The first reforms of the Bolsheviks 1917 1918. The main reforms of the Bolsheviks in the first year of Soviet power. As well as other works that may interest you

At the second meeting of the congress on October 26, 1917, the first decrees were adopted: Decree on Peace (a proposal to the warring parties to begin negotiations on signing a fair democratic peace without annexations and indemnities), Decree on Land (abolition of landlord ownership of land without redemption; land was transferred to the disposal of volost land committees and district Soviets of peasant deputies); Decree on power (elected All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars). The congress also adopted an appeal to the front and the Cossacks, as well as a resolution on the abolition of the death penalty at the front.

The main task of the Bolsheviks after they came to power was the creation of a new system of state power. The Soviets, which were considered as bodies of the dictatorship of the proletariat, were chosen as such a universal form. All other structures of the state apparatus were to be controlled by them and formed with their direct or indirect participation. Executive power in the country was exercised by the Bolshevik government - the Council of People's Commissars (hereinafter - SI K), headed by V.I. Lenin.

The first decrees of the Soviet government were aimed at satisfying the demands of workers and peasants in order to enlist their support, as well as to strengthen the new government (Table 16.5).

In the difficult conditions of the post-October formation of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks entered into a political alliance with the left Socialist Revolutionaries: on November 17, 1917, three representatives of this party entered the Council of People's Commissars as people's commissars (A. L. Kolegaev, I. Z. Sternberg, I. P. Proshyan ). The coalition of the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist Revolutionaries would last until March 1918, when, in protest against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Germany, the latter withdrew from the Soviet government. An important place in the political system created by the Bolsheviks began to be occupied by punitive bodies, primarily the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage, headed by F. E. Dzerzhinsky.

Table 16.5

The first decrees of Soviet power

As mentioned above, the demand for the convening of the Constituent Assembly became universal in February 1917, but elections were postponed under various pretexts. The Bolsheviks seized the initiative: having seized power, they achieved the adoption by the Second Congress of Soviets of decrees on land and peace, which met the basic aspirations of the peoples of Russia. That is why they, having held elections to the Constituent Assembly and not winning them, managed to disperse this body on January 6, 1918 and maintain power in the country (Fig. 16.6).

Rice. 16.6

After the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks quickly implemented additional measures to strengthen Soviet statehood. In Petrograd, on January 10, 1918, the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Peasants' Deputies opened, which proclaimed the Russian Soviet Republic. The congress adopted the following documents:

• - “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People”, rejected by the Constituent Assembly;
• - the law “On the socialization of land”, which approved the principles of equal land use;
• - resolution “On federal institutions of the Russian Republic”;
• - a document renaming the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government into the "Workers' and Peasants' Government of the Russian Soviet Republic";
• - sanction for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly.

One of the most difficult problems remained the war. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks began work to implement the Peace Decree. People's Commissar

But in foreign affairs, L. D. Trotsky addressed the heads of all the warring states with a proposal to conclude a general democratic peace (Fig. 16.7). However, only the powers of the German bloc expressed consent to negotiations.

Rice. 16.7

From the Bolshevik side, the complexity of the problem lay in the fact that, firstly, issues of war and peace were linked to the idea of ​​world revolution, with the victory of socialism on an international scale through a revolutionary war and providing assistance to the proletariat of other countries to fight the bourgeoisie and, secondly, There was no unity on this issue within the Bolshevik party itself. V.I. Lenin insisted on concluding a separate peace with Germany in order to preserve Soviet power in the conditions of the collapse of the army and the economic crisis. Opponents of V.I. Lenin were a group of left-wing communists led by N.I. Bukharin, who insisted on continuing the revolutionary war, which, in their opinion, should lead to a world revolution.

L. D. Trotsky took a compromise and at the same time paradoxical position, expressed in his formula: “We are stopping the war, we are demobilizing the army, but we are not signing peace.” L. D. Trotsky believed that Germany was not capable of conducting large-scale offensive actions, and, apparently, overestimated the revolutionary potential of European workers. Based on

Therefore, the initial tactics of the Bolshevik delegation at the negotiations that began in Brest-Litovsk were based on the principles of delaying the process, because it was believed that a socialist revolution was about to break out in Europe. However, these were illusory expectations.

On January 28, 1918, the Soviet delegation led by L. D. Trotsky refused to accept the German terms of the peace treaty, interrupted negotiations and left Brest-Litovsk. Already on February 18, 1918, the Germans launched an offensive along the entire Eastern Front and advanced significantly into the interior of the country. On February 23, 1918, Soviet Russia received a new German ultimatum with even more difficult conditions for concluding peace. Through incredible efforts, V.I. Lenin managed to achieve the consent of the party and Soviet leadership to accept the German conditions for the peace treaty. A peace treaty between Soviet Russia and the states of the German-Austrian bloc was signed on March 3, 1918 in Brest-Litovsk. Russia was losing a territory of 1 million square meters. km: Poland, the Baltic states, Finland, Belarus, Ukraine, as well as the cities of Kars, Ardagan and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. The agreement obligated Soviet Russia to demobilize the army and navy, establish customs duties favorable to Germany, and pay indemnity. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany stated the defeat of Russia in the First World War.

The October Revolution won under the slogan “All power to the Soviets!”

To defeat the remnants of the tsarist regime, the Soviet government actively began to introduce reforms. The changes affected almost everything that bore echoes of old Russia.

The Decree on Land was adopted on October 26, 1917. According to it, landowners' holdings were liquidated, and the land was nationalized and transferred to the use of local Councils of Peasants' Deputies. The labor of hired workers was abolished. The downside of the Decree was that, for the most part, no one controlled the redistribution of landowners' lands, politics receded into the background, and squatting often occurred on the periphery.

The banking sector was expropriated due to the seizure of the State Bank of Russia by the proletariat.

Nationalization also affected industry. The decree on the organization of the Supreme Council of the National Economy nationalizes industrial enterprises.

At the same time, the Decree on Peace was adopted at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The new government proposed that all warring parties peacefully resolve all differences, that is, stop all hostilities and begin peace negotiations. The result was the conclusion of the shameful Brest Peace Treaty, according to which Russia lost part of its territory and suffered material losses in the form of huge indemnities. was over and turned into a defeat for Russia, but allowed the Bolshevik power to strengthen.

On October 27, 1917, the Decree on Press was published. The Council of People's Commissars unilaterally decides which print publications to close or suspend their work. In fact, all publications that called for disobedience to the new regime were banned.

On October 29, 1917, the Decree on the eight-hour working day was issued. The Decree clearly defines the length of the working day and stipulates time for rest. It is prohibited to work for hire for teenagers under 14 years of age. “Holidays” are established.

On November 2, 1917, the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia was adopted. The Declaration assumed that all peoples, large and small, within the country, have the right to free self-determination, religion and development. In fact, it all boiled down to the fact that such an ideology was declarative; it was necessary to fight for a universal national idea outside the country; inside, any attempts at the national development of minorities were unacceptable - everything was common, everything was for the benefit of the young country.

In November 1917, the Decree on the abolition of estates, civil, court and military ranks introduced the concept of “citizen of the Soviet Republic” and eliminated the division into estates.

The education system is being reformed. It is prohibited to teach the “Law of God” in educational institutions. In 1918, all educational institutions became state-owned. A unified labor school is being created - every citizen has the right to free education. By reforming the education system, the Bolsheviks gained powerful leverage over the population.

The Soviet government began building a “new world” immediately after the October Revolution. The transformations were introduced with unprecedented enthusiasm and eradicated almost everything that was associated with the appearance of old Russia.

Education reform

One of the most important tools for instilling the new ideology of the Bolsheviks was the education system. Such major figures as Lunacharsky, Krupskaya and Bonch-Bruevich were involved in school reform. The first fundamental changes appeared with the adoption of the decree “On Freedom of Conscience, Church and Religious Societies” (February 1918), which did not allow the teaching of the Law of God in state, public and private educational institutions where general educational disciplines were studied.

In July 1918, another important step was taken: all educational institutions were transferred to the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat of Education, that is, they became state-owned. At the same time, private educational institutions are being closed, and all national, class and religious restrictions in education are being abolished.

However, the creation of a “unified labor school” in October 1918 is considered to be the most significant achievement of the school education reform. From now on, the right of all citizens, regardless of race, nationality or social status, to receive free education was proclaimed.

New spelling

October 1918 was also marked by the appearance of the decree “On the introduction of a new spelling,” which provided, on the one hand, for the simplification of spelling, and on the other, for the creation of a written language for peoples who previously did not have one.

To be fair, it should be said that the spelling reform was planned back in 1904 by a commission of the Imperial Academy of Sciences chaired by A. A. Shakhmatov.

Among the innovations, we highlight the following: exclusion from the alphabet of the letters Ѣ (yat), Ѳ (fita), I (“and decimal”) and replacing them with E, F, I, respectively; abolition of the hard sign (Ъ) at the end of words and parts of complex words, but maintaining it as a dividing sign; replacement in the genitive and accusative cases of the endings of adjectives and participles from -ago, -yago to -ogo, -him (for example, polnago - full, sinyago - blue).

A side effect of the spelling reform was some savings in writing and typesetting. According to Russian linguist Lev Uspensky, the text with the new spelling became shorter by about 1/30.

Nationalization

One of the most important measures of the Soviet government was “socialist nationalization,” carried out in the interests of the working people and the “exploited masses of the countryside.” Thus, the nationalization of land became the economic basis for the cooperation of peasant farms.

Having captured the State Bank of Russia, the Bolsheviks gained control over all private banks in the country. In such control, Lenin saw a transitional form of nationalization that would allow workers to master financial management.

But as a result of sabotage by bankers, the Soviet government was forced to expropriate the banking sector as soon as possible.

The transfer of banks into state ownership became a link on the path to preparing the nationalization of industry. According to the industrial and professional census, in the period from November 1917 to March 1918 (which was called the “Red Guard attack on capital”) 836 industrial enterprises were nationalized.

Land for the peasants

On October 26, 1917, at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, one of the most important documents was adopted - the Decree on Land. The main point of the decree was the confiscation of landowners' lands and possessions in favor of the peasantry.

However, this document also contained a number of other equally important provisions: a variety of forms of land use (household, farm, communal, artel), abolition of the right of private ownership of land, and a ban on the use of hired labor.

It is estimated that after the abolition of private ownership of land, about 150 million hectares of land were transferred to the use of peasants.

However, the implementation of the Decree on Land led to uncontrolled seizures of landowners' property. According to historian Richard Pais, “the peasant majority of the country’s population completely withdrew from political activity for several months, plunging headlong into the “black redistribution” of the land.”

Peace to the peoples

The “Decree on Peace” was developed personally by Lenin and unanimously adopted at the same Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The Soviet government proposed that “all warring peoples and their governments begin immediately negotiations on a just democratic peace.”

Lenin addressed a number of European countries with a note about the start of peace negotiations, but the proposal from the Soviet side was almost all ignored. Moreover, the Spanish ambassador, after receiving this diplomatic appeal, was immediately recalled from Russia.

French historian Hélène Carer d'Encausse explains this reaction of the West by the fact that the Peace Decree was perceived by European countries rather as a call for a worldwide revolution.

Only Germany and its allies responded to the Soviet government's proposal. The result of the separate agreements was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on March 3, 1918, which meant Russia’s withdrawal from the First World War and the recognition of its defeat.

Separation of Church and State

On January 23, 1918, the Decree on the separation of church and state and schools from church came into force. The document deprived the church of all property and legal rights, in fact, outlawed it.

The decree, in particular, established the freedom “to profess any religion or not to profess any,” deprived religious organizations of any property rights, and declared all church property to be public property.

The reaction of the church after the promulgation of the draft decree followed immediately. Metropolitan Benjamin of Petrograd addressed the Council of People's Commissars with a letter containing the following words: “The implementation of this project threatens the Orthodox Russian people with great grief and suffering... I consider it my moral duty to tell the people currently in power to warn them not to bring in pursuance of the proposed draft decree on the confiscation of church property.”

The response to this letter was only accelerated preparation for the procedure for the separation of church and state.

Introduction of the Gregorian calendar

The decree of January 26, 1918 decided “in order to establish in Russia the same calculation of time with almost all cultural nations” to introduce the Western European calendar in the Russian Republic. The document noted that “the first day after January 31 of this year should be considered not February 1, but February 14, the second day should be considered the 15th, etc.”

The appearance of this decree was mainly due to the fact that the Julian calendar, used by the Orthodox Church, created for Russia “inconveniences in relations with Europe,” which is oriented towards the Gregorian calendar. After the separation of church and state, nothing stopped the Soviet government from introducing a “new style.”

Formation of the Soviet state-political system. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks liquidated the old state apparatus and created a fundamentally new political system - dictatorship of the proletariat - political power of workers.
The Congress of Soviets became the highest representative body. During the breaks between congresses, a permanent body operated - the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). The first chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was L.B. Kamenev, but was soon replaced by Ya.M. Sverdlov . The government was the Council of People's Commissars. V.I. became the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. Lenin. The Council of People's Commissars began to exercise both executive and legislative power. There was no clear separation of powers between the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars. Local government was concentrated in provincial and district councils.
Before October 1917, the Bolsheviks' ideas about the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat were permeated with the spirit of romanticism. In particular, V.I. Lenin envisioned disbanding the army and police and replacing them with the general arming of the people. But reality refuted the Bolsheviks’ ideas about a proletarian state. To maintain power, it was necessary to create an apparatus of violence.
On November 11 (new style), 1917, a workers' and peasants' militia was organized to protect public order. People's courts were established by decree of the Council of People's Commissars. In December 1917, a punitive body of the new government was created - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK) , headed by F.E. Dzerzhinsky . The Cheka was removed from state control and coordinated its actions only with the top party leadership. The Cheka had unlimited rights: from arrest and investigation to sentencing and execution. In November - December 1917, the Council of People's Commissars subjugated the leadership of the army and dismissed more than a thousand generals and officers who did not accept Soviet power. The old army was demobilized. In 1918, decrees were adopted on the creation Workers' and Peasants' Red Army and Workers' and Peasants' Fleet on a voluntary basis basis.
Until October, the country lived according to the Julian calendar, which in the twentieth century. lagged behind the European one by 13 days. On February 1, 1918, the Bolsheviks declared February 14, 1918.
The activities of the Bolshevik government aroused resistance from many social strata (landowners, bourgeoisie, officials, officers, clergy). Anti-Bolshevik conspiracies were brewing in Petrograd and other cities. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries took a wait-and-see attitude, because they did not want to break with the socialist parties and at the same time were afraid of losing the support of the popular masses. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries supported the idea of ​​the All-Russian Executive Committee of the Railway Workers' Trade Union (Vikzhel) to create a multi-party socialist government and remove V.I. Lenin from the post of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. This proposal caused serious disagreement among the Bolshevik leadership. L.B. Kamenev, G.E. Zinoviev, A.I. Rykov, V.P. Milyutin, V.P. Nogin left the Central Committee in early November, and some of the people's commissars left the government. The conflict that arose V.I. Lenin managed to resolve: L.B. Kamenev was replaced as chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee by Ya.M. Sverdlov, G.I. was introduced into the Council of People's Commissars. Petrovsky, P.I. Stuchku, A.I. Tsyurupu and others. In mid-November, an agreement was reached with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, and in December their representatives entered the Council of People's Commissars.

Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. On January 5, 1918, the Constituent Assembly, to which the Russian intelligentsia had so strived, opened. Its meeting lasted only 12 hours, but the significance of this event goes far beyond this short period.
The writer M. Gorky noted in January 1918: “The best Russian people lived for almost a hundred years with the idea of ​​a Constituent Assembly. In the struggle for this idea, thousands of intellectuals died in prisons, in exile and hard labor, on the gallows and under the bullets of soldiers. On the altar of this sacred rivers of blood have been shed." After February 1917, the Constituent Assembly became a symbol of the onset of a new, fair life. The onset of a new life was associated with it - the acquisition of land, the end of the war, the end of all unjustified suffering. People understood it as the advent of the kingdom of justice. All major parties in the summer of 1917 acted under the slogan “All power to the Constituent Assembly!” Until October 1917, the idea of ​​convening a constituent assembly was not questioned. But already on the first day of the October Revolution, the Soviet government, in its first documents “Decree on Peace” and “Decree on Land”, resolved those issues that were postponed until the Constituent Assembly. After this, in the eyes of many soldiers and peasants, the idea of ​​a Constituent Assembly lost its meaning. Elections to the Constituent Assembly took place in November 1917. High spirits reigned in the country in connection with the elections. The Socialist Revolutionary newspaper “The Will of the People” wrote: “The elections to the Constituent Assembly were held with extraordinary enthusiasm. Sick old men, old women, and blind people were brought to the ballot boxes in their arms.” These were the first general, equal, secret and direct elections in Russia. 44 million 433 thousand people took part in them. All restrictions on education, nationality, and residence were lifted.
The Socialist Revolutionary Party won the elections - more than 40% of the votes, the Bolsheviks came in second place - more than 23% of the votes. The Cadets completely failed in the elections - 5%, the Mensheviks - less than 3%. The conflict between the Constituent Assembly and the Soviet government was inevitable.
On January 5 (18), 1918, the opening of the Constituent Assembly took place in the Tauride Palace. The right-wing Socialist-Revolutionary V.M. was elected chairman. Chernov. Already in his big opening speech, the chairman challenged the Bolsheviks, declaring that “neither the Don Cossacks”, “nor the supporters of an independent Ukraine” will be reconciled with “Soviet power.” Further, the representative of the Bolsheviks Ya.M. Sverdlov proposed to approve the “Declaration of the Rights of Workers and Exploited People” introduced by the Bolsheviks, which confirmed the first legislative acts of Soviet power, proclaimed the exploitation of people and the course towards building socialism. The meeting decided to postpone discussion of the declaration. The Bolsheviks demanded a break and went to a faction meeting. After the break, Bolshevik representative F.F. Raskolnikov read out a harsh declaration from the Bolshevik faction, in which the Bolsheviks called the right-wing Socialist Revolutionaries “enemies of the people” who “feed the people with promises.” At about 2 a.m. the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries left the meeting.
At about 4 o’clock in the morning, the head of the security of the Tauride Palace, 22-year-old sailor A. Zheleznyakov, ordered those present to leave the meeting room under the pretext that “the guard was tired.” The deputies managed to put to a vote the draft laws on peace, land and the republic prepared by the Socialist Revolutionaries. The meeting lasted for more than 12 hours. The deputies were tired, decided to take a break and resume work at 17:00 the same day.
In the evening of the same day, the deputies came to the next meeting. The doors of the Tauride Palace were locked, and a guard armed with machine guns stood at the entrance.
The next day, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted a decree dissolving the Constituent Assembly, approved by the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets.
The Constituent Assembly provided an opportunity for the development of the country towards parliamentarism, multi-party system and social harmony, this opportunity was missed. Socialist Revolutionary deputy N. Svyatitsky later wrote with bitterness that the Constituent Assembly died not from a sailor’s shout, but from “the indifference with which the people reacted to our dispersal and which allowed Lenin to give up on us: “Let them go home!”
However, the Bolsheviks' dispersal of the legally elected representative body aggravated the situation in the country. The struggle for the Constituent Assembly began and continued throughout 1918. Deputies of the Constituent Assembly moved to Samara and created the People's Army of the Constituent Assembly. But gradually they lost their support in society.

The beginning of the formation of a one-party political system. Trying to maintain power in their hands and counting on the help of the world revolution, the Bolsheviks did not seek to maintain an alliance with other left-wing political forces.
In January 1918, the III All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies took place. He supported the Bolsheviks. The congress approved "Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People" , approved the draft law on the socialization of the land, proclaimed the federal principle of government of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and instructed the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to develop the main provisions of the country's Constitution. (See textbook material)
July 10, 1918 The V Congress of Soviets approved the first Constitution of the RSFSR . The Constitution proclaimed the proletarian character of the Soviet state, the federal principle of the state structure of the RSFSR and the course towards building socialism. Representatives of the former exploiting classes, clergy, officers and police agents were deprived of the right to vote. The advantage of workers over peasants was introduced in the norms of representation in elections to government bodies (1 worker’s vote was equal to 5 peasant votes). The elections were not universal, not direct, not secret, and not equal. The Constitution established the system of central and local authorities.
The Constitution declared the introduction of political freedoms (speech, press, meetings, rallies, processions). However, in practice this had no real confirmation. Moreover, the first Soviet Constitution did not provide for the possibility of participation of the propertied classes and their parties in the political struggle.
Until October 1918, V.I. Lenin expressed his firm belief that the masses, through the Soviets, were capable of governing the state. But very soon it turned out that practice diverged from the forecast. In 1919 V.I. Lenin because of Russian specifics, i.e. lack of culture, the masses cannot rule the state at all. The “dictatorship of the proletariat” in our country from the very beginning began to mean the power of a narrow layer of the Communist Party. Elections to the Soviets were held more and more formally; selected candidates were appointed in advance to deputy positions. In practice, “Soviet power” and “Bolshevik power” increasingly merged. A one-party political system began to take shape in the RSFSR.

Economic transformations. During the short period of its stay in power, the provisional government could not solve the main socio-economic, political and national problems of the country. All these unresolved problems now faced the Soviet government.
Before coming to power, the Bolsheviks imagined a socialist economy as an economy without private property, a directive one, where the state should take control of all goods and distribute them to the population as needed.
It was a Marxist model of economics. Therefore, immediately after October 1917, the Bolsheviks began to pursue a policy of destroying private property. Already in November 1917, the authorities organized a “Red Guard attack on capital.” A number of large enterprises and industries were nationalized. Then decrees were adopted on the nationalization of banks and railway transport, and a monopoly on foreign trade was introduced. The beginning of the creation of the public sector in the economy was laid. In December 1917, a government was created to manage the public sector in the economy. Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh) . The transition of enterprises to state control laid the foundations of “state socialism.”
In the spring of 1918, the implementation of the Decree on Land began. The peasants were to receive 150 million dessiatines of land that belonged to the landowners, the bourgeoisie, the church, and monasteries free of charge. The 3 billion debt of peasants to banks was cancelled. The implementation of the Decree on Land was welcomed by the poor peasants. The land was divided equally between all groups of peasants, and individual small-scale farming of peasants was preserved. Landownership in the country was destroyed, and along with it the class of landowners ceased to exist.
The agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks caused social tension in the countryside, as the Soviet government supported the poor. This caused discontent among the wealthy peasant kulaks. The fists began to hold back the marketable (for sale) bread. There was a threat of famine in the cities. In this regard, the Council of People's Commissars switched to a policy of harsh pressure on the villages. In May 1918 it was introduced food dictatorship. This meant banning the grain trade and confiscating food supplies from wealthy peasants. They were sent to the village food detachments (food detachments) . They relied on help committees of the poor (committees of the poor) , created in June 1918 instead of local Soviets. The “black redistribution” of land dealt a blow to large farms of landowners, wealthy peasants (otrubniks, farmers), i.e. the positive aspects of P.A.’s agrarian reform were destroyed. Stolypin. Equal distribution led to a drop in labor productivity and agricultural marketability, and to worse use of land.
The food dictatorship did not justify itself and failed because... instead of the planned 144 million poods of grain, only 13 were collected, and also led to peasant protests against the Bolshevik power.

Social transformations. Democratic changes were carried out in the social sphere. The Soviet government finally destroyed the class system and abolished pre-revolutionary ranks and titles. Free education and medical care were established. Women had equal rights with men. The Decree on Marriage and Family introduced the institution of civil marriage. The Decree on the 8-hour working day and a labor code were adopted, which prohibited the exploitation of child labor, guaranteed a system of labor protection for women and adolescents, and payment of unemployment and sickness benefits. Freedom of conscience was proclaimed. The church was separated from the state and from the education system. Most of the church property was confiscated.

National politics The Soviet state was determined by the “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia”, adopted by the Council of People's Commissars on November 2, 1917. It proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination and the formation of independent states. (See Additional textbook material 1 and 2) In December 1917, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Ukraine and Finland, in August 1918 - Poland, in December - Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, in February 1919 - Belarus. Self-determination of peoples was becoming a reality. National movements were led by intellectuals, entrepreneurs, clergy, bourgeois and moderate parties, which nominated outstanding political leaders. The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic also declared its independence; after its collapse (in June), the Azerbaijani, Armenian and Georgian bourgeois republics arose.
In May 1918, the nationalist government of the North Caucasus ("Union of United Highlanders of the Caucasus"), which arose before the October events, declared the independence of the North Caucasus state and its separation from Russia. In September 1919, an independent “North Caucasian Emirate” was created in Nagorno-Chechnya. In the fall of 1918, Polish statehood was restored from the lands that were part of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia.
The First Soviet Constitution of the RSFSR (adopted on July 10, 1918) established the principle of unitarity of the new state, but the peoples of Russia received the right to regional autonomy. The peoples of the Russian state could realize their national interests within the framework of autonomy.
In 1918, the first national regional associations were: the Turkestan Soviet Republic, the Labor Commune of the Volga Germans, the Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida (Crimea). In March 1919, the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Republic was proclaimed, and in 1920 the Tatar and Kyrgyz Republics became autonomous republics. Kalmyk, Mari, Votsk, Karachay-Cherkess, and Chuvash joined the autonomous regions. Karelia became the Labor Commune. In 1921-1922, the Kazakh, Mountain, Dagestan, Crimean Autonomous Republics, Komi-Zyryan, Kabardin, Mongol-Buryat, Oirot, Circassian, and Chechen Autonomous Regions were created.
The right to autonomy was deprived of the Cossacks, who were formed over several centuries at the expense of the Russian, Ukrainian, Kalmyk, Bashkir, Yakut and other peoples of Russia and lived compactly. In this case, the central government showed concern towards the Cossacks as a “socially dangerous element.” The interests of the Russian population were also not taken into account. Thus, back in 1918, a proposal was put forward to create Russian autonomy by uniting 14 European provinces with a predominant Russian population around Moscow, but this project was rejected by the People's Commissariat for Nationalities (Narkomnats).
However, in its practical activities, the Bolshevik leadership sought to overcome the further disintegration of Russia. Using local party organizations, it contributed to the establishment of Soviet power in national regions and provided financial and material assistance to the Soviet Baltic republics.

Peace of Brest-Litovsk. On November 26, 1917, the Bolsheviks adopted the “Decree on Peace,” which, among other things, called on the peoples and governments of the warring countries to conclude a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities. At that time, the Soviet state did not recognize any state in the world. Only Germany was on the verge of defeat and responded to the Peace Decree.
On December 2, an armistice was signed with Germany. After this, peace negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk (now Brest). The Soviet delegation proposed concluding peace without annexations and indemnities. But Germany sought to take advantage of the weakness and isolation of the Soviet government. On January 1, 1918, Germany presented Russia with a harsh ultimatum: demanding to transfer to it a huge territory - Poland, part of the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus - with an area of ​​150 thousand square meters. km. In this regard, negotiations were interrupted.
In the Bolshevik state, the ultimatum caused sharp disagreements. Thus, a minority of members of the Central Committee, together with V.I. Lenin insisted on unconditional acceptance of German conditions, because The Bolsheviks did not have the strength to continue the war. But the majority of members of the Central Committee believed that it was impossible to sign peace on such humiliating terms, since this would postpone the world revolution indefinitely. People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs L.D. Trotsky and his supporters advocated refusing to sign peace during the negotiations, proposing to do this only after German troops went on the offensive and there was a direct threat of the death of Soviet power. They proposed the following formula for Brest-Litovsk: “No peace, no war.” N.I. Bukharin and his supporters (referred to as “left communists”) believed that the Soviet state, having concluded a separate peace with Germany, would become an “accomplice” of German imperialism. They demanded to stop negotiations and declare revolutionary war on international imperialism and provoke a revolutionary crisis in Europe.
The Bolsheviks decided to delay peace negotiations. L.D. Trotsky led the delegation to Brest-Litovsk in February 1918. He came up with the famous formula: “We are not signing peace, we are not waging war, but we are disbanding the army.” In response, on February 18, German troops went on the offensive along the entire front. (See textbook material)
A direct threat to the Soviet state arose. The Bolsheviks accepted the terms of the German ultimatum, but the Germans tightened their demands. Now they wanted to tear away a territory of 750 thousand square meters from Russia. km. With a population of 50 million people: the entire Baltic region, Belarus and part of Transcaucasia (Ardagan, Kars, Batum) in favor of Turkey. The future fate of the territories separated from Russia, according to the peace treaty, will be “determined” by Germany. Russia had to pay an indemnity of 3 billion rubles. (the amount could be increased by Germany unilaterally), stop revolutionary propaganda in Central European countries.
There was no military threat to Germany from Russia at that time. The fact is that the theoretical justification for the need to destroy Russia by Germany was prepared for the leadership of the Reich back in 1915-1916. The program of German expansion to the east at the expense of Russia had by that time become an integral part of the political thinking of the German elite. By putting forward the “robbery” conditions of the peace treaty, the German Reich began the first stage of destroying the independent Russian state.
On March 3, 1918, the Russian delegation, without discussion, signed an agreement to end the state of war with Kaiser Germany and its allies. (See textbook material)
Only the complete victory of the Entente countries over Germany could save the independent Soviet state.
The November Revolution in Germany in 1918 led to the collapse of the Kaiser's Germany. On November 11, 1919, German troops surrendered on the Western Front. This allowed Moscow to annul the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on the same day and return most of the territories lost under it. German troops left the territory of Ukraine. Soviet power was established in Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. The prerequisites for preserving Russian statehood were restored. (The “robber” nature of the Brest-Litovsk peace dictate largely determined the harshness of the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty, which most Germans perceived as a national humiliation, although the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty were much more civilized than the conditions of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty).

Having seized power as a result of the victory of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks immediately began to rebuild Russia. They carried out the implementation of their ideas under the slogan of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the state. the form of which was the Soviets. They became the main bodies of central and local government. At the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) was formed. V.I. Lenin became the chairman of the ᴇᴦο. Attempts by a number of parties and organizations to oust Lenin and his supporters from the government and to create a coalition (or homogeneous) socialist government were decisively suppressed. The decree on the formation of the Council of People's Commissars determined the list of people's commissariats (People's Commissariats) and the commissars who headed them. At first, the People's Commissariats were, in fact, the former ministries of the Provisional Government. Their tasks were to ensure continuity in management, suppress sabotage by employees of old institutions, and also attract workers and revolutionary-minded specialists to the apparatus.

But gradually the Bolsheviks began to create “their own” governing bodies. One of them is the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh), “the main headquarters of socialist industry.” The Supreme Economic Council was established by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on December 2, 1917 and was formed as an elected collegial body intended to organize the entire national economy and financial affairs of the Soviet Republic. The ᴇᴦο composition included representatives of the All-Russian Council of Workers' Control, the Central Council of Factory Committees, and industry trade unions; The Presidium of the Supreme Economic Council was headed by N. N. Osinsky (Obolensky), then (from February 1918) by A. I. Rykov. The Supreme Economic Council apparatus included the former state regulatory bodies, the boards of the largest trusts and syndicates. A network of territorial national economic administrations (regional, provincial, etc.) arose locally and had relative independence. Supreme body, decisions cat. were mandatory for all economic entities. activities, became the Congress of National Economy Councils. Thus, the system of economic bodies was created in accordance with the Bolshevik ideas about democracy in the sphere of government.

Initially, the Bolsheviks did not plan to create any punitive bodies. They believed that in the event of an internal threat, the Soviets, elected courts, and people's militia would be able to cope with this task. Their hopes did not come true. Then, by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of December 20, 1917, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Profiteering (VChK) was formed under him. The board of the Cheka was headed by F. E. Dzerzhinsky. However, as the situation in the republic worsened, the Cheka began to turn into the “punishing sword of the dictatorship of the proletariat,” which did not recognize any laws.

POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMICAL. TRANSFORMATION OF THE BOLSHEVIKS IN 1917-1918. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE BOLSHEVIKS IN 1917-1918." 2015, 2017-2018.