emperor. Maximilian of Bavaria became the head of the princely opposition; the requirements of the princes were supported by foreign diplomacy, in particular. Richelieu. Ferdinand had to yield: in 1630 Wallenstein was dismissed. To please the princes, the emperor restored the dukes of Mecklenburg to their lands; in gratitude for this, the princes at the Diet of Regensburg agreed to elect the son of the emperor, the future Ferdinand III, to the Roman kings. centrifugal forces again gaining preponderance in the empire with the resignation of the imperial commander. All this, of course, played into the hands of Gustavus Adolphus. In view of the unwillingness of Saxony and Brandenburg to join Sweden, the king had to move deep into Germany with great caution. First, he cleared the Baltic coast and Pomerania from imperial troops, then went up the Oder to besiege Frankfurt and divert Tilly from Protestant Magdeburg. Frankfurt surrendered to the Swedes almost without resistance. Gustav wanted, without delay, to go to the aid of Magdeburg, but the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg did not give him a pass through their lands. The first to yield was Georg-Wilhelm of Brandenburg; John George of Saxony persisted. Negotiations dragged on; Magdeburg fell in May 1631, Tilly betrayed it to fire and robbery and moved against the Swedes. In January 1631, Gustavus Adolphus concluded an agreement with France (in Berwald), which pledged to support Sweden with money in its struggle against the Habsburgs. Upon learning of Tilly's movement, the king took refuge in Verbena; all Tilly's attempts to take this fortification were in vain. After losing many men, he invaded Saxony, hoping to persuade John George to join the league. The elector of Saxony turned for help to Gustav-Adolf, who moved into Saxony and utterly defeated Tilly at Breitenfeld, September 7, 1631. The army of the league was destroyed; the king became the protector of the German Protestants. The troops of the elector, joining the Swedish, invaded Bohemia and occupied Prague. Gustavus Adolf in the spring of 1632 entered Bavaria. Tilly was defeated for the second time by the Swedes at Lech and soon died. Bavaria was all in the hands of the Swedes. Ferdinand II was forced to turn again to Wallenstein for help; Maximilian of Bavaria himself petitioned for this. Wallenstein was instructed to form a large army; the emperor appointed him commander with unlimited power. Wallenstein's first act was to expel the Saxons from Bohemia; he then advanced on Nuremberg. Gustavus Adolphus hastened to help this city. Near Nuremberg, both troops stood for several weeks. The attack of the Swedes on the fortified camp of Wallenstein was repulsed. Gustavus Adolphus, in order to distract Wallenstein from Nuremberg, returned to Bavaria; Wallenstein moved to Saxony. The king, by virtue of an agreement with the elector, had to rush to his aid. He overtook Wallenstein at Luzen, where he fought him in November 1632 and died a heroic death; his place was taken by Bernhard of Weimar and Gustav Horn. The Swedes won, Wallenstein retreated. Upon the death of the king, the leadership of affairs passed to his chancellor, Axel Oxenstierne, "legate of Sweden in Germany." At the Heilbron Convention (1633), Oxenstierna achieved the connection of the Protestant districts - Franconian, Swabian and Rhine - with Sweden. An evangelical union was formed; Oxenstierna was appointed its director. Wallenstein, after Lutzen, retreated to Bohemia; here the thought ripened in him to fall away from the emperor. The Swedes occupied Regensburg and took up winter quarters in the Upper Palatinate. In 1634 Wallenstein was killed in Eger. Imperial High Command troops passed to Archduke Ferdinand Gallas and Piccolomini. Having recaptured Regensburg from the Swedes, they inflicted a decisive defeat on them at Nördlingen (Sept. 1634). Horn was taken prisoner, Bernhard with a small detachment fled to Alsace, where he continued the war with the help of French subsidies. The Heilbron League collapsed. Louis XIII, for the cession of Alsace, promised the Protestants 12,000 troops. The Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg concluded a separate peace with the emperor (Prague Treaty of 1635). The example of both Electors was soon followed by some less important principalities. In order to prevent the Habsburg policy from reaching a full triumph, Active participation in the war takes from 1635 France. The war was waged by her both with Spain and with the emperor. The fourth, French-Swedish period of the war lasted from 1635 to 1648. John Banner commanded the Swedish troops. He attacked the Elector of Saxony, who had changed the cause of the Protestants, defeated him at Wittstock (1636), occupied Erfurt and devastated Saxony. Banner was opposed by Gallas; Banner locked himself in Torgau, withstood the attack of the imperial troops for 4 months (from March to June 1637), but was forced to retreat to Pomerania. In February 1637 Ferdinand II died; his son Ferdinand III (1637-57) became emperor. In Sweden, the most vigorous measures were taken to continue the war. 1637 and 1638 were the most difficult years for the Swedes. The imperial troops also suffered a lot, Gallas was forced to retreat from northern Germany. Banner pursued him and at Chemnitz (1639) inflicted a severe defeat on him, after which he made a devastating raid on Bohemia. Bernhard of Weimar commanded the western army; he crossed the Rhine several times and in 1638 defeated the imperial troops at Rheinfelden. After a long siege, Breizakh was also taken. Upon Bernhard's death in 1639, his army went over to the French service and came under the command of Gebrian. Together with him, Banner had in mind to attack Regensburg, where at that time the Reichstag was opened by Ferdinand III; but the coming thaw prevented the implementation of this plan. Banner moved through Bohemia to Saxony, where he died in 1641. Torstensson replaced him. He invaded Moravia and Silesia, and in 1642 in Saxony he defeated Piccolomini at the Battle of Breitenfeld, again invaded Moravia and threatened to march on Vienna, but in September 1643 he was called to the north, where the struggle between Sweden and Denmark resumed. Gallas followed Thorstenson on his heels. Having cleared Jutland from Danish troops, Torstensson turned south and defeated Gallas at Juterbock in 1614, after which he appeared for the third time in the emperor's hereditary lands and defeated Götz and Gatzfeld at Jankov in Bohemia (1645). Hoping for Rakoczy's help, Torstensson had in mind a campaign against Vienna, but since he did not receive help by the deadline, he retreated north. Due to illness, he had to transfer the authorities to Wrangel. During this time, France focused all its attention on West Germany. Gebrian defeated the imperial troops near Kempen (1642); Conde in 1643 defeated the Spaniards at Rocroi. After the death of Gebrian, the French were defeated by the Bavarian General Mercy and von Werth, but with the appointment of Turenne as commander-in-chief, things again acquired a favorable turn for France. The entire Rhine Palatinate was in the hands of the French. After the battles of Mergentheim (1645, the French defeated) and Allerheim (the Imperials defeated), Turenne linked up with Wrangel and together they decided to invade southern Germany. Bavaria was forced to break its alliance with the emperor and conclude a truce in Ulm (1647), but Maximilian changed his word and the combined French and Swedish troops, who had just defeated the emperor. commander Melandra at Zusmarshausen, made a devastating invasion of Bavaria, and from there to Württemberg. At the same time, another Swedish army, under the command of Koenigsmark and Wittenberg, successfully operated in Bohemia. Prague almost became the prey of Königsmark. From September 1648, Wrangel's place was taken by Carl Gustav, Count Palatine of the Rhine. The siege of Prague begun by him was lifted with the news of the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia. The war ended under the walls of the city in which it began. Peace negotiations between the warring powers began as early as 1643, in Münster and Osnabrück; in the first, there were negotiations with French diplomats, in the second - with Swedish ones. On October 24, 1648, peace was concluded, known under the name of Westphalia (see). The economic condition of Germany after the war was the most difficult; the enemies remained in it long after 1648, and the old order of things was restored very slowly. The population of Germany decreased significantly; in Württemberg, for example, the population grew from 400,000 to 48,000; in Bavaria it also decreased by 10 times. Literature on 30 sheets. the war is very extensive. Of the contemporaries, Pufendorf and Chemnitz should be noted, from latest research- the works of Charvériat (French), Gindely (German), Gardiner "a (English), Cronholm" a (Swedish; there is a German translation) and Volume II of the Baltic Question in the 17th century, Forsten.

G. Forsten.

encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - St. Petersburg: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .

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The first common European a war between two large groupings of powers: the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs), striving for dominance over the entire Christian world, supported by the papacy, Catholic. princes of Germany and Polish Litov. gosh, and… … Soviet historical encyclopedia

The first all-European war between two large groupings of powers: the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs) striving for dominance over the entire "Christian world", supported by the papacy, Catholic princes ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Thirty Years' War 1618-48 between the Habsburg bloc (Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Catholic princes of Germany, supported by the papacy and the Commonwealth) and the anti-Habsburg coalition (German Protestant princes, France, Sweden ... Historical dictionary

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The 17th century is characterized by the unification of states, which, like people under the influence of church schism and despite the emergence of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League, they began to change and find common ground with each other. Unfortunately, the desire of states to unite was marked by a terrible devastating thirty-year war, which covered the space of Europe from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the banks of the Po River and the mouth of the Scheldt.

The old church, mired in the abuse of its own power and the assertion of absurd teachings, revolted not only the people, but also the ruling sovereigns. And to the considerable benefit of Europe, the interests of the peoples coincided with the interests of statesmen. The benefit of the rulers went hand in hand with the interest of the subjects. The Reformation coincided with the sudden power of the Austrian Habsburgs, who threatened the freedom of the European peoples.

The Thirty Years' War is divided into four periods. Bohemian-Palatinate stage from 1618 to 1623. Danish period of the war - 1624 - 1629 The Swedish period includes 1630 - 1634. The last period of the Thirty Years' War, the Franco-Swedish, falls on 1635 - 1648.

Czech period

Open military confrontation began with the Czech uprising against the ruling House of Austria. The Kingdom of the Czech Republic occupied not the last place in the Holy Roman Empire, the nobles of the Czech Republic led an active lifestyle, revolving in enlightened European circles, their ties with Germany were especially friendly. Archduke Ferdinand of Styria, proclaimed heir by Emperor Matthew, abolished the rights of Czech Protestants enshrined in the Letter of Majesty.

On May 23, 1618, the "Prague defenestration" took place, during which the imperial governors were thrown out of the windows of the town hall, "miraculously" escaping by landing on a dunghill, it was the official beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 30 directors, elected by the Czech Sejm to the government of Bohemia and Moravia, were able to strengthen the army and expel the Jesuits. Count Jindrich Matthias Thurn was able to inflict several defeats on the imperial troops, and led the army under the walls of Vienna.

Despite the fact that the rebel forces conducted successful fighting in different directions, because of the disagreements that prevailed among the Czech commanders, the lost time, as well as the unusually vigorous activity of the outwardly good-natured Ferdinand, the Czechs began to give up their positions. Albrecht Wallenstein led an army of mercenaries from Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Imperial Field Marshal Buqua defeated the Czechs at the Battle of Sablat. Ferdinand's diplomacy was also successful. Bavaria and Saxony took the side of the empire, Spain, Tuscany and Genoa sent armies to help the emperor.

On November 8, 1620, Catholic troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Czech-Moravian rebels in a fierce battle near the White Mountain. Wallenstein's mercenaries, the Polish Cossacks of Lisovsky and the Hungarian haiduks, called upon to fight the "foxes", terrified the Czechs and completely deprived them of the will to resist. The "era of darkness" has come, the Czech Republic has become an ordinary province of Austria.

Danish phase of the war

After the suppression of the Czech uprising, the flames of war engulfed new lands. Fearing the strengthening of Austria, Denmark and Sweden entered the war. England and France supported the Danish king financially. Encouraged by the allies, Christian moved troops against the empire, but it was not there. In fact, the Allies did not support Denmark, busy with their own, both external and internal Civil Wars, and in addition, the plague was decimating Europe.

In the battles of Dessau and near the village of Lutter, the Danes were finally defeated by Wallenstein and Tilly. In Lübeck in 1629, a peace was concluded according to which Denmark did not interfere in the affairs of Germany, in addition, consolidating the victory over the Danes, Ferdinand proclaimed the Restructuring Edict, which prohibited Calvinism.

Swedish period

The strengthening of the Habsburgs gave rise to European confrontation. Guided by Richelieu, the ambitious Swedish king, who dreamed of an empire in the center of Europe, landed his troops in Pomerania. The army of Gustavus Adolphus was manned by mercenaries accustomed to fighting and free Swedish peasants who were armed with modern flintlock guns and light field artillery. Swedish troops won a series of victories and reached Berlin.

The empire was in danger of defeat were it not for the genius of Wallenstein. The Swedes lost their king at the Battle of Lutzen. Wallenstein, with a 100,000 army, had a rather power-hungry character, and became objectionable to Ferdinand, who suspected Friedlanz of treason. Hired assassins eliminated the Generalissimo. Further successes of the imperial army caused a truce between the warring parties, but not for long, but only for the war to move into the phase of a European conflict.

Franco-Swedish period

The anti-Habsburg coalition, led by France, having in its arsenal 180,000 army of Berengardus, inflicted endless defeats on the Habsburgs, and despite the resistance of the Austrians, came close to Vienna.

Aftermath of the Thirty Years' War

In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded. The Habsburg Empire lost significant territories and its influence on European politics. France received Alsace and the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun, 10 cities of the empire, and several other settlements. The German principalities expanded their borders considerably. Holland and Switzerland became independent.

But the greatest benefit was from Sweden, the territory of Western Pomerania and the regions of Eastern Pomerania, the island of Rügen, the cities of Wismar and Stetin, control over the rivers Oder, Elbe, and Weser, as well as the entire Baltic coast passed to it. The Swedish king became an imperial prince and was given the opportunity to interfere in the affairs of the empire. The Austrian empire of the Habsburgs was in decline, and Germany and the Czech Republic were subjected to unprecedented ruin.

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

Emperor Matthew (1612-1619) was just as incapable a ruler as his brother Rudolph, especially given the tense state of affairs in Germany, when an inevitable and cruel struggle threatened between Protestants and Catholics. The struggle was accelerated by the fact that the childless Matthew appointed his cousin Ferdinand of Styria as his successor in Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. The steadfast character and Catholic jealousy of Ferdinand were well known; Catholics and Jesuits rejoiced that their time had come; Protestants and Hussites (Utraquists) in Bohemia could not expect anything good for themselves. The Bohemian Protestants built two churches for themselves on the monastic lands. The question arose - do they have the right to do so or not? The government decided that it was not, and one church was locked up, another was ruined. defenders, granted to the Protestants by the “Letter of Majesty”, gathered and sent a complaint to Emperor Matthew in Hungary; the emperor refused and forbade the defenders to gather for further meetings. This terribly annoyed the Protestants; they attributed such a decision to the imperial advisers who ruled Bohemia in the absence of Matthew, they were especially angry with two of them, Martinitz and Slavat, distinguished by Catholic zeal.

In the heat of irritation, the Hussite deputies of the state Bohemian ranks armed themselves and, under the leadership of Count Turn, went to Prague Castle, where the board met. Entering the hall, they began to speak in large words with the advisers and soon turned from words to deeds: they seized Martinits, Slavata and secretary Fabricius and threw them out of the window “according to the good old Czech custom,” as one of those present put it (1618). By this act, the Czechs broke with the government. The ranks seized the government into their own hands, expelled the Jesuits from the country and put up an army under the leadership of Turn.

Periods of the Thirty Years' War

Czech period (1618–1625)

The war began in 1619 and began happily for the insurgents; Thurn was joined by Ernst von Mansfeld, the daring leader of the mob squads; the Silesian, Lusatian and Moravian ranks raised the same banner with the Czechs and drove the Jesuits away from them; the imperial army was forced to clear Bohemia; Matthew died, and his successor, Ferdinand II, was besieged in Vienna itself by the troops of Thurn, with whom the Austrian Protestants joined.

In this terrible danger, the steadfastness of the new emperor saved the throne of the Habsburgs; Ferdinand held on tight and held out until bad weather, lack of money and provisions forced Thurn to lift the siege of Vienna.

Count Tilly. Van Dyck painter, c. 1630

In Frankfurt, Ferdinand II was proclaimed emperor, and at the same time the ranks of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia broke away from the House of Habsburg and elected the head of the Protestant union, Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate, as king. Frederick accepted the crown and hurried to Prague for the coronation. The nature of the main rivals had an important influence on the outcome of the struggle: against the smart and firm Ferdinand II, the empty, unrestrained Frederick V stood. In addition to the emperor, the Catholics also had Maximilian of Bavaria, strong in personal and material means; on the side of the Protestants, Maximilian corresponded to the Elector John George of Saxony, but the correspondence between them was limited to material means alone, for John George bore the not very honorable title of the beer king; there was a rumor that he said that the animals that inhabited his forests were dearer to him than his subjects; finally, John George, as a Lutheran, did not want to have anything to do with the Calvinist Frederick V and leaned on the side of Austria when Ferdinand promised him the land of the puddles (Lusatia). Finally, the Protestants, beside the incapable princes, did not have capable commanders, while Maximilian of Bavaria accepted into his service the famous general, the Dutchman Tilly. The fight was uneven.

Frederick V arrived in Prague, but from the very beginning he behaved badly in his affairs, he did not get along with the Czech nobles, not allowing them to participate in the affairs of government, obeying only his Germans; he also pushed away the people from his passion for luxury and fun, also by Calvin iconoclasm: all the images of saints, paintings and relics were taken out of the Prague Cathedral Church. Meanwhile, Ferdinand II concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, with Spain, attracted the Elector of Saxony to his side, and brought Austrian officials into obedience.

The troops of the emperor and the Catholic League, under the command of Tilly, appeared near Prague. In November 1620, a battle took place between them and the troops of Frederick at the White Mountain, Tilly won. Despite this misfortune, the Czechs did not have the means to continue the struggle, but their king Frederick completely lost his spirit and fled from Bohemia. Deprived of a leader, unity and direction of movement, the Czechs could not continue the struggle, and in a few months Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia were again subdued under the power of the House of Habsburg.

Bitter was the fate of the vanquished: 30,000 families had to leave the fatherland; instead of them, a population alien to the Slavs and Czech history appeared. Bohemia was considered to have 30,000 inhabited places; only 11,000 remained after the war; before the war there were over 4 million inhabitants; in 1648 no more than 800,000 remained. A third of the land was confiscated; the Jesuits rushed to the prey: in order to break the closest connection between Bohemia and its past, in order to inflict the heaviest blow on the Czech people, they began to destroy books in the Czech language as heretical; one Jesuit boasted that he had burned over 60,000 volumes. It is clear what fate must have awaited Protestantism in Bohemia; two Lutheran pastors remained in Prague, whom they did not dare to expel, for fear of arousing the indignation of the Saxon elector; but the papal legate of Caraffa insisted that the emperor give the order to expel them. “The matter is going on,” said Caraffa, “not about two pastors, but about freedom of religion; as long as they are tolerated in Prague, not a single Czech will enter the bosom of the Church.” Some Catholics, the king of Spain himself, wanted to moderate the jealousy of the legate, but he did not pay attention to their ideas. “The intolerance of the House of Austria,” said the Protestants, “forced the Czechs to revolt.” “Heresy,” said Caraffa, “ignited a rebellion.” Emperor Ferdinand II expressed himself more strongly. "God himself," he said, "incited the Czechs to rebellion in order to give me the right and the means to destroy the heresy." The Emperor tore up the Letter of Majesty with his own hands.

The means for the destruction of heresy were as follows: Protestants were forbidden to engage in any kind of skill, they were forbidden to marry, make wills, bury their dead, although they had to pay the cost of burial to the Catholic priest; they were not allowed into hospitals; soldiers with sabers in their hands drove them into churches, in the villages the peasants were driven there with dogs and whips; the soldiers were followed by Jesuits and Capuchins, and when a Protestant, in order to save himself from a dog and a whip, announced that he was converting to the Roman Church, he first of all had to declare that this conversion was made voluntarily. The imperial troops allowed themselves terrible cruelties in Bohemia: one officer ordered the killing of 15 women and 24 children; a detachment consisting of Hungarians burned seven villages, and all living things were exterminated, the soldiers chopped off the hands of babies and pinned them to their hats in the form of trophies.

After the battle of White Mountain, three Protestant princes continued to fight the league: Duke Christian of Brunswick, Ernst Mansfeld, already known to us, and Margrave Georg Friedrich of Baden-Durlach. But these defenders of Protestantism acted in exactly the same way as the champions of Catholicism: unfortunate Germany now had to experience what Russia experienced shortly before in the Time of Troubles and once experienced France in its time of troubles under Charles VI and Charles VII; the troops of the Duke of Brunswick and Mansfeld consisted of combined squads, completely similar to our Cossack squads of the Time of Troubles or the French Arminaks; people of different classes, who wanted to live merrily at the expense of others, flocked from everywhere under the banner of these leaders, not receiving salaries from the latter, lived by robbery and, like animals, raged against the peaceful population. German sources, in describing the horrors that Mansfeld's soldiers allowed themselves, almost repeat the news of our chroniclers about the ferocity of the Cossacks.

Danish period (1625–1629)

The Protestant partisans could not stand against Tilly, who triumphed everywhere, and Protestant Germany showed a complete incapacity for self-defence. Ferdinand II declared Frederick V deprived of the electoral dignity, which he transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. But the strengthening of the emperor, the strengthening of the House of Austria, was to arouse fear in the powers and force them to support the German Protestants against Ferdinand II; at the same time, the Protestant powers, Denmark, Sweden intervened in the war, besides political, and from religious motives, while Catholic France, ruled by the cardinal of the Roman Church, began to support the Protestants from purely political goals in order to prevent the House of Habsburg from gaining dangerously for her.

The first to intervene in the war was Christian IV, the Danish king. Emperor Ferdinand, who until now was dependent on the league, triumphant through Tilly, the commander Maximilian of Bavaria, now set his army against the Danish king, his commander: it was the famous Wallenstein (Waldstein) Wallenstein was a Czech of humble noble origin; born in Protestantism, he entered the house as an orphan as a minor, to a Catholic uncle, who converted him to Catholicism, gave him up to the Jesuits, and then enrolled him in the service of the Habsburgs. Here he distinguished himself in Ferdinand's war against Venice, then in the Bohemian war; having made a fortune for himself in his youth by a profitable marriage, he became even richer by buying up confiscated estates in Bohemia after the Battle of Belogorsk. He suggested to the emperor that he would recruit 50,000 troops and support him, without demanding anything from the treasury, if he was given unlimited power over this army and rewarded from the conquered lands. The emperor agreed, and Wallenstein fulfilled his promise: 50,000 people really gathered around him, ready to go wherever there was prey. This huge Wallenstein squad brought Germany to the last stage of disaster: having captured some terrain, Wallenstein's soldiers began by disarming the inhabitants, then indulged in systematic robbery, sparing neither churches nor graves; having plundered everything that was in sight, the soldiers began to torture the inhabitants in order to force out an indication of hidden treasures, they managed to invent tortures, one more terrible than the other; finally, the demon of destruction took possession of them: without any benefit to themselves, out of a single thirst for extermination, they burned houses, burned utensils, agricultural implements; they stripped men and women naked and let hungry dogs on them, which they took with them for this hunt. The Danish War lasted from 1624 to 1629. Christian IV could not resist the forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Holstein, Schleswig, Jutland were deserted; Wallenstein had already announced to the Danes that they would be treated like slaves if they did not elect Ferdinand II as their king. Wallenstein conquered Silesia, expelled the Dukes of Mecklenburg from their possessions, which he received as a fief from the emperor, the Duke of Pomeranian was also forced to leave his possessions. Christian IV of Denmark, in order to preserve his possessions, was forced to make peace (in Lübeck), pledging not to interfere anymore in German affairs. In March 1629, the emperor issued the so-called Restorative edict, according to which Catholic Church all her possessions, captured by the Protestants after the Treaty of Passava, were returned; apart from the Lutherans of the Augsburg Confession, the Calvinists and all other Protestant sects were excluded from the religious world. The Restorative Edict was issued to please the Catholic League; but soon this league, i.e., its leader Maximilian of Bavaria, demanded something else from Ferdinand: when the emperor expressed a desire that the league withdraw its troops from there to facilitate Franconia and Swabia, Maximilian, in the name of the league, demanded that the emperor himself dismiss Wallenstein and dissolve him an army that, with its robberies and cruelties, seeks to completely devastate the empire.

Portrait of Albrecht von Wallenstein

The imperial princes hated Wallenstein, an upstart who, from a simple nobleman and leader of a huge band of robbers, became a prince, insulted them with his proud address and did not hide his intention to place the imperial princes in the same relation to the emperor, in which the French nobility was to their king; Maximilian of Bavaria called Wallenstein "dictator of Germany". The Catholic clergy hated Wallenstein because he did not care at all about the interests of Catholicism, about spreading it in the areas occupied by his army; Wallenstein allowed himself to say: “One hundred years have already passed since Rome was in last time plundered; now he must be much richer than in the time of Charles V. Ferdinand II had to give in to the general hatred against Wallenstein and took away his command over the army. Wallenstein retired to his Bohemian estates, waiting for a more favorable time; he did not wait long.

Swedish period (1630–1635)

Portrait of Gustav II Adolf

France, ruled by Cardinal Richelieu, could not indifferently see the strengthening of the House of Habsburg. Cardinal Richelieu first tried to oppose Ferdinand II with the strongest Catholic prince of the empire, the head of the league. He presented to Maximilian of Bavaria that the interests of all German princes required resistance to the growing power of the emperor, that the best remedy to maintain German freedom consists in taking the imperial crown from the House of Austria; the cardinal urged Maximilian to take the place of Ferdinand II, to become emperor, vouching for the help of France and its allies. When the head of the Catholic League did not succumb to the seductions of the cardinal, the latter turned to the Protestant sovereign, who alone was willing and able to fight against the Habsburgs. It was the Swedish king Gustavus Adolf, son and successor of Charles IX.

Energetic, gifted, and highly educated, Gustavus Adolphus, from the very beginning of his reign, waged successful wars with his neighbors, and these wars, by developing his military abilities, strengthened his desire for a role greater than the modest role played in Europe by his predecessors. He ended the war with Russia with the Peace of Stolbov, beneficial to Sweden, and considered himself entitled to announce to the Swedish Senate that the dangerous Muscovites were driven away from the Baltic Sea for a long time. On the Polish throne sat his cousin and mortal enemy Sigismund III, from whom he took Livonia. But Sigismund, as a zealous Catholic, was an ally of Ferdinand II, therefore, the power of the latter strengthened the Polish king and threatened Sweden with great danger; relatives of Gustav-Adolf, the dukes of Mecklenburg, were deprived of their possessions, and thanks to Wallenstein, Austria was established on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Gustavus Adolphus understood the basic laws of European political life and wrote to his chancellor Oxenstierna: “All European wars are one huge war. It is more profitable to transfer the war to Germany than to be forced to defend oneself in Sweden later. Finally, religious convictions imposed on the Swedish king the obligation to prevent the destruction of Protestantism in Germany. That is why Gustav-Adolf willingly accepted Richelieu's proposal to act against the House of Austria in alliance with France, which meanwhile tried to settle peace between Sweden and Poland and thus untied Gustav-Adolf's hands.

In June 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed on the shores of Pomerania and soon cleared this country of imperial troops. The religiosity and discipline of the Swedish army were in striking contrast to the predatory character of the army of the league and the emperor, so the people in Protestant Germany received the Swedes very cordially; from the princes of Protestant Germany, the Dukes of Lüneburg, Weimar, Lauenburg and the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel took the side of the Swedes; but the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony were very reluctant to see the entry of the Swedes into Germany and remained inactive to the last extreme, despite the exhortations of Richelieu. The cardinal advised all the German princes, Catholics and Protestants, to take advantage of the Swedish war, unite and force the emperor to make peace, which would ensure their rights; if they now split up, some will become for the Swedes, others for the emperor, then this will lead to the final destruction of their fatherland; having one interest, they must act together against a common enemy.

Tilly, who now commanded the troops of the league and the emperor together, spoke out against the Swedes. In the autumn of 1631, he met with Gustavus Adolf at Leipzig, was defeated, lost 7,000 of his best troops and retreated, giving the winner an open road to the south. In the spring of 1632, the second meeting of Gustav-Adolf with Tilly took place, which was strengthened at the confluence of the Lech into the Danube. Tilly could not defend the Lech crossings and received a wound from which he soon died. Gustavus Adolphus occupied Munich, while the Saxon troops entered Bohemia and captured Prague. In such an extreme case, Emperor Ferdinand II turned to Wallenstein. He forced himself to beg for a long time, finally agreed to again create an army and save Austria on the condition of unlimited disposal and rich land rewards. As soon as the news spread that the Duke of Friedland (the title of Wallenstein) had resumed his activities, seekers of prey rushed to him from all sides. Having ousted the Saxons from Bohemia, Wallenstein moved to the borders of Bavaria, fortified not far from Nuremberg, repulsed the attack of the Swedes on his camp and rushed into Saxony, still devastating everything in his path like locusts. Gustavus Adolf hurried after him to save Saxony. On November 6, 1632, the Battle of Lützen took place: the Swedes won, but lost their king.

The behavior of Gustavus Adolf in Germany after the Leipzig victory aroused the suspicion that he wanted to establish himself in this country and receive imperial dignity: for example, in some places he ordered the inhabitants to swear allegiance to him, did not return the Palatinate to his former elector Frederick, persuaded the German princes to join the Swedish service; he said that he was not a mercenary, that he could not be satisfied with money alone, that Protestant Germany should separate from Catholic Germany under a special head, that the structure of the German Empire was outdated, that the empire was a dilapidated building fit for rats and mice, and not for man.

The strengthening of the Swedes in Germany particularly alarmed Cardinal Richelieu, who, in the interests of France, did not want Germany to have a strong emperor, Catholic or Protestant. France wanted to take advantage of the present turmoil in Germany to increase her possessions and let Gustavus Adolf know that she wanted to regain the heritage of the Frankish kings; to this the Swedish king replied that he had come to Germany not as an enemy or a traitor, but as a patron, and therefore could not agree that at least one village should be taken away from her; he also did not want to allow the French army to enter German soil. That is why Richelieu was very happy about the death of Gustavus Adolphe and wrote in his memoirs that this death delivered Christianity from many evils. But by Christianity we must understand here France, which really gained a lot from the death of the Swedish king, having received the opportunity to interfere directly in the affairs of Germany and get more than one village from her.

After the death of Gustavus Adolf, the rule of Sweden for infancy only daughter him and the heiress Christina passed to state council, who decided to continue the war in Germany and entrusted its conduct to the famous statesman Chancellor Axel Oxenstierne. The strongest Protestant sovereigns of Germany, the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, shied away from the Swedish alliance; Oxenstierna managed to conclude an alliance in Heilbronn (in April 1633) only with the Protestant ranks of Franconia, Swabia, the Upper and Lower Rhine. The Germans inspired Oxenstierna not a very favorable opinion of themselves. “Instead of going about their business, they only get drunk,” he told a French diplomat. Richelieu in his notes says about the Germans that they are ready to betray their most sacred obligations for money. Oxenstierna was appointed director of the Heilbronn League; command over the army was entrusted to Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and the Swedish General Gorn; France helped with money.

Meanwhile, Wallenstein, after the Battle of Lützen, began to show much less energy and enterprise than before. For a long time he remained inactive in Bohemia, then went to Silesia and Lusatia and after minor battles concluded a truce with enemies and entered into negotiations with the Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg and Oxenscherna; these negotiations were conducted without the knowledge of the Vienna court and aroused strong suspicion here. He freed Count Thurn, the implacable enemy of the House of Habsburg, from captivity, and instead of expelling the Swedes from Bavaria, he again settled in Bohemia, which suffered terribly from his army. From everything it was clear that he was looking for the death of his implacable enemy, Maximilian of Bavaria, and, knowing the intrigues of his enemies, he wanted to ensure himself from a secondary fall. Numerous opponents of him and envious people spread rumors that he wants With help the Swedes to become an independent Bohemian king. The emperor believed these suggestions and decided to get rid of Wallenstein.

Three of the most important generals in the army of the Duke of Friedland plotted against their commander in chief, and Wallenstein was killed at the beginning of 1634 in Jaeger. Thus perished the most famous ataman of a rabble gang, which, fortunately for Europe, no longer appeared in it after the Thirty Years' War. The war, especially at the beginning, was of a religious nature; but the soldiers of Tilly and Wallenstein did not rage out of religious fanaticism at all: they exterminated Catholics and Protestants alike, both their own and others. Wallenstein was a complete representative of his soldiers, was indifferent to faith, but believed in the stars, diligently studied astrology.

After the death of Wallenstein, the emperor's son Ferdinand assumed command of the imperial army. In the autumn of 1634, the imperial troops joined with the Bavarian troops and utterly defeated the Swedes at Nördlingen, Horn was captured. The elector of Saxony concluded a separate peace with the emperor in Prague, Brandenburg and other German princes followed his example; only Hesse-Kassel, Badei and Wirtemberg remained in the Swedish alliance.

Franco-Swedish period (1635–1648)

France took advantage of the weakening of the Swedes after the Battle of Nördlingen to clearly intervene in the affairs of Germany, restore balance between the fighting parties and receive a rich reward for this. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, after the Nördlingen defeat, turned to France with a request for help; Richelieu concluded an agreement with him, according to which Bernhard's army was to be kept at the expense of France; Oxenstierna went to Paris and received a promise that a strong French corps would act in concert with the Swedes against the emperor; finally, Richelieu made an alliance with Holland against the Spanish, allies of the emperor.

In 1636, military happiness again went over to the side of the Swedes, who were commanded by General Baner. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar also happily fought on the Upper Rhine. He died in 1639, and the French took advantage of his death: they captured Alsace, which they had previously promised to Bernhard, and took his army for themselves as a mercenary. The French army appeared in southern Germany to act here against the Austrians and Bavarians. On the other hand, the French were active in the Spanish Netherlands: the young Prince of Conde began his brilliant career by defeating the Spaniards at Rocroix.

Peace of Westphalia 1648

Meanwhile, in February 1637, Emperor Ferdinand II died, and under his son, Ferdinand III, peace negotiations began in Westphalia in 1643: in Osnabrück between the emperor and the Catholics on the one hand, and between the Swedes and Protestants on the other; in Munster - between Germany and France. The latter was then more powerful than all the states of Europe, and its claims aroused just fears. The French government did not hide its plans: according to Richelieu, two works were written (Dupuy and Cassan), which proved the rights of the French kings to various kingdoms, duchies, counties, cities and countries; it appeared that Castile, Arragon, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Naples, Milan, Genoa, the Netherlands, England must belong to France; imperial dignity belongs to the French kings as the heirs of Charlemagne. The writers reached the point of being ridiculous, but Richelieu himself, without demanding Portugal and England, explained to Louis XIII about "natural boundaries" France. “It is not necessary,” he said, “to imitate the Spaniards, who are always trying to spread their possessions; France must think only about how to strengthen itself in itself, it is necessary to establish itself in Maine and reach Strasbourg, but at the same time it is necessary to act slowly and carefully; one can also think of Navarre and Franche-Comte.” Before his death, the cardinal said: “The purpose of my ministry was to return to Gaul its ancient borders assigned to it nature compare the new Gaul in everything with the ancient. It is not surprising, therefore, that during the Westphalian negotiations, the Spanish diplomats began to curry favor with the Dutch, even ventured to tell the latter that the Dutch waged a just war against Spain, for they defended their freedom; but it would be highly imprudent of them to help France to grow stronger in their neighbourhood. Spanish diplomats promised two Dutch commissioners 200,000 thalers; the king of France wrote to his representatives whether it was possible to persuade the Dutch to his side by some gift.

In October 1648, the negotiations ended. France received the Austrian part of Alsace, Sundgau, Breisach, with the preservation for the imperial cities and the owners of their former relations with the empire. Sweden received most of Pomerania, the island of Rügen, the city of Wismar, the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, also with the preservation of their former relations with Germany. Brandenburg received part of Pomerania and several bishoprics; Saxony - the lands of the puddles (Lausitz); Bavaria - Upper Palatinate and retained the electoral dignity for her duke; The Lower Palatinate, with the newly established eighth electoral dignity, was given to the son of the unfortunate Frederick. Switzerland and the Netherlands were recognized as independent states. Regarding Germany, it was decided that the legislative power in the empire, the right to collect taxes, declare war and conclude peace belongs to the Sejm, consisting of the emperor and members of the empire; the princes received supreme power in their possessions with the right to conclude alliances among themselves and with other states, but not against the emperor and the empire. The imperial court, which decided the disputes of the ranks with each other and with their subjects, was to consist of judges of both confessions; at the Diets the imperial cities received equal right voices with princes. Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists were granted complete religious and liturgical freedom and equality of political rights.

Results of the Thirty Years' War

The consequences of the Thirty Years' War were important for Germany and for the whole of Europe. In Germany, the imperial power has completely drooped, and the unity of the country has remained only in name. The empire was a motley mixture of heterogeneous possessions, which had the weakest connection with each other. Each prince ruled independently in his domain; but since the empire still existed in name, since there was a general authority in name, which was obliged to look after the welfare of the empire, and meanwhile there was no force that could compel this general authority to cooperate, the princes considered themselves entitled to postpone any care for the affairs of the common fatherland and have unlearned to take its interests to heart; their glances, their feelings have been reduced; They could not act separately because of their impotence, the insignificance of their means, and they completely lost the habit of any general action, not being very accustomed to it before, as we have seen; consequently they had to bow before every power. Since they lost consciousness of the highest governmental interests, the only goal of their aspirations was to feed themselves at the expense of their possessions and feed themselves as satisfyingly as possible; for this, after the Thirty Years' War, they had every opportunity: during the war they were accustomed to collecting taxes without asking with ranks; they did not abandon this habit even after the war, especially since the terribly devastated country, which required a long rest, could not put up forces that would have to be reckoned with; during the war, the princes arranged for themselves an army, it remained with them after the war, strengthening their power. Thus, the restriction of princely power by ranks that existed before disappeared, and the unlimited power of princes with bureaucracy was established, which could not be useful in small possessions, especially in the above-mentioned character adopted by the princes.

In general, in Germany, material and spiritual development was stopped for known time the terrible devastation carried out by the gangs of Tilly, Wallenstein and the Swedish troops, who, after the death of Gustavus Adolf, also began to be distinguished by robberies and cruelties, which our Cossacks did not invent in the Time of Troubles: pouring the most disgusting impurities into the throat of the unfortunate was known under the name of the Swedish drink. Germany, especially in the south and west, represented the desert. In Augsburg, out of 80,000 inhabitants, 18,000 remained; in Frankenthal, out of 18,000, only 324; in the Palatinate, only a fiftieth of the total population remained. In Hesse, 17 cities, 47 castles and 400 villages were burned.

With regard to the whole of Europe, the Thirty Years' War, having weakened the House of Habsburg, crushed and completely weakened Germany, thereby raised France, made her the preeminent power in Europe. The consequence of the Thirty Years' War was also the fact that Northern Europe, represented by Sweden, took an active part in the fate of other states and was an important member of the European system. Finally, the Thirty Years' War was the last religious war; The Peace of Westphalia, proclaiming the equality of the three confessions, put an end to the religious struggle generated by the Reformation. The dominance of secular interests over spiritual ones is very noticeable during the Peace of Westphalia: spiritual possessions are taken away from the Church in a multitude, secularized, pass to secular Protestant lords; it was said that in Münster and Osnabrück the diplomats played with bishoprics and abbeys, as children play with nuts and dough. The pope protested against peace, but no one paid any attention to his protest.

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) is a pan-European war that resulted from the confrontation between France and the coalition of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs.

Features of the Thirty Years' War:

1) The first war of a pan-European scale

2) Became a leading factor in determining the foreign policy interests and priorities of all European states

3) The collision of two lines of political development of Europe:

medieval political tradition, embodied in the desire to create a single pan-European Christian monarchy (Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs)

the principle of creating strong states on a national basis (England, France, Holland and Sweden). In these centralized states, except for France, the Protestant religion prevailed.

Background of the Thirty Years' War:

In 1608-1609, two military-political unions of German princes on a confessional basis arose in Germany - the Evangelical Union and the Catholic League, each of which received the support of foreign states.

Reasons for the war:

Confrontation between France and the coalition of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. It was in France's interests to keep the empire fragmented and to prevent unity of action between the two Habsburg monarchies. She had territorial claims in Alsace, Lorraine, the Southern Netherlands, Northern Italy, and territories bordering Spain. France was ready to support the Evangelical League despite the difference in confessions. The Republic of the United Provinces saw the Evangelical League as a natural ally against the Habsburgs.

Denmark and Sweden tried to protect themselves from competition on the northern sea routes. England constantly fought with Spain at sea, and for her the anti-Habsburg policy seemed natural. But, at the same time, it competed in foreign trade with the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition.

specific interests of different European countries and their common desire to stop the hegemonic goals of the Habsburgs determined the participation of each of them in the war in its various periods.

History of the Thirty Years' War:

Czech (1618-1623)

Danish (1625-1629)

Swedish (1630-1635)

· Franco-Swedish (1635-1648). First three periods the advantage was on the side of the Habsburg bloc. The latter led to the defeat of the empire and its allies.

The results of the war:

Mutual attrition of the opposing sides, the absolute ruin of the population of Germany

· Growing social tension in the warring countries themselves.

Thirty Years' War - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Thirty Years' War" 2017, 2018.