Global crises: the concept and philosophy of global problems of our time. Presentation on the topic: Global Ethnic Crisis Energy problem. Raw material problem

RUSSIAN STATE PEDAGOGICAL / ^ UNIVERSITY them. A.I. HERZEN ^^(Yb^

As a manuscript

Gladkiy Igor Yurievich

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF ETHNIC CRISES

Specialty -11.00.02 economic, social and political geography

St. Petersburg 1995

The work was carried out at the Department of Economic Geography of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen

SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR:

OFFICIAL OPPONENTS:

candidate of geographical sciences, professor Sokolov O.V.

doctor of geographical sciences, professor Bugaev V.K. doctor of economic sciences, professor Lashov B.V.

LEAD ORGANIZATION: Institute of Socio-Economic

problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg)

The defense will take place in October 1995. in hours at the meeting

Dissertation Council K 113.05.09 at the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen at the address: 191186, St. Petersburg, emb. river Moika, 48, bldg. 12.

The dissertation can be found in the university library.

Scientific Secretary of the Dissertation Council

candidate of geographical sciences, professor (^ Sokolov

C 556

I - GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK

The relevance of research. The growing economic and technological interconnectedness of states, the acceleration of the processes of internationalization of social life, politics, and culture make the modern world integral and, in a certain sense, indivisible. At the same time, the growing desire for self-identification of countries, peoples and population groups makes it more and more unstable and unpredictable.

The current changes in the political and ethnic geography of the world are becoming so important that they are sometimes compared to the process that began after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which was a turning point in the formation of modern states. Thus, only sixty of the current one hundred and ninety states existed on the eve of the 20th century. On the other hand, in the first half of the 1990s alone, the UN admitted more than twenty new states to its membership.

No matter how one regards the scale of the predicted changes on the political map of the world, which promises to become one of the most impressive phenomena of recent history, one thing is clear: in a global sense, the national-ethnic problem can become and is already becoming one of the most painful. Some reputable scientists (S.Amin, V.Barelay, W. Connor, B.Stiafer, B. Jordanian and others) speak of a real global ethnic crisis that has already engulfed the planet. Uncontrolled national emotions, which, depending on the specific circumstances, take the form of justified national self-affirmation or aggressive nationalism, lead to dramatic collisions on almost all continents, and especially on the periphery of world civilization. Most. riddled with conflict (explicit, latent or potential) eastern patriarchal society. Moreover, national-ethnic tension

here strife intensifies on religious, clan, patronage and clientel grounds. First of all, this applies to the countries of tropical Africa, where intra-tribal and inter-tribal relations permeate the entire social life. There is practically no country here where ethno-nationalism would not manifest itself in one form or another.

In recent years, contradictions on the territory of the former USSR have become an integral part of the global ethnic crisis, previously successfully suppressed by the allied center and uncompromisingly driven deep into it. We are talking about national-ethnic strife, confrontation within nations divided along regional or clan lines, territorial disputes, separatism, autonomist movements, etc.

The importance of an interdisciplinary scientific understanding of modern national-ethnic processes is quite obvious and does not need special argumentation. But in the growing stream of publications devoted to the problems of the current stage of exacerbation of interethnic rivalry, it is not easy to find works of a geographical nature, as if thousands of the strongest threads do not at all connect the ethnos with the territory - the most important operational basis of geographical science, with the environment; as if the geographical interpretation of interethnic relations does not occupy an important place at all in the theory of ethnogenesis developed by JI.H. Gumilyov, which has "excited" the scientific community in recent years. This should not be surprising, since in the domestic geographical science there have so far been no specific socio-historical studies (called "case-studies" in the West) of interethnic relations within the framework of the former USSR. In the context of a sharp aggravation of interethnic relations, the collapse of the USSR and the threat of the disintegration of Russia itself, the development of ethno- and political-geographical approaches can help predict a dynamically changing

ethno-political differentiation of society, as well as the search for ways to resolve inter-ethnic conflicts.

The subject of the study is the processes of rivalry in the modern world (including in the post-Soviet geopolitical space), widely known as the "global ethnic crisis" and identified with one of the most acute and intractable problems facing humanity at the end of the 20th century. The subject of the study is clearly interdisciplinary in nature, which not only allows, but also encourages representatives of geographical science to turn to it, who previously usually distanced themselves from participating in the scientific understanding of these issues of our time.

Geographic (ethno-geographic. ethno-geopolitical") the object of study is the hierarchy of social, national-ethnic formations of various ranks; ethnos - a polyethnic conglomerate - a country (primarily the former USSR) - a subregion (a continent or part of it) - the world as a whole. Certain aspects of the study concern various levels of this hierarchy.In a number of chapters and sections, the processes of aggravation of national-ethnic relations are considered at smaller taxonomic levels (administrative region, city, etc.).

The theoretical basis of the dissertation was the works of widely known experts in the world (primarily Russian) on interethnic relations, philosophers, and political leaders. The factual material was drawn from Russian and foreign periodicals, official UN statistical sources, analytical works, or was the result of the dissertator's own observations and reflections.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that for the first time a geographical approach to the study of ethnic crises was formulated: from ethco-, socio- to political-geographical positions,

the nature of ethnic contradictions; changes in geographical conditions and factors of interethnic conflicts under the influence of new global-regional economic, social, geoecological and political interactions are revealed; given a comprehensive analysis of the nature of modern shifts in the geopolitical situation within the post-Soviet space.

The objectives of the dissertation are to determine the place of geography in the system of interdisciplinary attempts to comprehend one of the most important global problems of our time, to search for geospatial links between ethnic conflicts and the factors that cause them, based on the proposed geographical approach to the study of ethnic crises.

To achieve these goals, it was necessary to solve the following tasks:

Suggest and substantiate the geographical interpretation of ethnic processes;

To trace the development of scientific ideas about the relationship between ethnic groups and territory (nature);

Summarize what is available in the literature and offer their own approaches to the essence of the so-called "provoking" factors of ethno-nationalism and comprehend them from the standpoint of geographical science;

To analyze the connection between the emerging centers of interethnic hostility and the new geopolitical position of Russia.

The practical significance of the work lies in the fact that its results can be used as a theoretical and methodological basis for the deployment of geographical research on ethnic crises in the territory of the former USSR; in carrying out specific predictive ethnogeographic developments in the process of making political decisions and implementing regional policy; in teaching courses in ethnogeography, population geography, political geography, etc.

Approbation of work. The main provisions of the dissertation were reported and discussed at the Gertsshovsky readings of the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen (1994, 1995), conferences of young scientists of the university (1995), All-Russian scientific conference "Ecological safety and socio-economic development of Russian regions" (Saransk, 1994).

The structure of the dissertation is determined by the logic of the goals and objectives set in it and includes an introduction, three chapters (chapter 1 - "Ethnic processes and geography"; chapter II - "Ethnic crises:" provoking "factors and their geographical understanding"; chapter III - " Ethnic Crises in the Territory of the Former USSR: Geopolitical Aspect"), each of which ends with brief conclusions, as well as a conclusion and a bibliographic list. It contains anits text, AND drawings,

JL tables. The list of references includes ^U/names in Russian, English and other languages.

J.I. MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE THESIS TO BE DEFENDED

1. The identification of the subject of research and the substantiation of its "geographicity" can be carried out with the "help" of ethnic and political geography (ravo; geopoputics). It is at the junction of these two areas that a new field of social research is born: "ethnogeology".

The essence of the geographical approach to the study of ethnic crises is to find geospatial links between ethnic crises and the factors that cause them; in the study of such concepts as "national space", "living space", "ethnic

landscape", "ethnic borders", etc. The relevance of their scientific definition is also important because mass ideas about connections with the earth, with the territory are often irrational, and therefore it is difficult to correct them with the help of arguments addressed to reason.

Of great practical importance is ethnic and political cartography, which is widely used in solving national and political problems. The objects of mapping are ethnic territories, ethnic borders, ethnically mixed regions, etc. At the same time, the cartographic method allows not only to study ethnic groups in close connection with political, economic, social indicators, geographical environment, but, which is especially important, to reconstruct with varying degrees of certainty the settlement of ethnic groups of past eras. Such documents can serve as one of the means of resolving interethnic disputes.

When considering the theoretical issues of ethnic geography, the general philosophical interpretation of dependencies in the system of relations "territory - ethnos" (as well as "nature - ethnos") is traditionally of great interest. The fact that such dependencies exist is essentially not disputed by anyone. Discrepancies usually take place when their degree and nature are clarified.

The fear in past years of accidentally shifting ideological emphasis in the analysis of such a "delicate" issue led x to the fact that even "well-known authors tried to comment on it as rarely as possible. Much less disagreement is manifested in the definition of such" geographic "concepts as "ethnic territory", "ethnic space", "ethnic borders", etc. For example, an ethnic territory is usually associated with the main area of ​​a people's settlement, which is associated with important stages of ethnic history, its historical destinies,

cultural and economic continuity; ethnic borders - with borders between different ethnic territories, and with a striped settlement of representatives of different peoples, it is very difficult to draw such a border.

Undoubtedly, thousands of strong ties connect the ethnos with the surrounding nature, with "their" land. Ethnic consciousness sees the territory as the soil on which the ethnic group grew up, which nourished it. Subconsciously, he sees in him the sphere of his own security. The influence of the surrounding nature with the passage of time affects the very nature of the people. Thus, a strong natural element remained in the soul of the Russian people, connected with the immensity of the territory, with the boundlessness of the Russian plain.

Directly related to the geographical understanding of ethnic crises is the theory of ethnogenesis (mutagenesis), developed by L.N. Gumilyov. He, in essence, rejects the opinions of many recognized authorities of world science, who argued that separate races and ethnic groups are formed as a result of the struggle for existence. The scientist introduced a new parameter into scientific use - passionarity - as a sign that arises as a result of a mutation (passionary impulse) and forms "within the population" a certain number of people (passionarians) who have an increased craving for action, i.e., inclined under certain circumstances to provoke interethnic friction.

However, his ideas, connected, for example, with the level* of "passionate tension" of an ethnic system, are associated with entire epochs and, in the author's opinion, it is hardly correct to reproduce them today for a specific ethnic group. In addition, the very conception of the scientist, with all its external attractiveness, has not yet lost the halo of a hypothesis that needs to be further investigated.

2. In modern literature, there is practically no separate (component-by-component) analysis of internal and external factors leading to

destabilization of interethnic relations. Of course, in real life, a conflict complication arises as a joint action of several factors: sometimes the "detonator" is economic in nature, the "explosive" is demographic, and the force that struck the "detonator" has a purely criminal appearance. There are no serious developments of specific factors leading to national conflicts in the literature.

In the process of researching the main causes of ethno-nationalism and ethnic crises in the modern world, the author identified more than 20 factors. the main ones are the confession of the principle of the identity of state and national borders; 2) the movement of nations towards self-determination: 3) the movement of nations towards the formation of superpowers: 4) the economic struggle for land, fixed assets, etc.:

control over the demographic development of underdeveloped countries: b)

assimilation processes: 7) depopulation of ethnic minorities: 8) "old" prosperous nations: 9U ecological situation: 10) changes in national psychology under the influence of nuclear, environmental and other types of social threat: and tsr. (see rcsl.

Naturally, not all the factors we have identified have sufficient geographic specificity. It is more fruitful to analyze some of them within the framework of sociology, economics, history, and philosophy. For example, the study of such factors of a general nature as the movement of ethnic groups towards self-determination and the formation of superethnoi is more logical to conduct against a broad historical background using the methods of socio-philosophical analysis.

However, some of the factors identified are more geographical in nature than any other. Thus, the analysis of uncontrolled demographic growth in the countries of the "third world", the "aging" of European nations, assimilation and depopulation processes cannot be carried out outside the framework of social

economic geography, using a wide arsenal of spatial research methods. Even more obvious is the geographical nature of the environmental factor in the emergence of interethnic strife. Geographical themes are also permeated with some of the other factors noted, in particular economic, the implementation of the principle of identity of state and national borders, etc.

Of those indicated in Fig. forms of manifestation of the ethnic crisis, we will pay special attention to such as the infringement of democratic freedoms or the economic rights of ethnic groups, which, in principle, may not provoke outbreaks of ethno-nationalism. Among the "peaceful" forms of manifestation of the ethnic crisis, one can also note the degradation of the ethnos associated with depopulation processes, incestuous marriages, the spatial spread of the ethnos and its assimilation.

Among the spatial levels of manifestation of the ethnic crisis, we have singled out the global, intercontinental, subregional, regional, local, local-clan.

“Of course, the systematization of the factors, forms and spatial levels of manifestation of the ethnic crisis is based on empirical rather than theoretical grounds, which can only be partially justified by the recent identification of such a global problem as a general ethnic crisis. Studies of the theoretical foundations of classification, especially in terms of content, have yet to be done.

3. The most universal factor causing interethnic conflicts is the implementation of the principle of identity of state and national borders. Mechanical transfer of the false synonym "national interest" - "state interest" to the phrase "state borders" - "national borders"

can lead to unpredictable inter-ethnic conflicts.

Let's turn to the European region. On the territory of 32 European countries, 87 peoples live as "national minorities", and many of them are dispersed "dispersed". Thus, Germans outside of Germany live in Belgium, Denmark, France, Poland, Russia, Romania, Italy, the Czech Republic, Serbia, etc. There are many other national groups that history has scattered over different states. Bulgarians live in Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, Ukraine; Greeks - in Cyprus, Turkey, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and the territory of the former Yugoslavia; Albanians in Greece, Italy, Serbia, etc. In other words, the aforementioned number of ethno-minorities (87) can significantly increase with "repeated counting".

One can imagine to what consequences an attempt by individual peoples to implement in practice the principle of the identity of national and state borders would lead. Meanwhile, clearly expressed centrifugal tendencies are manifested here as well (and especially clearly within the boundaries of the former Yugoslavia).

Imagine that some abstract territory with a mixed population is allowed to self-determine in accordance with the will of the majority. Smaller territories in which the minority is the majority may not agree with such a decision. If these smaller territories also want to self-determine the likelihood of inter-ethnic clashes many times ■ . increases.

Much food for thought is given by the collapse of the USSR and the new federal structure of the Russian Federation. Unfortunately, many of our politicians and statesmen of various ranks are today trying to democratize and create the foundations of civil society within the former framework of national-ethnic communities and

Profession of the principle of identity of state * and national borders

The movement of ethnic groups towards self-determination

The movement of ethnic groups to the formation of superethnoi V

The economic struggle for land. housing in cities. natural resources, etc.

Unmanaged demographic development in the Third World suffered*

Assimilation Processes and Depopulation of Ethno-Citizenships

"Aging" of the nations of the state* with a developed market economy

| Environmental factor

Belief in the special relationship of the ethnic group with the supreme deity and _

nation states.

The tragedies of interethnic conflicts every day more and more clearly reveal the need for new approaches to them. Finally, in the Russian parliament, the idea, which was hardly perceived until recently, that the principle of the identity of national and state borders is erroneous, is heard; that republics that have acquired and are acquiring sovereignty cannot be "nation states" as defined by the 1977 Constitution of the USSR and readily supported by the intellectual and political elite of "indigenous" nations; that their governments should not be national at all, but nationwide, representing the interests of all citizens of these state entities.

In an interdisciplinary study of the role of the principle of identity of state and national borders in the emergence of national civil strife, we see the task of the geographer in revealing the historical features of the formation of ethnic and state borders, the boundaries of the ethnic-economic space, paying special attention to the territory with a mixed population.

4. The processes of assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities lead to the complication of interethnic relations.

One of the factors that often led to the destabilization of interethnic relations in the recent past was the direct physical destruction of ethnic minorities, especially nationalities located on the "periphery" of world civilization. The roots of this phenomenon go back centuries and are closely connected with the colonial era. Already the campaigns of the conquistadors of the participants in the Spanish conquest campaigns in South and Central America in the 15th-16th centuries were accompanied by the merciless extermination and enslavement of tribes and

peoples of the West Indies, Central and South America, the devastation and looting of entire areas, acts of vandalism, violence and mass torture. Somewhat later, "similar methods" colonized the Australian continent by British settlers, where by the arrival of the "whites" 300 - 500 thousand aborigines lived (mainly in the southeast). Similar methods of colonizing new lands were also used by Europeans in Africa.

Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities today manifest themselves in various forms and are associated with the loss by small ethnic groups of their language, culture, religion, national identity, as well as with incestuous marriages, low birth rates, high mortality and, accordingly, negative natural population growth.

Assimilation processes are extremely diverse in nature, pace and forms, and therefore their assessment cannot be unambiguous. In science, the concepts of natural and forced ethnic assimilation are clearly distinguished. In real life, however, it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between these concepts. Everything depends on the presence or absence of racial discrimination, traditional ethnic prejudice, manifestations of everyday nationalism. Often, an outbreak of inter-ethnic hostility is born directly from the economy.

The assimilation of ethnic minorities is often accompanied by depopulation tendencies associated with the deterioration of the genetic fund of ethnic minorities, incestuous marriages, and the spatial "spread" of the ethnic group. Naturally, one should not confuse the depopulation processes taking place on the periphery of world civilization (Australian aborigines, some Indian tribes of South America, peoples of the Far North of Russia, etc.) with phenomena

taking place in countries with developed market economies: the factors that give rise to them are completely different.

A tragic situation has developed with the position of the small peoples of the Russian North. Mortality among them exceeds the figure for Russia as a whole, and life expectancy is noticeably less than the national average. It is easy to see that we are talking about the threat of the physical disappearance of small ethnic groups. It is accompanied by the loss of national identity, identity, local economy. The hopelessness, absolute social disorientation and insecurity of the indigenous people are a natural result of the forms of management introduced here "from above".

The socialist state "tamed" and corrupted the primordially hardworking aborigines (in this case, the harshness of the expression, in our opinion, is justified by the tragedy of the current situation.) Rough, ill-considered interference in the original life of small peoples (it was carried out even at the physiological level - the aborigines had to change the structure of the diet , although their body is poorly adapted to the assimilation of many imported products) deprived them of adaptive resources, took away incentives for life and productive work, and accustomed them to total drunkenness. The post-perestroika era also presents few chances for the indigenous peoples of the North. The entire North, the structure of the northern economy is poorly adapted to the conditions of a market economy.

The experience of Canada's regional policy shows that without state subsidies to the North, without the support of local ways and traditional values, northern peoples cannot survive. This thesis becomes even more convincing when one considers that, on average, about 10 times fewer people live in the English-speaking northern territories. The plight of the national minorities of the Russian North, at first glance, is indirectly related to

interethnic crises, especially to the extreme forms of their manifestation, ethnic conflicts and clashes. However, the degradation, destruction or assimilation of ethnic minorities are quite typical manifestations of the global ethnic crisis, as pointed out by highly respected experts. The very fact of infringement of the rights of national-ethnic minorities is always fraught with the risk of inter-ethnic clashes.

The factor considered above has a pronounced geographical aspect, manifested in a number of spatial features, namely: 1) the physical destruction and depopulation of ethnic minorities occurred and are currently occurring, as a rule, on the periphery of world civilization; 2) ethnic groups that have not been able to adapt to the rhythm of modern life are connected with nature by tighter ties and are accustomed to taking from nature only the most necessary things to maintain life; 3) for the survival of the mentioned ethnic groups, a purposeful regional policy of the state is necessary, the main instrument of which should not be the private sector, but public investment.

5. The destabilization of interethnic relations is also intensified by the process of "aging" of individual ethnic groups, in particular Western European ones. The fact of the progressive "aging" of European nations does not need any special proof. This phenomenon is mainly due to two factors: a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in life expectancy.

In the minds of many Western Europeans today, fear of the prospect of extinction, absorption by alien ethnic groups settles. The latter, of course, is very hypothetical, but it is real that in the context of the current demographic changes in Europe, issues related to interstate migration of the population and labor are becoming more relevant than before. Another source of tension in

interethnic and interracial relations - refugees and emigrants. According to the UN, there are 11 million of them worldwide. (at the end of the 80s, excluding the USSR), more than half were in "non-socialist" Europe.

Under the conditions of depopulation of the population of the European region, the migratory contingents of the newcomer population, which have a significantly higher birth rate, make significant changes in its national structure. For example, the number of children in families of Indian origin living in England is more than twice as high as the corresponding figure for the indigenous population. This means that the share of migrant children born in European countries is much higher than the share of the latter in the population of the receiving countries. Mixed marriages and related citizenship issues are a particular problem.

It is precisely with this that the spontaneous outbursts of hatred against "colored" migrants observed today are connected, the rate of assimilation of which lags behind the rate of growth of immigration waves. First of all, we are talking about such ethnic minorities as Khak Arabs, Indo-Pazhistani, Turks, natives of Africa and the Caribbean. The early 1990s provide many examples of conflict situations between nationalistically minded young people in the FRG, Great Britain and other Western European states and "colored" immigrants, which certainly confirms our thesis about the closest connection between the current demographic situation in Europe and the problem of destabilizing interethnic relations.

The natural decline in Russia's population observed today will inevitably lead to its general aging, which, in turn, will introduce elements of tension on the labor market. There are many facts when the backbone of labor collectives at enterprises is formed from immigrants, representatives of "distant ethnic groups". Only during 1993 -1994

years, several hundred thousand Chinese "actually settled semi-legally in the Far East. Some of them brought their families with them. This phenomenon excited the Russian-speaking population, which is fraught with interethnic complications in the future.

So, among the factors that increase the destabilization of interethnic relations, the process of "aging" of individual nations is one of the most "geographical". A timely forecast of the development of the demographic situation in individual countries and regions, carried out by geodemographers, is able, firstly, to help scientifically based orientation of the government's demographic policy for the future; and secondly, to optimize the direction of the immigration waves of the labor force.

6. Geographically, the most obvious is the important role of the environmental factor in the emergence of interethnic strife. In international-international terms, these are: transboundary movements of atmospheric and river pollution crossing the borders of several states; desertification of lands due to the fault of a particular country, but not knowing state borders; pollution and poisoning of the landscapes of some states from sources located on the territory of other countries, etc. In intrastate-interethnic terms, this is a struggle for sources of fresh water, pasture and forest lands, deposits of mineral raw materials, etc.

The role of the environmental factor in the escalation of inter-ethnic strife is most clearly seen in the example of multi-ethnic societies, in particular in tropical Africa, where such conflicts are not international, but intra-state, inter-ethnic in nature. Here, the way of life and the way of life of ethnic groups is sometimes completely built around some element of the natural environment.

It is not difficult to establish a certain relationship between environmental

problems and the emergence of ethnic conflicts on the territory of the former USSR. Vivid examples are inter-ethnic clashes in Fergana and Sumgayit at the turn of the 80s - 90s. However, the most serious pre-conflict natural and ecological situation is developing in the Central Asian region, where the largest river arteries - the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya - have long served as common sources of water resources. It is known that in the early 1960s, due to the rapid growth of irrigated areas and water withdrawals, the inflow of river water into the Aral Sea began to decline sharply, and by the mid-1980s, the waters of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya did not reach the sea at all. The Aral began to dry up and break up into a group of bitter-salty lakes, with an area many times smaller than that of the original sea.

7. Among the reasons that give rise to outbreaks of ethno-nationalism within the former USSR, the most important are the implementation of the principle of the identity of state and national borders and economic struggle (often with a criminal "tinge" ^.

The internal borders that existed before the collapse of the USSR were, in fact, administrative and had no special political significance. Raising their status to the interstate level revealed a colossal threat to the territorial integrity of some newly formed states. Many of these borders are not perceived as legal by certain ethnic groups, which is a serious challenge to relations between states. The official recognition of existing borders and territorial integrity has become the only pragmatic solution for the post-Soviet states, although such recognition has not prevented open conflicts that have acquired a pronounced ethnic coloring. Typical examples of such clashes are military actions in Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria.

In geopolitical terms, the North Caucasus remains the most unstable region of the Russian Federation. it is here that the territorial integrity of the country is threatened. Statistics show that in the North Caucasus the boundaries of political and administrative units were redrawn so often that only a little more than half of the territory of the autonomies never changed their administrative affiliation. So, during the years of Soviet power, 38 national-state "redrawings" were undertaken here, which not only did not bring the solution of territorial and ethnic problems closer, but also completely confused them. It is clear that in areas with ethnic stripes, such problems are always difficult to solve. Recall that within the boundaries of the former Soviet Caucasus there were 4 union republics, 7 autonomous and 4 autonomous regions. Only here there were vvtonomy-"communal", uniting two peoples under one roof (in Dagestan - more than 30). But even more explosive is the existence of the same peoples in different states (Armenians, Ossetians, etc.), especially when it comes to land disputes. Lack of a long-term concept for the development of interethnic relations, constant rude trampling; the rights of the khoren peoples only exacerbated the ethnodynamic situation in this region of Russia.

The divisive tendencies in the Caucasus come not only from Chechnya, but also from the influential Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus (founded in 1990 and claiming to represent all major ethnic groups in the region). Local ethnic extremism is fraught with the deterioration of Russian-Georgian (because of Abkhazia), Russian-Azerbaijani (because of Nagorno-Karabakh and increased Lezgin border activity) and Russian-Armenian (because of Nagorno-Karabakh) relations.

8. Serious challenges to Russia's national security come from areas where ethnic patchwork is layered on religious

revivalist movements, particularly in areas of traditional influence

Islam. Islamic political leaders today are stepping up their influence on the Muslim population of the Russian Federation in order to strengthen the regional political influence of Islam as a counterbalance to Moscow. The "Islamic factor" may introduce difficulties in relations with Iran, Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan, as well as China, in which there are areas of compact residence of the Muslim population (the main one is the Xinjiang Ungur Autonomous Region,

inhabited by Turkic-speaking Muslims).

The area of ​​Gurko-Islamic influence is usually identified with Central Asia and Kazakhstan. In political terms, the dominant trends here are, on the one hand, the traditional influence of Russia, on the other hand, the influence of Turkey and the Turkic world (covering a vast geopolitical zone along the southern borders of the former USSR - from the Balkans to the western part of China), on the third hand, the traditional role of Islam as worldview and way of life of the vast majority of the population of the region. Some of these tendencies appear in an explicit form, others in a latent, implicit one, but it is clear that in the near and medium term the role of the region in question in the new balance of forces on the territory of the former USSR will increase significantly. As you know, Central Asia (Kazakhstan to a much lesser extent) has traditionally been a region with a peculiar demographic situation, a difficult socio-economic situation and acute interethnic relations.

9. Of all the states that have formed on the site of the former USSR, Russia remains the most vulnerable to the danger of ethnic conflicts. This refers not only to the scale of the territory and the diversity of the ethnic composition. Today, Russia, in addition to the regions, includes 21 autonomous republics, 1 autonomous region and 10 autonomous districts (out of the autonomous republics, 16 belong to the Soviet era; the first republic - Ingushetia - was "restored" by the decision of the Russian

parliament, 4 republics were formed from the former autonomous regions). Such a "patchwork" of federal units with different rights and obligations, according to the author, will be a constant source of separatist movements. Russia needs a radical political and administrative reform.

The author believes that the new federal constitution should contain the following principles: a ban on secession from the federation; a ban on a unilateral change in the status of a subject in the federation, as this affects the interests of other subjects and the federation as a whole; any barriers to the free movement of people. goods. capital and information throughout the territory of the Federation: the supremacy of federal law in the event that local legislation contradicts it: the inadmissibility of undemocratic forms of power, the mandatory separation of powers. multi-party system, etc.

The implementation of the new principles of Russia's federal structure in no way infringes on the interests of ethnic minorities. On the contrary, taking into account the national characteristics and traditions of the population of a particular territory will make federal policy more flexible. First of all, this concerns the indigenous peoples of the Far North, who live in extreme natural conditions and do not stand the "test of the market." At the same time, we should not talk about securing a special state status for that million other region on the basis of its ethnic specificity (this is fraught with violations of the civil rights of both the entire population of the country and the ethnic group itself), but about developing, perhaps, a preferential taxation system, about state latation, etc. This is a fundamentally different approach based on the ideals of civil society and does not recognize ethnic differences as

grounds for local sovereignty. The main content of the dissertation is reflected in ■ the following publications:

1. Capitals change addresses II Geography at school, No. 1, 1992. (0.3 a.l.).

2. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities as a factor of interethnic tension. IIB Sat. "Geography and geoecology" (materials of "Herzen readings"). Dep. N1 2729-1394 (11/28/1994). (0.2 a.l.).

3. Aging of European nations and the problem of destabilization of interethnic relations. IIB Sat. "Geography and Geoecology" (Materials of the Tercenoa Readings), Dep. No. 279-B94 (November 28, 1994). (0.2 a.l.).

4. Ecological component of the depopulation of ethnic minorities in the Russian North // Ecological safety and socio-economic development of Russian regions. Saransk, 1994. (0.2 a.l.).

/etc. - P.G. SutyaginU.

5. Ethno-ecological factor of socio-economic development of Russian regions I Ecological safety and socio-economic development of Russian regions. Saransk, 1994. (0.2 a.l.). /etc. - O.V. Sokolov/.

6. Geographical approaches to the study of ethnic crises // Proceedings of the Russian Geographical Society, Volume No. 127, Issue. 1.1995. (0.5 a.l.).

/etc. - Yu.N. Smooth /.

In the 20th century, humanity has faced a number of problems and crises that require a solution on a global scale.

These problems, concerning the fate of the further development of human civilization, are called global (from the Latin globus - the globe).

For the first time, mankind realized itself as a whole during the First World War. Since there were no borders and distances for hostilities, millions of people were drawn into a military conflict on a global scale. At this time, the doctrine of the noosphere arose, whose authorship belongs to Vladimir Vernadsky (1863-1945). He called man the largest force on Earth, capable of changing the face of the planet and influencing its present and future.

Global crises of an alarmist nature

The ever-increasing number of global problems has led to the fact that humanity today faces two development paths:

• either it will continue to develop spontaneously, acting destructively on the surrounding world,
• or purposefully restructure his being in a fundamental way.

There are two types of an alarmist crisis (from French alarme - anxiety):

1) a limited amount of resources, the presence of "economic borders" at the same level of growth of world civilization will eventually lead to a catastrophe - a shortage of raw materials;

2) the unreasonable attitude of man towards nature, uncontrolled consumption and processing of natural resources (for example, consistent deforestation, an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and, as a result, an increase in air temperature, etc.) will lead to total pollution and natural disasters.

Alarmist crises are only getting worse with time, which is facilitated by the rapid industrialization of mankind. Solving problems such as hunger, lack of fresh water, closing the gap between developing countries and developed ones leads to a constant growth of industry and the economy, and this requires an increasing amount of resources.

Types of global crises and their causes

The development of society leads to other types of global crises:

• the growth of scientific and technological progress is necessarily associated with the risk of man-made disasters, like the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant;

• natural disasters lead to catastrophic consequences (hurricanes that have hit the United States in recent years, the explosion at Fukushima);

• social conflicts - wars, revolutions, terrorism and religious extremism - have a devastating effect on economic, energy and industrial infrastructure;

• The "crisis of internal development" arises due to the uneven distribution of energy resources on the Earth's territory, while the prosperous segments of the population protect themselves from environmental problems arising from the processing of resources, while other social groups are forced to deal with an increasingly deteriorating environmental situation.

Aurelio Peccei noted that global problems do not know social and political boundaries, they are the same for everyone.

Among the main reasons, scientists name:

1) The unity of the modern world, which was formed thanks to interpenetrating political and economic ties. Oddly enough, this was most clearly manifested during the world wars. The Second World War, which began as a small conflict on the borders of Germany and Poland, soon engulfed the whole world. The philosopher N. Berdyaev wrote that

in the military "world whirlwind at an accelerated pace of movement" everything was mixed up, a person could be "torn to shreds", great cultural values ​​\u200b\u200bwere destroyed.

2) The growth of the industrial production of the planet. Compared to the beginning of the 20th century, the production index today has increased by more than 50 times. The world GDP is about 13 trillion dollars. According to scientists, by 2050 it will increase 10 times. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) predicted as early as the century before last that man would become the most powerful force on the planet. At the same time, a person influences nature much stronger than the most violent natural elements and often cannot control the changes caused by his activity.

3) The global crisis is also caused by the uneven level of development of industry and culture in different countries. Nevertheless, thanks to advanced information technologies such as television, satellite communications, the Internet, any information about discoveries and events becomes available in any corner of the globe. Meanwhile, people who have access to this information are at different levels of civilization: tribes that are in tribal relations live a couple of hours from Cape Canaveral or the Baikonur Cosmodrome, from where mankind explores space. Therefore, the problem of possession of nuclear weapons is acute in the world and there is a threat of nuclear terrorism.

Ways to solve global crises

Some scientists suggest the death of mankind within the next century. However, looking back at history, one can draw not so pessimistic conclusions. Mankind is able to find compromise solutions even in the most difficult situations. For example, it was possible to avoid a nuclear war between the USSR and the USA during the Cuban Missile Crisis at the end of the 20th century.

In the 1960s and 1970s, many centers were created that brought together futurologists to study the philosophy of global problems. One of the most famous is the Club of Rome, which explores the relationship of all aspects of human life in two directions: economic development and human relationships.

In the report "Limits to Growth" (1972), scientists J. Forrester and D. Meadows spoke about the need for immediate economic and environmental stabilization, global balance, in connection with which humanity needs to reconsider the very structure of its needs.

In 1974, M. Mesarovic and E. Pestel published the report "Humanity at the Turning Point". They believed that the world is not just a single whole. The world is like an organism in which each element has its own specific features. The industrial society, in which the economy was the determining factor of development, is a thing of the past. Therefore, humanity needs a qualitative leap in the development of civilization, and not a further increase in industrial power (quantitative development).

We offer a presentation on this topic:

One of the founders of the Club of Rome, Aurelio Peccei, argued that the growth of industrial potential and industrialization in reality is nothing more than a myth, behind which many global problems are hidden.

A. Peccei sees the way out not only in the development of a legal framework that increases liability for environmental crimes, the introduction of environmentally friendly industries, the use of environmentally friendly energy sources. The main thing is the “internal transformation” of the person himself. A. Peccei belongs to the idea of ​​"new humanism" - a harmonious balance between man and nature, the creation of new cultural values, which should be made the foundation of the worldview of the entire population of the Earth. This will lead to the cultural evolution of human civilization, the emergence of a "renewed man"

The "new humanism" is characterized by three aspects:

• sense of globality;
• striving for justice;
• rejection of violence.

The integral human personality and its inexhaustible possibilities are placed at the center of this concept of the philosophy of global problems. Mankind needs an "unprecedented cultural restructuring", the transformation of the consciousness of everyone without exception.

According to A. Peccei, such a “human revolution” is the only real way out of the socio-cultural crisis of the modern world.

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FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"TOMSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

"APPROVE"

Dean of IHF __________ Rudkovsky I.V.

"____" ______________ 2008

DISCIPLINE PROGRAM

GLOBAL PROBLEMS OF HUMANITY

DPP.B.03.01

1. Goals and objectives of the discipline

The discipline "Global Problems of Humanity" is an integral part of global geography, which has received wide recognition in the world as a rapidly developing direction that studies the spatial manifestation of planetary processes and phenomena (or tending to "planetarization").

The discipline is gaining a more and more stable place in the education systems of various countries, including Russia, which, in turn, is associated with its great cognitive, moral and educational value.

Purpose of the discipline – to form an idea of ​​the most important global processes and phenomena.

Tasks :

Form a global mindset;

To master the system of knowledge about the global problems of our time;

Develop an idea of ​​what a geographical view of the global problems of our time is;

To understand the place and role of Russia in the World, the specifics of the manifestation of global problems in it and other regions of the World.

2. Requirements for the level of mastering the content of the discipline

The course "Global Problems of Humankind" is read for geography students of the Pedagogical University in the 10th semester, when the main geographical disciplines are read and mastered, which greatly facilitates the understanding and mastering of the material presented. For the successful mastering of the discipline, students must also have knowledge of philosophy.

1. Volume of discipline and types of educational work

Type of study work	Total hours	Semester
		10
The total complexity of the discipline	110	110
Auditory lessons	70	70
Lectures	42	42
Workshops	28	28
Independent work	40	40
Type of final control		offset

1. The content of the discipline
   1. Thematic plan
      

      №	Topic name, sections	Form of occupation
      		Lectures	Workshops	Independent work
      1	Introduction. Globalistics and geography.	2		3
      2	Anthropogenic impacts on individual components of nature	4	4	3
      3	Geography of mankind. Races. Ethnicities. Geography of religions	4	4	3
      4	Political geography. Economic differentiation of the world	4	2	3
      5	demographic problem	4	4	3
      6	North-South: the problem of underdevelopment	4	2	3
      7	food problem	4	2	3
      8	Energy problem. Raw material problem	4	2	3
      9	Problems of the World Ocean	4	2	3
      10	Global ethnic crisis	2	2	3
      11	The problem of health and longevity	2	2	3
      12	Other global issues	4	2	7

   2. The content of the sections of the discipline

Introduction. Global studies and geography

The relationship between the concepts of "global" and "international". Trends in globalization and regionalization of the modern world. Global geography: science and academic discipline. Global studies: term and content. Classification of global problems. Global Modeling: History, Goals and Approaches. The relationship of global problems.

Rapid change in the face of the Earth. Development of new territories. Anthropogenic impacts on individual components of nature. Anthropogenic and cultural landscapes.

The origin of man and "sapientation". Ethnic mosaic of the world. Dynamics of the number of ethnic groups speaking the languages ​​that dominate the world.

Geography of religions. Christianity. The spread of Islam. Spread of Buddhism. Localization of national religions. Geography of cultures and civilizations.

Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of human history. Territory of the state and forms of its organization. Typology of states. The end of the bipolar world and the concept of mondialism. Geopolitics: origins and modernity.

International division of labor. World (global) economy: concept, development trends. Economic integration. European Union (EU). Foreign economic relations.

The role of money in foreign economic relations. International trade. Export (export) of capital. Russia and the world economy.

North-South: the problem of underdevelopment

Formulation of the problem. Roots of backwardness. backwardness and colonialism. backwardness and geographic environment. backwardness parameters.

External debt as a factor of backwardness. Geography of backwardness. Africa. Asia. Latin America.

demographic problem

Formulation of the problem. Population explosion: its causes and consequences. Developed and developing countries: causes of demographic differences.

food problem

Formulation of the problem. Food sources in the past and now. Quality of nutrition: norms and facts. Geography of malnutrition (hunger). Tropical Africa. Monsoon Asia. Latin America. Regional types of food. Hunger and human health. Reasons for hunger. Are there any prospects for its eradication?

Formulation of the problem. Provision with oil and the transition to an energy-saving type of economy. Natural gas. Oil. Coal. Hydropower. Alternative energy sources. Nuclear power. Energy problems of Russia.

Depletion of the earth's interior. Dispersion of deposits. The role of forest resources. secondary resources. Russia and the global commodity crisis.

Problems of the World Ocean

Accumulation of knowledge about the Ocean. The problem of using the energy of the ocean. Other problems of the World Ocean.

Global ethnic crisis

Formulation of the problem. Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation. The principle of identity of state and national borders. The movement of nations towards self-determination and the desire for the formation of supernations. "Aging" of nations and destabilization of interethnic relations. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities.

Ecology and ethnic strife. Other factors "provoking" outbreaks of nationalism. Tribalism is an old disease of Africa. Russia and the global ethnic crisis.

Health and Longevity Issues

Formulation of the problem. Nosogeography. Spatial "expansion" of AIDS. The spread of malignant neoplasms. Health and longevity.

Other global issues

The problem of crime. The problem of urbanization. Spontaneous natural phenomena. Problems of space exploration.

1. Workshops

Section of discipline	Name of practical classes	Number of hours
2. Anthropogenic impacts on individual components of nature	Work with a contour map to identify areas where the agricultural revolution took place 6-8 thousand years ago; Work with a contour map on the topic "Environmental situation in the Russian Federation".	2
3. Geography of mankind. Races. Ethnicities. Geography of religions.	Building contour maps by topic: - "Races of the world"; - Religions of the world.
4. Political geography. Economic differentiation of the world	Work with a contour map with the designation of countries that changed their names at the end of the 20th century. Designation on the contour map of various associations of economic integration of the countries of the World.	2
5. Demographic problem	Working with a contour map to identify countries with intensive natural population growth and negative natural growth.	4
6. North-South: the problem of underdevelopment	Working with a contour map to highlight the "backward" countries of the world, according to the UN scale.	2
7. Food problem	Work with a contour map on the topic "Characteristics of regional types of nutrition"	2
8. Energy problem. Raw material problem	Work with a contour map to identify the leading countries in energy and raw materials, as well as countries with a shortage of resources.	2
9. Problems of the World Ocean	Work with a contour map to identify the regions of the World Ocean with the largest biological, mineral and energy resources.	2
10 Global Ethnic Crisis	Work with a contour map on the topic "Ethnic situation in Russia at the beginning of the 21st century"	2
11. The problem of health and longevity	Highlighting on the contour map of countries unfavorable for tourism. Construction of a contour map, highlighting characteristic diseases in various parts of the globe.	2
12. Other global issues	Problems of the student's choice are considered.	2

6. Educational and methodological support of discipline

a) main

1 Isachenko, A.G. Theory and methodology of geographical science: a textbook for universities / A. G. Isachenko. - M. : Academy, 2004. - S. 352-389.

2 Peremitina, N.A. World economy: textbook / N.A. Peremitin; Federal Agency for Education, GOU VPO TSPU. - Tomsk: Publishing House of TSPU, 2006. - 206 p.

b) additional

1 Apostolov, E.T. Urbanization: trends and hygienic and demographic problems: monograph / E. Apostolov, H. Michkov; per. from Bulgarian A. N. Ivanova. -M. : Medicine, 1977. – 398 p.

2 Biosphere: pollution, degradation, protection: a brief explanatory dictionary: Textbook for universities / D.S. Orlov [i dr.]. - M. : Higher school, 2003. - 123 p.

3 Global geography. 10-11 cells. : textbook / Yu.N. Smooth, S.B. Lavrov. - M. : Bustard, 2007. - 318 p.

4 Goldovskaya, L.F. Chemistry of the environment: a textbook for universities / L.F. Golodovskaya. - 2nd ed. - M. : Mir, 2007. - 2007. - 294 p.

5 Mironov, V.V. Philosophy: textbook / VV Mironov. - M. : Prospect, 2005.-238 p.

6 Petrova, N.N. Geography: Modern world: textbook / N.N. Petrov. - M. : Forum, 2005. - 222 p.

Socio-economic geography of the foreign world / under. Ed. V.V. Volsky. - 3rd ed., Rev. - M. : Bustard, 2005. - 557 p.

7 Strelnik, O.N. Philosophy: a short course of lectures / O. N. Strelnik. - M. : Yurayt, 2003. - 239 p.

8 Rodionova, I.A. Global problems of mankind: a textbook for electives. course / I.A. Rodionov. - M.: Aspect Press, 1995. -159 p.

6.2. Means of ensuring the development of discipline

Cards:

Physical map of Russia: Thematic map / Scale 1: 5000000. - M .: Federal Service for Geodesy and Cartography, 1998.

Map Population of Russia: Thematic map / Scale 1:1:5000000. - M. : Federal service of geodesy and cartography, 1987.

Political and administrative map of the Russian Federation: Thematic map / Scale 1:5000000. - M. : Federal service of geodesy and cartography, 1998.

Atlases:

Atlas in two parts for educational institutions grade 9. Geography of Russia. - Ch.I. Nature and man. - Omsk: Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Omsk Cartographic Factory", 2005. - 72 p.

Atlas in two parts for educational institutions grade 9. Geography of Russia.- Part II. population and economy. - Omsk: Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Omsk Cartographic Factory", 2005. - 72 p.

Ecological Atlas of Russia / ed. Yu.M. Artemiev; Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, Federal Ecological Fund of the Russian Federation, Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, ZAO Map; Printed by Loimaan Kirjapaino OY, Finland, 2002. - 128 p.

7. Logistics of discipline

According to the State Educational Standard for the specialty 032500.00, the course "Global problems of mankind" is offered, which is included in the cycle of disciplines of subject training (DPP.V.03.01).

When mastering the discipline, it is recommended to follow the sequence of presentation of the topics proposed in the program. Theoretical knowledge is consolidated in practical classes. When submitting material, it is advisable to demonstrate the illustrative material of printed publications and the Internet; it is reasonable to offer atlases as handouts for each lecture (see clause 6.2.).

List of sample questions and tasks for independent work

Global studies and geography

1. Try to define the tasks of certain areas of global studies: 1) philosophical; 2) economic; 3) political; 4) prognostic; 5) geographical.
2. Could you name some phenomena or processes in nature or society that have given (or are giving) impulses for the development of scientific research in the field of global studies?
3. It is known that any classification scheme is based on a logical starting point, i.e., a criterion. Try to classify global problems according to the following criteria: a) severity of manifestation; b) time (order) of occurrence; c) the possibility of a positive decision (mitigation).
4. Which of the global problems affects your personal interests: a) strongly; b) moderately; c) does not affect at all?
5. What is the practical strength of global geography as a scientific direction? Developments in what area of ​​global geography do you think are the most promising?
6. What is the benefit of global modeling? How can one explain the difficulties with the selection of social indicators in global modeling (especially when trying to formalize human qualities and needs)?

global studies; geographic global studies; global geography; geospheric-biospheric models; alarmist models; social indicators in global models.

Anthropogenic impacts on individual components of nature

1. As you know, history can be approached in two ways: the history of nature and the history of people. Try to trace the main threads of mutual conditioning of the history of nature and the history of mankind.
2. Even 200 years ago, the German thinker I. Herder stated: "No way of life has made so many changes in the minds of people as farming on a fenced plot of land." Could you elaborate on his train of thought?
3. Due to what spaces is the expansion of the territorial framework of the world economy taking place today?
4. It is widely known in the literature that vegetation is a kind of litmus test of anthropogenic changes. And why, after all, not relief, hydrographic network, etc.?
5. After the peasant reform in Russia in 1861, the areas of eroded lands, primarily ravines, began to grow rapidly in the Central Black Earth region. How can you explain this?
6. One of the most famous attempts to classify anthropogenic complexes belongs to V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who, according to the degree of human impact, divided all landscapes into: 1) primitive (virgin); 2) semi-wild (slightly affected by human influence); 3) cultural (transformed); 4) running wild (partially self-regenerating as a result of the decline of human culture) and 5) running wild (with the renewal of all elements of the primitive landscape). How practical is this classification today? What are its vulnerabilities?
7. What needs to be changed in human psychology, thinking and activity in order to establish new relationships with the natural environment, to form truly cultural landscapes?

Geography of mankind. Races. Ethnicities. Geography of religions

1. What factors clearly indicate that humanity is not a chaotically "scattered" group of people around the planet and poorly connected with each other, but a single whole?
2. Why does modern science relegate the racial problem to the realm of anthropology only?
3. Try to give examples of states where there is a coincidence of a racial group with a certain people.
4. What do you know about L. N. Gumilyov's theory of ethnogenesis, which attracted much attention in the 80-90s of the scientific community? What meaning did the scientist put into the concept of "passionarity"? How do you feel about this theory?
5. Why is language the most common ethno-differentiating feature, and not other elements of the same culture (religion, traditions, etc.)?
6. It is known that knowledge of the religious affiliation of the population helps to better understand the features of the economic and social geography of individual countries and peoples. Could you expand on this story with specific examples and illustrations?
7. How can you explain the fact that the cultural and civilizational characteristics of ethnic groups are much less mobile and changeable than, say, political, economic, and some others?
8. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

sapientation; monocentric theory of human origin; polycentric theory of the origin of man; ethnodifferentiating factors; old written languages; early written languages; unwritten languages; world religions; national religions; "self-identification" of members of an ethnic group, civilization, etc.

Political geography. Economic differentiation of the world

1. Discuss all the pros and cons associated with the "formational" and "civilizational" approaches in science. Which of them, in your opinion, allows you to more reasonably judge the geographical shifts that took place (and are taking place) on the planet?
2. What is the difference between a state system and a state system? Show with an example.
3. Try using the example of a specific cultural and historical region to establish what factors determined such a high degree of its internal unity.
4. Give your own assessment of the methodology used by the UN to determine the level of socio-economic development of the country. Are there indicators, in your opinion, more important than those used by this international organization to assess the level of development and (or) backwardness?
5. Discuss the geopolitical concept of Eurasianism. If for some reason it does not suit you, try to formulate your own long-term geopolitical concept of the country.
6. Mark on the contour map of the former USSR areas of "vital interests" of Russia. Are there such territories outside the former Soviet Union? Argument your opinion.
7. Check how you learned the following terms and categories: aerotoria; geotoria; delimitation; demarcation; adjudication; accretion; enclave; the concept of Eurasianism; electoral geography; heartland; rimland; geopolitics; geopolitical code; political geography; cultural and historical region; formational approach; civilizational approach.

1. Why does the formula of the famous English economist D. Ricardo “not work” in real life: each country produces what it can do better than others? What prevents the establishment of such an ideal picture of the international division of labor?
2. What conditions are necessary for the specialization of the country's economy in the production of certain types of products?
3. Consider what geographic factors contributed to the transformation of Great Britain into the "factory (workshop) of the world" in its time.
4. By logical arguments, prove that the economic isolation (autarky) of the country inevitably leads to a decrease in the efficiency of social production.
5. Using new information (drawn from fresh sources, including scientific periodicals, the media), analyze the dynamics of the development of the main material blocks of the world economy (“who is overtaking whom?”).
6. What forms of international economic relations should, in your opinion, be developed by Russia? What is your position based on?
7. How can the ideas of "Eurasianism" (which was discussed in the topic "Political Geography") be combined with plans for the economic revival of Russia?

the first industrial revolution; second industrial revolution; third industrial revolution; international division of labor; autarky; centers of power; inflation (creeping, galloping, hyperinflation); devaluation, revaluation; the concept of "industrial niche"; customs tariffs; foreign trade turnover; foreign trade balance; payment balance; direct investment.

demographic problem

1. Published in 1798 by the English priest Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Law of Population influenced the minds of people all over the world (including Charles Darwin). The conclusions of Malthus, based on the law of diminishing returns and ridiculed more than once in Soviet literature, have not lost their significance to this day. And yet, what is rational in the ideas of Malthus? The reality of which specific countries partly confirms today the correctness of his concept?
2. How many people were in your great-grandfather's family? In your father's family? How many do you suppose will be in your own family?
3. How convincing do you think the demographic transition theory is?
4. Which of the "instruments" of demographic policy seem to you the most effective? Does the specifics of the country implementing the demographic policy influence their choice? Give examples.
5. What are the reasons for the depopulation processes manifested in certain countries of the world? Are the roots of depopulation processes the same in some countries of Western Europe and in Russia?
6. It is known that the goals and means of demographic policy on the scale of such a federal state as Russia should be "regionalized". Could you point out the demographic specifics of individual regions of Russia?
7. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

population explosion; demographic transition theory; phases of demographic transition; simple reproduction of the population; demographic optimum; demographic policy; means of implementing demographic policy; depopulation processes; demographic waves.

North-South: the problem of underdevelopment

1. What is the meaning of the term "social progress"?
2. What is the difference between the concepts of "backwardness" and "poverty"? Do you agree that the guilt of colonialism in perpetuating the backwardness of developing countries has traditionally been exaggerated in our literature? What is the dual role of colonialism?
3. What is the "scale" of underdevelopment of developing countries, adopted by the UN? What criteria of backwardness can be considered the most reliable in characterizing the countries of the modern world?
4. Describe the geographical features of the backwardness of the countries of the African continent.
5. What are the features of the geography of the backwardness of the Asian states?
6. Where and why are the main "islands of backwardness" concentrated in Latin America?
7. Comment on the following words of one prominent Japanese cultural figure, said in relation to Russia: “Why are you all shouting so loudly - crisis, crisis, catastrophe! You used to think that you live in the best country in the world, now that you live in the worst. After the war, things were much worse in our country - everything was destroyed, there was no government, no resources, but we did not panic, but began to work and created a new civilization in 40 years.
8. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

social development; social progress; internal causes of backwardness; external causes of backwardness; absolute poverty; relative poverty.

food problem

1. Why is the food used by man to maintain life, at the same time, considered a product of his general culture?
2. It is known that many countries of the East and West have long since achieved food abundance. What, then, gives the food problem a global dimension?
3. What discoveries at the intersection of medicine and archeology refute the conventional wisdom about the "carnivorousness" of our distant ancestors?
4. What two criteria primarily determine the quality of human nutrition, and what kind of relationship exists between them?
5. Why is sub-Saharan Africa usually considered the world's "hunger pole", despite the fact that the countries of monsoonal Asia hold the lead in terms of the absolute number of hungry people?
6. How is the question of the origin of the unprecedented Sahelian droughts in Africa in the 1980s, which led to hundreds of thousands of people starving to death, interpreted in the scientific literature?
7. It is known that the boundaries of regional types of nutrition do not coincide with the boundaries of individual states. What food for thought does this situation give the geographer?
8. Establish cause-and-effect relationships in a "vicious circle" system: "poverty - poor nutrition - disease - low productivity - poverty".
9. What do you think are the main causes of the ongoing food crisis in the Third World?

10. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

Hunger (malnutrition); improper (malnutrition) nutrition; hidden hunger; isodynamic theory; "Harris stripes"; anemia; take-take disease; regional type of food; sahelian droughts.

Energy problem. Raw material problem

1. You know the two main components of the global energy problem. Will the ratio of their role in the aggravation of the energy situation in the world at the beginning of the next millennium change somehow? Why?
2. Try to uncover the socio-political roots of the energy crisis that broke out in the Western world in the 70s.
3. Determine the most optimal, from your point of view, territories and water areas of the planet for the construction of power plants operating on alternative energy sources.
4. Describe the main ways of transition to an energy-saving type of economy. What do you know about the energy saving policy pursued by Western countries and Japan?
5. How did the Chernobyl tragedy affect the energy strategy in the world? Discuss both purely emotional and science-based responses to this biggest man-made disaster of modern times.
6. Describe the state of the energy economy in Russia. How, in your opinion, should the country's fuel and energy balance be adjusted? Is it worth paying more attention to the regional modifications of the thermopile?
7. Formulate the essence of the global raw material problem. What are its main components?
8. Why would it be an oversimplification to reduce the raw material problem to purely geological questions of the presence and distribution of mineral resources on the planet?
9. Check how you learned the term "clark". Is it possible to proceed from this indicator when analyzing the real endowment of the world economy with mineral resources? Explain.
10. How do forest resources fit into the global resource problem?
11. Explain the reasons for the policy of the so-called "resource autarky" (resource independence), pursued by the government of the USSR during almost all the years of the existence of Soviet power.
12. What is the "populism" of the widely used expression that all the elements of Mendeleev's periodic system are present on the geological map of a country?
13. Indicate the main ways to reduce the resource wastefulness of modern mankind.
14. What is the difference between "waste", "low waste" and "wasteless" technologies? What does complex processing of raw materials have to do with them?
15. In what forms does the global raw material problem manifest itself in Russia? What preventive measures to "mitigate" resource and raw materials difficulties could you recommend?
16. Scenario the state of the global commodity problem by 2100.

Problems of the World Ocean

1. What exactly is the specificity of the development and ecology of the World Ocean, which usually serves as an argument in identifying the global problems of this sphere of the planet?
2. It is known that the ocean covers most of the Earth, significantly exceeding the land area. Shouldn't we rename the planet to Oceania in this regard? How do you justify the answer to this rather provocative question?
3. There is a popular belief that "hydrospace" is explored today worse than the far side of the moon. What, in your opinion, are the most promising directions in the study of the problems of the World Ocean?
4. What do you know about the merits of the famous French oceanographer J. I. Cousteau? About the researchers of the Mariana Trench?
5. Why does the problem of developing the mineral resources of the World Ocean have a global impact?
6. How can one explain the sometimes occurring concentration of bioresources within the deep-water sections of the Ocean, which, as is well known, is an exception to the general rule?
7. Which types of renewable energy carriers of the Ocean are the most promising? Justify your answer.
8. In the Hermitage (St. Petersburg) there is a famous painting by P. Rubens "The Union of Earth and Water", on which the goddess Glory crowns the union of the goddess of the Earth Cybele and the god of the Sea Neptune. What is the essence of the inseparable and vital connection between land and sea for a person?
9. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

upwelling; aquaculture; "thickening of life"; current energy; kinetic energy of waves; thermal energy of the ocean.

Global ethnic crisis

1. Ethnic crises are analyzed within the framework of many sciences, including ethnogeography, a scientific direction formed at the intersection of ethnography and geography. In this regard, could you outline an approximate range of problems that ethnic geography is called upon to deal with?
2. Discuss the content of the concepts of "state interest" and "national interest". When is it important to distinguish between them?
3. Give examples of ethnic crises, the roots of which have very little to do with the manifestation of ethno-nationalism.
4. What is hidden behind the term "tribalism"? Why is it most dangerous in sub-Saharan Africa?
5. What specific historical vicissitudes of the formation of the Russian Empire, and then the Soviet Union, "laid" a powerful foundation for interethnic conflict?
6. Try to assess interethnic conflicts in the territory of the former USSR. In what cases does your own position not coincide with the official point of view? Argument it.
7. According to the 1989 census, the number of people who called Russian their native language was: in Ukraine - 32.8%, in Belarus - 31.9%, Kazakhstan - 47.4%, Moldova - 23.1%, Latvia - 42 1%, Kyrgyzstan - 25.5%, Estonia - 34.8%, etc. Why does this factor of escalation of interethnic tensions manifest itself differently in these countries?
8. Check your understanding of the following terms and categories:

ethnic crisis; ethnic conflict; conflict-forming factor; assimilation processes; depopulation of ethnic minorities; tribalism; the image of the "cauldron" in the process of US national consolidation; the image of a "patchwork quilt" in the process of US national consolidation.

Other global issues

1. Given the well-known "belatedness" in the geographical understanding of some of the global problems considered in this topic, try to formulate a kind of "geographical credo" yourself when analyzing them.
2. What are the connections between the geocriminogenic situation and 1) the sex and age structure of the local population; 2) the natural conditions of the territory?
3. What is the difference between the terms "natural disasters" and "natural disasters"? Which of the natural disasters has the most pronounced global focus?
4. What are the arguments in favor of identifying the global problem of urbanization?
5. Can we seriously consider the problem of bureaucracy global? Justify any point of view.
6. Are you familiar with the contents of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Which of its positions do you particularly like? Which of them, in your opinion, are still poorly observed in Russia? (The text of the Declaration is almost completely given in the book: Gladky Yu. N., Lavrov S. B. Give the planet a chance! - M., 1995.)
7. What other problems can you add to the above list of global problems of our time?
8. Check your understanding of the following terms and expressions:

geocriminogenic situation; urbanized areas; standard metropolitan statistical areas; megalo policies; suburbanization; catastrophe theory; classification of natural phenomena.

Approximate topics of abstracts, term papers and qualification (thesis) papers

Approximate topics of abstracts

1. problems of large cities.
2. Hypotheses of global climate change of the Earth.
3. Hypotheses of stabilization of the population of the Earth.

Approximate topics of term papers

1. The problem of crime.
2. The problem of urbanization.
3. The problem of technological accidents.
4. Spontaneous natural phenomena.
5. Problems of space exploration.
6. The aggravation of interethnic relations in foreign Europe at the end of the twentieth century.
7. Arab-Israeli conflict: history and modernity.
8. Military conflicts in the Persian Gulf: causes and consequences.
9. Regional and local conflicts in Africa at the end of the 20th century.
10. Regional and local conflicts in Asia at the end of the 20th century.
11. Aggravation of interethnic relations in the territory of the former USSR at the end of the 20th century.
12. Alternative and non-traditional energy sources.
13. Use of the mineral resources of the World Ocean.
14. Use of the energy resources of the oceans.
15. The problem of pollution of the oceans.
16. Problems of education, science, culture.
17. "Information explosion" in the modern world.
18. Features of the geography of the world scientific and educational infrastructure.
19. The problem of human health and longevity.
20. The problem of space exploration.
21. problems of large cities.
22. The hypothesis of global climate change of the Earth.
23. The hypothesis of stabilization of the population of the Earth.
24. The concept of sustainable development.
25. Critical ecological regions of the world.
26. Critical ecological regions of Russia.
27. Environmental problems in Africa.
28. The problem of Islamism and Muslim extremism.

Approximate qualification (thesis) works

1. Methodological developments on the topic "Global ethnic crisis" in the ninth grade of high school.
2. Methodological developments on the topic "Raw material problem" in the ninth grade of high school.
3. Methodological developments on the topic "Demographic problems" in the ninth grade of high school.
4. Methodological developments on the topic "Problems of the World Ocean" in the ninth grade of high school.
5. Methodological developments on the topic "Energy problem" in the ninth grade of high school.
6. Methodological developments on the topic "Food problem" in the ninth grade of high school.

An indicative list of questions for the test

1. The relationship between the concepts of "global" and "international".
2. Trends in globalization and regionalization of the modern world. Global geography: science and academic discipline.
3. Global studies: term and content.
4. Classification of global problems.
5. Global Modeling: History, Goals and Approaches.
6. The relationship of global problems.
7. Rapid change in the face of the Earth. Development of new territories.
8. Anthropogenic and cultural landscapes.
9. The origin of man and "sapientation".
10. Ethnic mosaic of the world.
11. Dynamics of the number of ethnic groups speaking the languages ​​that dominate the world.
12. Geography of religions. Christianity. The spread of Islam. Spread of Buddhism. Localization of national religions.
13. Geography of cultures and civilizations.
14. Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of human history.
15. Territory of the state and forms of its organization.
16. Typology of states.
17. The end of the bipolar world and the concept of mondialism. Geopolitics: origins and modernity.
18. International division of labor.
19. World (global) economy: concept, development trends.
20. Economic integration. European Union (EU).
21. Foreign economic relations. The role of money in foreign economic relations.
22. International trade. Export (export) of capital. Russia and the world economy.
23. Statement of the problem of backwardness. Roots of backwardness. backwardness and colonialism. backwardness and geographic environment. backwardness parameters. External debt as a factor of backwardness. Geography of backwardness. Africa. Asia. Latin America.
24. Population explosion: its causes and consequences.
25. Statement of the food problem. Food sources in the past and now. Quality of nutrition: norms and facts.
26. Geography of malnutrition (hunger). Tropical Africa. Monsoon Asia. Latin America.
27. Regional types of food. Hunger and human health. Reasons for hunger. Are there any prospects for its eradication?
28. Statement of the energy problem.
29. Provision with oil and the transition to an energy-saving type of economy. Natural gas. Oil. Coal.
30. Hydropower. Alternative energy sources. Nuclear power.
31. Energy problems of Russia.
32. Depletion of the earth's interior. Dispersion of deposits.
33. The role of forest resources. secondary resources.
34. Russia and the global commodity crisis.
35. The problem of using the energy of the ocean. Other problems of the World Ocean.
36. Global ethnic crisis
37. Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation. The principle of identity of state and national borders.
38. The movement of nations towards self-determination and the desire for the formation of supernations. "Aging" of nations and destabilization of interethnic relations.
39. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities. Ecology and ethnic strife. Other factors "provoking" outbreaks of nationalism. Tribalism is an old disease of Africa.
40. Russia and the global ethnic crisis.
41. Statement of the problem of health and longevity. Nosogeography.
42. Spatial "expansion" of AIDS. The spread of malignant neoplasms.
43. The problem of crime.
44. The problem of urbanization.
45. The problem of technological accidents.
46. Spontaneous natural phenomena.
47. Problems of space exploration.

The program was compiled in accordance with the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education in the specialty 032500.00 "Geography with an additional specialty"

The program was compiled

Candidate of Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Geography ______________________ T.V. Ershov

Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Geography _____________________ A.V. Rodikova

The discipline program was approved at a meeting of the Department of Geography

Protocol No. dated « » 2008

Head Department of Geography, IGP TSPU, Associate Professor, Candidate of Geol.-Mineral. n. HER. Pugacheva

The discipline program was approved by the IHF Methodological Commission

Protocol No. dated "____" ______2008

Chairman of the methodological commission of the IHF

Associate Professor, Ph.D. n., head. cafe Theory and methods of teaching history ____________ O. Yu. Nazarova

Agreed:

IHF Dean ______________ I. V. Rudkovsky

Change sheet

Additions and changes to the program of the academic discipline for the 200_ / 200_ academic year

The following changes are made to the curriculum of the discipline:

The program of the discipline was approved at a meeting of the Department of Geography

Protocol No. dated "" 200

Head Department of Geography ________________

The program of the discipline was approved by the methodological commission of the IGP TSPU

Chairman of the methodological commission of the IHF __________________

Agreed:

Dean of IHF _____________________

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY ADMINISTRATION

MUNICIPAL BUDGET GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL № 2 im. A.I. ISAEVA"

APPROVE

Director of MBOU "Secondary School No. 2

them. A.I. Isaeva"

Linnik I.A. _________

protocol of the method council No.

from "______"_________

PROGRAM

"Global Geography"

Elective course for 11th grade students, 17 hours

geography teacher

Ilyicheva G.D.______

«____»_________________

global geography

(35 h)

Explanatory note

The course "Global Geography" is a relatively new and rapidly developing direction in the geographical; science that studies the spatial manifestation of planetary processes and phenomena. We can say that we are dealing with a special branch of global studies - the study of global problems of mankind - geographical, including environmental, energy, food, raw materials, demographic and other aspects of the development of nature and society.

Globalistics itself has a pronounced interdisciplinary character and is studied by many sciences: philosophy, sociology, economics, biology, law, etc. Global geography is “geographical globalistics”, and its study is especially important and promising, since we are talking about mastering knowledge at the turn of the science of nature and society. Geography remains the only discipline that synthesizes the natural and social trends in science. Global problems are different in nature, but they are all permeated with the idea of ​​the geographical unity of mankind and its survival. If in the past crisis phenomena threatened only certain cultures and territories, then the modern mega-crisis covers the whole world, all the main forms and spheres of human life.

Among the most acute are such global problems as nuclear disarmament and maintaining peace on Earth; environmental, associated with the increasing destruction of the natural environment; demographic, generated by the rapid growth of the population in developing countries, their inability to provide people with normal living conditions; energy and raw material problems caused by the limited mineral resources of the planet; the food problem associated with chronic malnutrition of millions of people and hunger in developing countries; the appalling poverty of dozens of states, primarily in Africa; problems of the World Ocean, the causes of which are primarily due to a decrease in biological productivity, pollution of water areas, etc.

"Global geography" occupies an increasingly stable place in the education system in various countries of the world, which is associated with the great cognitive, moral and educational value of this course.

Target: To form a worldview idea about the interconnectedness of the global problems of mankind, about the possibility of their solution only with an integrated approach in the conditions of international cooperation and mutual assistance.

It is intended to contribute to the solution of the following tasks:

Mastering the system of knowledge about the global problems of our time, which is extremely important for a holistic understanding of the planetary community of people, the unity of nature and society.

Understanding Russia's place in the world, the specifics of the manifestation of global problems in each country.

The development of students' cognitive interest in the increasingly sound problems of a social nature - interethnic relations, culture and morality, the lack of democracy, etc.

Equipping students with special and general educational knowledge that allows them to independently obtain geographical information on this course.

Studying the course "Global Geography" in the senior classes allows you to integrate the knowledge gained in other subjects, make the most of the general educational and cultural potential of geography as an academic subject, combine linear-step and concentric principles of education.

Introduction (2 h)

Global studies and global geography: terminology and content

Global studies - the doctrine of the global problems of our time: natural science and social. "package" of these problems. The interdisciplinary nature of global studies and the main directions in its study: philosophical, economic, sociological, environmental, legal, prognostic, geographical, etc. The need to mobilize the joint efforts of economists, sociologists, ecologists, lawyers, chemists, physicists, physicians, geographers and other specialists for research global problems.

Global problems that pose a direct threat to humanity. The unresolved problems of space exploration, the study of the internal structure of the Earth, long-term forecasting of weather and climate and their impact on the future of mankind.

The subject of the study of global geography. The initial manifestation of many processes and phenomena of a global nature at lower geographical levels - continental, regional, zonal, national, local. An example with the problem of hunger, practically unknown in Western Europe, the USA or Japan. Parallel between the emergence of individual negative global processes and the emergence of malignant cells in the human body.

The utopianism of ideas about the complete solution of all global problems ever and the relevance of the thesis about the need to mitigate their severity.

Systematization of global problems

The meaning of systematization, which makes it possible to form the most visual representation of the analyzed problems, to more clearly fix the existing links between their various groups. "Old" and "new" global problems, "main" and "non-main", which appeared thanks to man and exist regardless of him.

Problems of a political and socio-economic nature (the threat of nuclear war and the preservation of peace on the planet; ensuring expanded reproduction; overcoming backwardness by developing countries; ensuring sustainable development; the problem of controllability by the world community, etc.).

Problems of a predominantly natural and economic nature (environmental, energy, food, raw materials, problems of the World Ocean).

Problems of a predominantly social nature (demographic; interethnic and interreligious relations; crisis of culture, morality and family; lack of democracy; urbanization; health care, etc.).

Problems of a scientific nature (exploration of outer space; study of the internal structure of the Earth; long-term climate forecasting, etc.).

Problems of a mixed nature, the unresolved nature of which often leads to mass deaths of people (problems of regional conflicts, industrial accidents, crime, natural disasters, suicides, etc.).

Small global problems of a predominantly psychological and autoecological nature (bureaucracy, selfishness, etc.).

One-sided coverage of the global problems of mankind in the literature. The constant presence in the field 3 of Rhenium of such problems as environmental, demographic, food, energy, raw materials, since it is with them that the Processes are first of all associated, exposing the foundations of human existence to the most powerful impact.

Methods of research of global problems.

demographic problem

Uncontrolled population growth in developing countries and the inability of modern civilization to provide the current and especially future population with normal living conditions. The theory of Malthus, its supporters and opponents in the past and now.

The ability of the Earth to theoretically feed more than tens of billions of people. Existing opportunities to increase the area of ​​cultivated land and increase average yields due to the Green Revolution. A simultaneous increase in the threat of irreversible pollution of the environment, the accumulation of a gigantic number of people in large cities, an increase in the risk of mass death from starvation and disease in the event of a series of lean years, etc.

The connection of the demographic problem with the continuing socio-economic conditions in the countries of the "third world". The concept of the theory of "demographic transition" and its applicability to the conditions of underdeveloped countries. Agrarian society's preference for the extended family. (Clarification of this phenomenon requires consideration of the following concepts: 1) children: economic help or burden; 2) guarantees in old age (lack of social pension systems in developing countries); 3) the position of women in society; 4) religious attitudes, 5) the availability of contraceptives.)

Demographic policy, its orientation and ways of activation. Demographic policy of China, India, African and Latin American countries: successes and disappointments. Demographic policy in the former USSR and modern Russia.

The global demographic situation and the complex of socio-economic tasks of our time.

The problem of underdevelopment

Roots of backwardness of some countries of the modern world. Primitivism of the Marxist point of view, according to which the blame for the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries was entirely laid on colonialism. Historical delay (stadiality) in the development of socio-economic structures as the main cause of backwardness. The role of colonialism and so-called neo-colonialism in conservation and overcoming underdevelopment.

Scales and criteria of backwardness. Poverty, illiteracy of the population, chronic malnutrition and hunger, high mortality, epidemics, etc. as attributes of the underdevelopment of society. Underdevelopment criteria used in the UN. The least developed countries of the world (according to the UN classification), their typical features. underdeveloped countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Growth in the cost of finished industrial products and stagnation in the cost of raw materials and fuel (or mismatch in cost growth rates).

The problem of external debt of developing countries. The concept of the "new international economic order", the prospects for its establishment. Relationship of backwardness with other global problems.

food problem

Food as the most important fund of the livelihood of mankind. Food sources in the past and now. The structure of food rations. Major plant food sources. Meat and fish are the most important sources of proteins. Milk and fats of animal origin.

The essence of the food problem in the modern world and its main parameters: production, demand, distribution and consumption. Causes and manifestations of the food crisis in developing countries. The impact of hunger and malnutrition on the reproduction of the labor force. The concept of "hidden hunger".

Differentiation of countries and regions according to the severity of the manifestation of the food crisis. The protracted, chronic nature of the food crisis in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Modest agro-natural potential, increased fragility and reduced D "elasticity" of local ecosystems. Increased natural population growth, far outpacing food production. The countries of the Sahel as a "pole" of world hunger.

Poor quality, malnutrition as the most typical form of manifestation of the food problem in some countries of monsoon Asia. The successes of the "Green Revolution" and the improvement of the food situation in Asia. Food problem in Latin America.

Aggravation of the food situation in the countries - successors of the former USSR.

Ways out of the food impasse. Connection of the food problem with other global problems of our time. The role of eliminating hunger in solving the problem of underdevelopment.

Providing food for the growing population of the Earth. The role of arable land, meadows, the oceans and artificial products in solving the food problem.

energy problem

The essence and scale of the energy problem. Growth of energy intensity of the modern economy. A growing gap between the high rates of development of energy-intensive industries and the reserves of non-renewable energy resources (oil, gas, coal). Negative environmental consequences of energy development while maintaining the traditional structure of the fuel and energy balance.

The energy crisis of the 70s. XX century: its background and consequences. Economic, political and social aspects of the energy crisis. The end of the era of cheap energy sources. OPEC countries and their role in shaping energy prices.

Traditional and alternative energy. Provision of hydrocarbon raw materials to countries and regions of the world and the transition to an energy-saving type of economy. Nuclear power, modern scales of its development, advantages and disadvantages. The problem of technical reliability of nuclear power plants and disposal of radioactive waste. Use of solar energy (solar energy), wind energy (wind energy), intraterrestrial heat, waves, currents, etc.

Energy and ecology.

Contours of the energy economy of the future, forecasts and scenarios for the development of energy for the 21st century. Limits to the growth of energy production.

Global energy situation and other global problems.

Raw material problem

The essence of the global raw material problem. The concept of raw materials. Modern scales of use of mineral raw materials. Types of raw materials, more or less close to exhaustion. Optimistic and pessimistic forecasts for the use of raw materials in the future.

The relative scarcity and irreplaceability of mineral resources as the main component of the global resource problem. Other components: the lag in the technology of development and processing of raw materials, the low availability of certain countries with mineral raw materials. Transition to the exploitation of less productive deposits of mineral resources in hard-to-reach areas with difficult or extreme natural conditions. Increasing the cost of production of almost all types of mineral resources.

Waste production - low-waste - non-waste. The purpose and task of low-waste technology is the creation of production with a minimum amount of waste and harmful effects that do not exceed the permissible sanitary and hygienic level. Cycle "raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials".

The recycling of non-renewable resources is one of the ways to save resources. Utilization of household waste (garbage).

Regional aspects of the raw material problem in the modern world. Attempts to radically solve the problem of waste in Japan and Western Europe.

Russia and the global commodity crisis. Mineral raw material nature of Russian exports and the problem of depletion of hydrocarbon deposits. Insufficient use of secondary resources. Low efficiency of resource saving policy.

The global commodity situation and its connection with other global problems.

Problems of the World Ocean

The seeming artificiality of posing these problems, arising from the undesirable opposition of the territory of the land to the waters of the ocean. The specificity of the development and ecology of the ocean, which allows us to speak about the well-known independence of these problems.

The oceans as the "cradle" of all life on the planet. Protecting the oceanic environment of nascent life from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation. The role of the oceans in providing life on Earth.

The oceans as a resource base. The structure of marine resources. Maritime economy. biological resources. World fisheries, its current scale and possible limits. Mariculture. Marine mining industry. "Skinny ore". Resources and production of oil and gas. solid minerals bottom of the ocean. The ocean as a source of fresh water.

Problems of ocean energy use. The problem of the development of maritime transport. World shipping. Marine fleet. Ports, channels. Non-traditional types of maritime transport.

The problem of maritime transport.

Ecology of the World Ocean.

The ocean is the common heritage of mankind. |

Problems of the World Ocean and their connection with other global problems.

Global ethnic crisis

The growing economic and technical interdependence of states and the acceleration of the processes of internationalization of social life. In parallel, the desire of individual countries and ethnic groups for self-identification is manifested. The manifestation in various regions of the world of uncontrolled national emotions, which take the form of reasonable national self-assertion or aggressive nationalism.

Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation: 1) upholding the principle of identity of state and ethnic borders; 2) the movement of nations towards self-determination; 3) the desire of nations to form supernations; 4) economic struggle for land, housing, jointly acquired fixed assets, etc.; 5) uncontrolled demographic development in underdeveloped countries; 6) assimilation processes and depopulation of ethnic minorities; 7) "aging" of nations in advanced economies; 8) environmental factor; 9) psychological attitudes to protect the cultural and moral traditions of the ethnic group, belief in its special relationship with the supreme deity, etc.

Pronounced geographical specificity of such Factors as uncontrolled demographic development, "aging" of nations, assimilation processes, environmental factors.

Geography of interethnic conflicts in the modern world. Tribal strife (tribalism) is an old disease of Africa, where archaic institutions and organizations associated with the tribal system are still preserved. Interethnic and interreligious tensions in South Asia and Latin America.

Russia and the global ethnic crisis. Interethnic conflicts in the countries of the former USSR. Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, conflicts on the territory of Georgia, the Transnistrian crisis, etc.

Global ethnic crisis and its connection with other global problems.

Problems of human health and longevity

Human health as a synthetic category, which includes, in addition to the physiological, moral, intellectual and mental components. One of the oldest global problems of mankind. The life expectancy of the population as one of the most important criteria for the civilization of any country (along with the development of the newest branches of the economy, the level of national income per capita, etc.).

The concept of medical geography, which studies the spread of diseases and pathological conditions of a person; the reasons for this spread and the influence of the geographic environment on human health.

Geography of infectious diseases (epidemiological geography). The doctrine of E. N. Pavlovsky about the natural focality of the so-called transmissible diseases. Forecasting the probability of occurrence of a particular disease, depending on the confinement of its natural foci to a certain geographical landscape (plague, tick-borne encephalitis, etc.). Malaria, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis (or "sleeping sickness") are typical infectious diseases of the African tropics. Other epidemiological diseases: influenza, tuberculosis, cholera, etc.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a new global deadly disease. The rapid spread of the AIDS epidemic

countries of the world, primarily African, Asian, American. Immorality (sexual promiscuity and drug addiction) and lack of spirituality as primary factors \ the spread of the disease. The role of medicine in expanding the geography of AIDS. AIDS in Russia.

The spread of malignant neoplasms and their relationship with geographical factors. Dependence of human health on the mode and quality of nutrition (kwashiorkor, beriberi, diabetes, etc.).

"Internationality" of cardiovascular, mental and some other diseases.

The global significance of the issue of increasing the average life expectancy of a person. Gerontological science.

Relationship between the problem of human health and longevity and other global problems.

The problem of natural phenomena

The role of tragedies caused by the forces of nature in the history of mankind. Systematization of natural disasters (SPP) according to the conditions of occurrence (cosmic, meteorological-climatic, hydrological and geological, geological-tectonic, glacial-hydrological, etc.). Types of natural destructive phenomena (fall of meteorites and asteroids, flood, tsunami, volcanic eruption, earthquake, mudflow, landslide, tornado, heat, drought, dry wind, dust storm, blizzard, blizzard, lightning, tornado, frost, downpour, hail, fog and etc.).

The evolution of human behavior in relation to PCOS: 1) "flight" from PCOS; 2) search for ways to protect against natural disasters, allowing you to deal with at least some of them; 3) development of a mechanism to prevent some of the SOS based on scientific discoveries.

An increase in the number of human casualties and material damage from SES due to the intensive growth of the population, its concentration in areas affected by the most destructive SES. The greatest vulnerability in the face of the natural elements of developing countries (Bangladesh, monsoon Asia, the Andean countries, the states of the Sahel, etc.).

The geographical nature of the problem of PCOS. The role of geographers in the development of measures to prevent PCOS.

The problem of technological accidents

The "chain reaction" of industrial disasters of recent decades as confirmation of the global nature of the problem (an explosion at a chemical plant in Bhopal in India, the death of the American spacecraft Challenger, the tragic sinking of the Soviet submarine Komsomolets, the death of the ferry "Estonia", the most severe catastrophe of the latter time - Chernobyl and many others).

Systematization of technological accidents depending on the nature of the branches of material production. The role of road, sea and air transport in the statistics of deaths. The role of the world's coal mining industry in the death of workers. Geography of coal mines (basins) with increased methane abundance.

Mathematical theory of catastrophes, which helps to calculate the parameters at which an unstable state of the system occurs. “Protection from fools”, i.e., control of the technological process by an automation system that itself protects production from failures, erroneous decisions, turns off the process in case of possible danger.

Geographical aspects of the problem of technological accidents.

The problem of the lack of democracy and freedom

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the most important international document is a concentrated expression of the democratic experience of mankind. Human rights are our natural, inalienable heritage, and not a gift of the state, for which its leaders should be thanked.

Analysis of the ranking of states by groups - "free", "partially free", "not free", "reactionary" - regimes that refuse to provide their citizens with basic political and social rights. The difference between the concepts of "authoritarianism" and "totalitarianism".

The situation with human rights in the USSR, Russia and countries formed after the collapse of the USSR.

Other global problems of our time (4 hours)

Register of global problems of mankind. The problem of crime inherent in all states without exception. Classification of violations of law and order: crimes against a person (murder, bodily harm, rape, etc.); crimes against the personal property of citizens (robbery, robbery, theft, fraud, extortion, etc.); state crimes (treason, espionage, political terror, sabotage, etc.); air terrorism, or "hijacking", etc. Varying forms of crimes from country to country, from region to region. The concept of "geocriminogenic situation" and the role of geography in the study of crime.

The crisis of culture, morality, family (the problem of "ecology of the soul") is a specific global problem. Any nation is like a living organism of a special, higher order. The fruits of centuries of spiritual selection and great social upheavals, wars, etc.

Global scientific problems related to the exploration of space, the internal structure of the Earth, long-term weather forecasting, etc.

The problem of urbanization of the world, which creates the most complex Knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a weighty argument for considering it from a global point of view.

Analysis of other global problems (see the classification of global problems).

EDUCATIONAL AND THEMATIC PLAN

Number of hours

Global problems: concept and classification

Classification of global problems

Systematization of global problems

demographic problem

Population explosion: causes and consequences. The theory of demographic transition. Developed and developing countries: causes of demographic differences. demographic policy. Demographic situation in Russia.

The problem of underdevelopment

Roots of backwardness. backwardness parameters. Geography of backwardness.

Practical work. Characteristics of backward countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

food problem

Food sources in the past and now. Nutrition quality. Geography of hunger. Regional types of food. Causes of hunger

energy problem

Oil supply and the transition to an energy-saving economy. Natural gas. Hydropower. Alternative energy sources. Atomic Energy. Energy problems of Russia.

Practical work. Determination of the most optimal territories and water areas of the planet for the construction of power plants operating on alternative energy sources, and their designation on a contour map.

Raw material problem

Depletion of the earth's interior. Dispersion of deposits. The role of forest resources. secondary resources. Garbage disposal. Russia and the global commodity crisis.

Practical work. Characteristics of manifestations of the global raw material problem in different countries.

Problems of the World Ocean

Accumulation of knowledge about the Ocean. The problem of development of biological resources. The problem of development of mineral resources. The problem of using the energy of the ocean. Other Ocean Problems.

Global ethnic crisis

Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation. The movement of nations towards self-determination and the desire for the formation of supernations. "Aging" of nations and destabilization of interethnic relations. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities. Ecology and ethnic strife. Tribalism is a disease of Africa. Russia and the global ethnic crisis.

Human health problem

Nosogeography. epidemiological geography. Spatial expansion of AIDS. The spread of malignant neoplasms. Health and longevity

The problem of terrorism and regional conflicts

The emergence of the problem of terrorism. Spread of terrorism. Geography of regional conflicts.

The problem of urbanization

essence of urbanization. Urbanization. Agglomerations and metropolitan areas. Ecological, economic and social problems of cities. "Slum" urbanization.

The problem of natural phenomena

Classification of natural phenomena. Geography of natural phenomena.

The problem of technological accidents

Dangerous professions. Theory of catastrophes.

The problem of space and the study of the internal structure of the Earth

Actuality of the problem of space exploration. Clogging of the near-Earth space. The problem of studying the internal structure of the Earth.

Discussion

Generalization of students' knowledge

General lesson

Generalization and control of students' knowledge, protection of projects, presentations.

Literature:

Alekseev N.A. Natural phenomena in nature. M., 2004.

Internationalization of economic life and global problems of mankind. M, 2001.

Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Global geography. M., Education, 2010 .

Kondratiev K.Ya. Key problems of global ecology. M., 2000.

Developing countries in the struggle to overcome backwardness. M, 2007.

Reimers N.F. Nature management: Dictionary-reference book. M., 2001.

Skinner B. Will Earth's Resources Enough for Mankind? M., 2003.

Slevich S.B. Ocean: resources and economy. L., 2001.

Gladkiy Yu.A., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. 10 cells M., Education, 2010.

Historical and geographical encyclopedias

Countries of the World: Statistical Handbook. Whole world, 2011.

In its maximum completeness, totality, objective reality is revealed in the essential core of the world, on the basis of a universal matrix of social substratum, social objectivity, infinitely deepening into itself. At the level of sensory reflection, the objective world is represented directly in all its infinite content completeness and, therefore, fusion with the "I". At the level of the logical core of subjectivity, the essence of this or that object, the objective world is grasped as a whole, but in relation to a certain, actualized level of complexity of the individual-substance, in relation to some “extra-spatial” standard and, therefore, abstractly, in the concept and through language. Logical thinking actualizes the actual contradiction of the objective world, nature as an incomplete universality and "I" as a complete universality, which is constantly generated and removed by labor. Deeply, this contradiction is an internal contradiction of social objectivity (as the personified essence of the world), a contradiction between the actualized content of the substance and the content that has yet to be actualized. Captured at the logical core level

subjectivity, the ideal abstract “I” (reinforced by the sensory syncretic self-reflection of the individual) acts as an integrator of those logical contents that are revealed only in relation to each other and in the integral system of self-consciousness.

Literature

1. Beresneva N.I. Language and reality. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. state un-ta, 2004. - S. 182.

2. Panfilov V.Z. Gnoseological aspects of philosophical problems of linguistics. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - S. 357.

3. Yakushin B.V. Hypotheses about the origin of the language. -M.: Nauka, 1985. - S. 137.

4. Atayan E.R. Language and extralinguistic reality. Experience of ontological comparison. - Yerevan: Yerevan Publishing House. un-ta, 1987. - S. 384.

5. Gamkrelidze T.V. The unconscious and the problem of structural isomorphism between genetic and linguistic codes // Unconscious: nature, functions, research methods. - Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 1985. T. 4. - S. 261-264.

6. Reasonable behavior and language. Issue. 1. Communication systems of animals and human language. The problem of the origin of the language / Comp. HELL. Koshelev, T.V. Chernihiv. -M.: Languages ​​of Slavic cultures, 2008. - S. 416.

7. Koryakin V.V. Labor and a single natural historical process. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. state un-ta, 2008. Ch.

8. Popovich M.V. Philosophical questions of semantics. -Kiev: Nauk. Dumka, 1975. - S. 299.

Maslyanka Yulia Vladimirovna - Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy, Perm State University, Perm, [email protected]

Data on authors:

Maslyanka Julia Vladimirovna - PhD, associate professor of philosophy at Perm State University, Perm, [email protected]

UDC 101.1:316

A.L. Safonov, A.D. Orlov GLOBALIZATION AS A DIVERGENCE: THE CRISIS OF THE NATION AND THE "RENAISSANCE" OF THE ETHNOSS

Ascertaining the global divergent trends in the ethno-cultural sphere, the authors consider the ethnos and the nation as stably coexisting social groups that have significantly different mechanisms of reproduction and functioning - direct social heredity that translates ethnicity through the way (way) of life and the structure of everyday life for the ethnos and the interaction of the individual with political institutions - for the nation. Generated by economic globalization, the systemic crisis of the nation leads to a compensatory activation of ethnic social structures and ethnic consciousness.

Key words: globalization, ethnos, ethnicity, nation, nationality, state, social group, identity, structures of everyday life.

A.L. Safonov, A.D. Orlov

GLOBALIZATION AS DIVERGENCE:

CRISIS OF THE NATION AND “RENAISSANCE” OF THE ETHNOS

Ascertaining global divergent tendencies in the ethnocultural sphere, authors consider ethnos and the nation as steadily coexisting social groups, having essentially various reproduction and functioning mechanisms - the direct social heredity broadcasting ethnicity by means of way of life and structures of daily occurrence for ethnos and by means of

interaction with political institutions for the nation. The system crisis of the nation generated by globalization conducts to compensating activity of ethnic social structures and ethnic consciousness.

Keywords: globalization, ethnos, ethnicity, nation, nationality, the state, social group, identity, structures of everyday life.

The dominant view of globalization as a comprehensive and unidirectional process of convergence and unification comes from the prevailing economic determinism in the scientific community. The theory of convergence that developed at the peak of industrialism proceeded from the idea of ​​a “single industrial society”, the general technological basis of which predetermined the convergent development of social systems as parts of a single global supersystem, objectively striving for merger. From this point of view, all social groups significant in the modern world process are formed almost exclusively by economic relations and interests. Civil nations, local (national) and global elites are recognized as such groups.

As for the ethnic identity of members of political nations, within the framework of the convergent paradigm, it is either denied or recognized as a “relic”, a sociohistorical phantom. As an exception, "real" ethnicity is recognized, as a rule, for underdeveloped marginal ethnic groups leading a traditional way of life. Moreover, constructivism, as one of the directions in the theory of ethnos, also denies continuous cultural continuity, declaring the modern rise of ethnicity to be the fruit of political propaganda on the part of marginal elites. Forcefully recognizing the existence of ethnism and ethnic identity outside of archaic communities, constructivism denies the right to exist for modern ethnic groups themselves as real social groups.

Proponents of the convergent approach believe that globalization, turning closed national economies into open economic and social systems, leads to a crisis and the "withering away" of national states and civil nations that lose their economic basis. A powerful factor in cultural convergence is the globalization of national media markets and education, combined with the creation of a global digital space.

From which an outwardly logical conclusion is drawn about the inevitability of convergent development, the emergence of some kind of global "super society", a global "melting pot", where culture

nye, national and religious features are reduced to the level of marginal subcultures and in the future are erased, forming a kind of global, "universal" community.

However, after the triumph of the Western scenario of the convergence of world systems in 1991, the real processes of globalization, despite the destruction of economic and geographical boundaries that form local communities, suddenly went towards civilizational, ethnic and confessional divergence. The long-awaited crisis of civic nations took place, but it did not become a convergent synthesis of a global community, but the disintegration of civic nations into ethno-confessional groups, moreover, against the backdrop of a truly global economic space.

Contrary to expectations, the global economic melting pot has not yet formed a homogeneous social community with a single identity. Accordingly, none of the theories of ethnicity that developed in the 20th century explains the post-industrial surge of ethnicity and religiosity. Thus, there is a growing discrepancy between social theory and the practice of globalization.

An example of the failure of the “melting pot” model in the course of globalization is the United States itself, which gave rise to both the term “melting pot” and the very idea of ​​a multi-ethnic (“multicultural”) “immigrant nation”. In fact, the "melting pot" has not worked since the migration wave of the late 19th century, which eroded the Anglo-Saxon basis of the United States, as a result of which American society consists of stable ethnic (Irish, Italian, Chinese, African American, etc.) communities that retain their isolation in the urban environment, up to enclave settlement. The ethnic heterogeneity of American society persists and grows, despite the much higher territorial mobility of the labor force than in the Old World.

According to Eduard Lozansky, author of the monograph "Ethnicities and Lobbying in the USA" (2004), ethnic diasporas and minorities in the United States are increasingly separating and competing, forming influential lobbying groups in government, comparable to corporate

lobby (TNC) and the party system. Moreover, US ethnic lobbies are increasingly lobbying for the interests of the states of origin, turning immigrant communities into colonies pursuing the interests of overseas metropolises. Ethnic diasporas “in themselves” have turned into diasporas “for themselves”.

"America's orientation towards the formation of not a single alloy in the "crucible" of many nationalities, but the formation of a motley multicolor of multiculturalism led to logical results - to the consolidation of positions by ethnic minorities" . Moreover, E. Lozansky notes the concern of other American researchers with the prospects of ethnic fragmentation of the American political nation, up to the threat of "Balkanization".

Thus, Samuel Huntington emphasizes the rise of "civilizations" in world politics and the unexpected persistence of immigrant ties to their countries of origin. “The United States and the Soviet Union resemble each other in that they are not a nation-state in the classical sense of the word. Both countries have largely defined themselves in terms of ideology, which, as the Soviet example showed, is a more fragile foundation of unity than a single national culture... If multiculturalism prevails and if the consensus on liberal democracy weakens, the United States will join the Soviet Union in a pile of historical ashes".

Considering that the United States is the leading center of power in the global world-system and can be considered as a fairly correct model of the post-industrial world society, we have one more proof that the trends towards the regeneration of ethnicity, the ethnicization of politics and the transformation of diasporas into actors of world politics - not a random paradox, but one of the leading trends in globalization.

At the same time, contrary to expectations, it is economic globalization itself, with its convergent orientation, that leads to an increase in ethnocultural divergence, reflecting the intensification of social competition for vital resources, objectively due to the deepening of the global resource and demographic crisis.

The blurring of the boundaries of national economies and nation-states has caused a compensatory process of regeneration and reconstruction of ethnic groups, including large state-forming states that have long been buried by the theories of ethnicity.

ethnic groups of the Old World.

The ethnicization of the politics and mass consciousness of the "new states" of Eastern Europe and the ex-USSR can be considered the "reconstruction" of the ethnos, that is, the re-creation of the ethnos "from above" in the interests of local elites that create the basis for nation-state building (usually extremely unsuccessful).

However, the widely discussed ethno-cultural crisis in Germany, provoked by the growing disloyalty of foreign cultural diasporas to the host society, is an example of regeneration, that is, the spontaneous restoration of the state-forming ethnic group "from below", under pressure from the absolute majority and contrary to the interests of the political elites of Germany, for known reasons avoiding any accusations of ethnicism .

Forced recognition of the ethno-cultural crisis and the collapse of the "multiculturalism" policy in Germany is an official statement of the growing divergent phenomena in the ethno-confessional and cultural spheres, as a general trend of globalization.

As a result, the simplified logic of linking ethnic and national consciousness to the economic system, which is quite adequate for the realities of the 20th century, is not consistent with the practice of globalization, in which the “remnants” and “atavisms” of the early bourgeois (nation) and even pre-state (ethnos) eras have everything greater influence on mass consciousness and world development. The expected "globalization of TNCs" turned out to be the globalization of ethnic groups and diasporas: the "last" suddenly became the "first".

Characteristically, the belief in the rapid "withering away" of ethnic and national identity and the rapid formation of a globally averaged, albeit stratified world society, is characteristic of both left and right researchers.

Ethnos is ignored by both globalists and "anti-globalists", who see globalism and globalization as a threat to "preservation of cultural and civilizational diversity", which is conceived as a direct analogue of ecological "biodiversity". The most radical direction of economic reductionism, neoliberalism, insists on the false postulate about the economically and technologically (informatization) predetermined "withering away" of nations and ethnic groups.

Meanwhile, practice shows that with the deepening of globalization and the crisis of nation-states, ethnicity is not "smoothed", is not "assimilated" and is not

integrates into the global "multicultural" environment. On the contrary, against the backdrop of the crisis of the institutions of the nation-state, all forms of ethnicism are experiencing a period of unprecedented growth and are actively in demand yesterday by the passive, de-ideologized and atomized masses. The “atomization” of the 20th century is being replaced by “polymerization” and “crystallization” into social structures that are poorly compatible with the theory of convergence, not realized by the scientific community.

Despite the forced recognition of the fact of the “ethnic renaissance” of marginal ethnic groups, the main problem of the modern theory of ethnos continues to be ignored - the question of the existence of large state-forming ethnic groups as mass social groups that make up the sub-base of society independent of the political and ideological shell (superstructure).

A constructivist approach has become a kind of response to the gaps and contradictions of economic reductionism.

A characteristic feature of constructivism is political reductionism, which is also based on the belief that "ethnos is dead", but artificially revived in the form of a political-technological illusion.

Indeed, the increasingly intense political exploitation of ethnicity creates the impression that modern ethnicity is nothing more than an artificial ideological construct imposed by local elites, a product of modern political manipulations that does not have deep historical and social roots due to the absence, “withering away” of the ethnic group itself as a living and an active social community.

Thus, constructivism, which has gained strength on the wave of successes in social engineering and political technologies, explains the ethnocultural divergence by the political manipulations of the elites, ignoring the obvious fact of the selectivity of the action of ethnic propaganda, which directly indicates the objective existence of social communities with a pronounced ethnic self-consciousness.

Actually, the effectiveness of ethnic propaganda, allegedly “constructing” ethnic consciousness almost from scratch, is due precisely to the fact that it purposefully appeals to the most acute interests of a mass, cohesive, homogeneous and capable of collective action social group, that is, to an objectively existing ethnic group, successfully re-

living through a series of social transformations. Accordingly, the factor that unites local elite groups for the "construction" of ethnicity is also the very primary ethnicity of these elite groups.

Thus, contrary to the constructivists’ categorical belief in the “death of an ethnos”, the construction of ethnic self-consciousness turns out to be nothing more than managing an already existing ethnos, activating the group consciousness of an objectively existing ethnic group, as a result of which the latent “ethnos in itself” under the conditions of a strong state turns into "ethnos for itself".

In fact, constructivism only proves that the ethnos, in the conditions of a developed national state and civil society, pushed to the periphery of political life and becoming “invisible”, is able to become actualized, creating the illusion of an arbitrary creation of an ethnos by interested political demiurges.

The failure of economic and political reductionism allows us to conclude that ethnic and national (nation-state) identity, ethnos and political nation are closely related, but not identical social phenomena that develop in parallel, but quite independently both from each other and from the economic sphere. .

The situation is further complicated by the traditional definition of both a nation and an ethnos through the characteristics of belonging - a common language, territory and culture, etc., from which the imaginary identity of these concepts and even phenomena is derived.

At the same time, the non-identity of ethnic and national-state identity is generally accepted in sociology, which considers the ethnic group and the nation as different social groups. Thus, in the absence of an interdisciplinary synthesis or even a single categorical apparatus, the ethnology of globalization remains a field of political manipulation.

Ethnos and nation are not successive stages of development, but parallel, coexisting and often competing spheres of social life: the dominance of ethnic identity pushes the national-state (national-political) and

vice versa. Ethnoi remain, despite globalization, and retain cultural and historical continuity when changing social formations, covering the majority of the population. The state-forming ethnic groups continue their latent (hidden) functioning, fading into the shadow of nations, and reappear in the event of a crisis of the institutions of the nation state - local or global.

Ethnos and nation are qualitatively different social groups associated with different social positions (social roles), having different genesis and development dynamics.

The difference between the phenomena of an ethnos and a nation lies not in external attributes, but in the mechanism of reproduction and functioning of an ethnos and a nation as social groups. The mechanism of ethnos reproduction is direct intergenerational social heredity,

translating ethnicity through the way (way) of life and the structure of everyday life. The mechanism of the reproduction of the nation is the interaction of the individual with the institutions of the state and civil society, which forms the nation as a community that realizes itself through the presence of common (national) interests mediated by the national state.

The stable parallelism of the coexistence of ethnic groups and nations (ethnic and national components) over a number of socio-economic formations, including the modern period of globalization, is far from obvious.

On the one hand, the understanding of the coexistence of an ethnos and a nation as independent social institutions is hampered by categorical uncertainty associated with the evolution of the corresponding concepts (nation and national, ethnos and ethnicity).

However, the main obstacle to understanding the sustainable existence of ethnicity in the conditions of industrialism and post-industrialism is the belief in the "residuality" and, accordingly, the lesser relevance of ethnicity, supposedly quickly and irreversibly destroyed in the course of divergent social processes - lifestyle changes (urbanization, migration), unification of mass culture. From the point of view of traditional ethnography and folklore, ethnic groups, especially state-forming ones, “disappeared” as a result of divergent processes as early as the middle of the last century.

Moreover, by declaring the equality of citizens as a basic constitutional principle, the nation state deliberately denies all parallel power and social

institutions, including not only religion and class, but also ethnicity.

Thus, the ethnos did not disappear in the course of transformation into a nation, but was forced out of the sphere of political and industrial relations to the domestic, latent level, into the sphere of private and family life. At the same time, field sociological studies, including censuses, confidently record that the vast majority of the population, including the population of megacities, has a distinct and stable ethnic identity that is different from the national-state one.

According to the authors, the essence of the phenomenon of ethnicity and its independence from the state-civil sphere is not so much in external attributes, but in the mechanism of reproduction of ethnicity - direct social heredity, not mediated by external socio-political institutions and including the transmission of ethnic identity and images characteristic of the ethnic group. life, values ​​and models of social behavior through the mechanisms of long-term, everyday repetitive interaction, imitation and social-role behavior in the nearest, as a rule, related and neighboring social environment.

The social basis of modern ethnicity, fundamentally different from the political institutions of civil society, drew attention to the school of Fernand Braudel, who introduced the concept of "structures of everyday life" . The concept of everyday life structures is approaching the concept of a way of life (way of life), as typical for concrete historical conditions of ways, forms and conditions of individual and collective life of a person, forming a typical for a social group (including for an ethnos and a nation) individuality.

The structure of everyday life, interaction with the surrounding social and natural environment develops a unique way of life, which is an essential characteristic of an ethnic group. The way of life undergoes changes, but these changes are psychologically imperceptible for the members of the ethnos and are realized only after sufficiently long intervals of time, without affecting the collective sense of community. And the daily structure of life is perceived as a kind of permanent and transpersonal, which, in turn, leads to a sense of psychological stability and the inseparability of the social life of an ethnic group. Corresponding

Obviously, the historical memory of an ethnos perceives time as a continuity, excluding times of crises and cataclysms.

Accordingly, the external attributes of an ethnic group (ethnic territory, language, religion, culture) turn out to be only derivatives of the basis of ethnicity - direct intergenerational social heredity based on long-term and close social interaction within the framework of "everyday structures" and lifestyle.

Accordingly, from the nature of ethnicity, based on a way of life, mass and everyday horizontal social interactions, the properties characteristic of an ethnic group as a social group follow - high inertia, evolutionary, continuous and successive nature of change, preserving not only the symbolic, but also the direct continuity of modern ethnic groups in relation to the original ethnic groups of the distant historical past.

This means that even in the era of globalization, the ethnos, with its mechanisms of horizontal decentralized connections and social networks, is far from disappearing, if only because it constitutes the daily social environment of the individual and covers large masses of people. Ethnos exists, remaining the main mechanism for the reproduction of the image (method) of social life.

Thus, the objective distinction between the spheres of ethnicity and nationality follows from the fundamental difference in the mechanisms of reproduction of social groups: direct intergenerational social heredity, horizontal social networks for the ethnic group and state institutions for the nation and similar political entities.

The mechanism and driving forces of ethnocultural divergence, and its connection with the crisis of the nation state and national identity, remain outside the field of vision of the theory.

In our opinion, the objective driving force behind the transformation of an ethnos and nation is their ability (including potential) to satisfy the most essential needs and interests of their members, ensuring cooperation in a competitive environment.

A prerequisite for the disintegration of modern nations into ethno-cultural components was a sharp narrowing of the social functions of the state, associated with economic globalization. In a fairly short period, the state unilaterally eliminated a number of

vital functions for citizens and social guarantees. In particular, the state has largely lost its role as an employer, social guarantor and social regulator, including the role of a regulator of ethno-confessional relations.

No less significant is the loss by the national state of the function of a social lift that implements the principles of equality and an equal start and provides such an integration factor as a common social perspective. If the European nations of the 19th and 20th centuries largely formed by state systems of universal fundamental education, then the privatization, commercialization and globalization of education means not only a decrease in the level achieved in the last century, but also the destruction and degradation of nations as social communities.

An important role in the disintegration of nations is played by the increasingly open refusal of the former national elites from the social obligations towards fellow citizens that underlie the welfare state and civil society. Accordingly, the loss of system-forming social functions by the state leads to the depreciation of the nation as a once attractive social community that provides for the individual and group interests of its citizens in a balanced way. The widely declared "renunciation of state paternalism", which puts the members of the nation in a situation of total individual competition with each other, turned into a forced rejection of loyalty to the state and of civic solidarity that had lost its meaning.

Excluded from the system of social cooperation and support within the nation, individuals are forced to look for new social groups, new ways of cooperation that increase their competitiveness and security, constantly adapt, changing their identity. "In a broad sense, the era of normalization of unstable social-identification states of the individual is coming". However, the range of choice of a new leading identity in conditions of social instability is extremely narrow and limited to those social groups with which the individual and his environment are already connected directly and daily.

Practice shows that the result of the choice is predetermined by the presence in individuals of a second, ethnic identity, which emerges from the national shadow and becomes the leading one.

S.P. Stumpf. To the origins of the phenomenon of spirituality. Analysis of the concept of "soul" in the context of Western European philosophical knowledge

Having lost confidence in the nation state, its citizen almost automatically recognizes himself as a member of an ethnos - a social community that continuously and inextricably coexists with the nation, in which de facto exists from birth and with which he connects the future of descendants, regardless of the transformations of the social environment. Accordingly, the choice of religion in most cases is determined by ethnicity.

In other words, globalization, by weakening the civil and political institutions that form the nation and national consciousness, leads to the disintegration of political nations into ethnic groups, which are increasingly becoming "political ethnic groups".

The ideas of globalization as a general convergence, formed by economic determinism, are refuted by social practice, during which the decomposition of civil nations, as the leading social groups of the 20th century, causes compensatory social processes of a divergent nature, including the activation of latent ethnicity, the consolidation of global ethnic diasporas and religious confessions. .

Paying attention to the continuous preservation of the ethnos when changing economic formations, the authors emphasize that ethnic divergence poses a threat not only to the national state, but also to the ethnos itself, which is losing the political superstructure necessary for survival and competition in the post-industrial world.

The preservation of sufficiently large states as the only form of social management adequate to the level of development of productive forces and at the same time ensuring the coexistence of ethnic groups requires overcoming the crisis of civil nations as social groups that determine the leading identity and thereby harmonize interethnic and social relations.

Literature

1. Tishkov V.A. Ethnos or ethnicity? /Ethnology and politics. Scientific journalism. - M.: Nauka, 2001 -S.240.

2. Lozansky E.D. Ethnicity and Lobbying in the USA. On the prospects of the Russian lobby in America. - M.: International relations, 2004. - S. 272.

3. Huntington S. The Erosion of American National Interests// Foreign Affairs. - 1997. Sept./Oct. - P.35.

4. Bromley Yu.V. To the question of the essence of the ethnos - "Nature", 1970, No. 2. - S. 51-55.

5. Bromley Yu.V. Essays on the theory of ethnos. 3rd ed., revised. - M.: Book house "Librokom", 2009. -p.440.

6. Braudel F. Material civilization, economy and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. v. 1. Structures of everyday life: possible and impossible. - M.: "Progress", 1986 -S.624.

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E.F. Kisriev) / Ethnographic review. - 2007. -№5. - S. 96-115.

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Safonov Andrey Leonidovich - Candidate of Technical Sciences, Vice-Rector for International Relations of the Moscow State Industrial University, Associate Professor of the Department of History and Sociology, e-mail: [email protected]

Orlov Alexander Dmitrievich - Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Humanities, branch of the Moscow State Industrial University, e-mail: [email protected]

Safonov Andrey Leonidovich - cand. of technical science, Vice-Rector for International Relations, assistant professor of History and sociology Department of Moscow State industrial university, e-mail: [email protected]

Orlov Alexander Dmitrievich - cand. of technical science, assistant professor of History and sociology Department of Moscow State industrial university, e-mail: [email protected]

S.P. Stumpf

TO THE ORIGINS OF THE SPIRITUALITY PHENOMENON. ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT "SOUL"

IN THE CONTEXT OF WESTERN EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

The article deals with the genesis of spirituality issues. Based on the materials of Western European philosophy, a substantiated theoretical and methodological analysis of its intuitive-figurative form, expressed in the concept of the Soul, was carried out. A dialectical relationship is revealed in the categorical series soul-spirituality, which in turn determines the system of meaning-life value orientations of a person and society.

Key words: spirituality, soul, spirit, Western European philosophy, methodology, genesis, morality, sociality, value content.