Guest from the past: apartment design in the spirit of the 19th century. Interior of the 19th century - you can’t forbid living beautifully City apartment plan of the late 19th century

Today, most people prefer comfortable and highly functional housing. However, there are also rare connoisseurs of old classics who want to decorate their home in the best traditions of bygone times. Typically, this category includes rich people who have more than one type of real estate, collectors and antique dealers who, on the one hand, have a thirst for experimentation, and on the other hand, remain faithful to traditions.

Today, the interior of the 19th century, which dominated the houses of the aristocratic nobility, is one of the most revealing among the pages describing the history of architecture and life of the Russian Empire. For example, in the famous Pavlovsk Palace there is an entire exhibition dedicated to the residential interior of the 19th and early 20th centuries, which allows you to travel as if in a time machine to another century.

Let's try to determine what features of the 19th century interior were present in different decades of the century.

Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian nobility often settled in country estates or mansions located within the city. Together with the owners, servants lived in the house and were classified by status. The houses in which the gentlemen lived usually consisted of three floors. It was the rooms on the first floor in the 19th century interior that were given over to servants, utility rooms, kitchen, and utility rooms.

On the second floor there were guest mansions, which often consisted of adjacent living rooms, halls and a dining room. But on the third floor, for the most part, the master's mansions were located.

At the beginning of the century, the interior of the 19th century mainly featured classicism and empire styles. Most of the rooms were harmoniously combined with each other and included furniture of the same style, often made of mahogany with fabric trim, decorated with gilded, brass or bronzed elements. The walls of houses were often painted with plain paint of green, blue or purple, or covered with striped paper wallpaper.

A mandatory room in any residential building was the owner's office, the furniture of which was often made of poplar or birch. A significant place was also occupied by portrait rooms, which were decorated with striped wallpaper and decorated with portraits in heavy and massive gilded frames.

The bedroom was usually divided into two zones: sleeping and boudoir, especially for the rooms of young ladies. In richer houses, the boudoir was located in the room next to the bedroom. The boudoir in the interior of the 19th century served not only the function of a dressing room, but also was the personal space of the hostess, where she could read, embroider, or simply be alone with her thoughts.

The interior of the 19th century in the 40-60s fell under the influence of romanticism, neo-Gothic and pseudo-Russian style. Windows in houses began to be covered with heavy draped fabrics. Tablecloths appeared on the tables. The Gothic trend sometimes manifested itself in the fashion for lancet windows with stained glass. Around the reign of Nicholas II, the fashion for the French style was introduced. Mahogany furniture gave way to rosewood, and decorative items such as porcelain vases and figurines appeared in the interior. And a little later, especially in the men's bedrooms, oriental motifs began to be reflected. For example, weapons were hung on the walls as decoration, hookahs and other smoking accessories could be present in the rooms, and the owners often liked to dress in robes with oriental motifs. But as for the living rooms and women's bedrooms, the second Rococo style remained dominant.

The interior of the late 19th century is beginning to fade a little compared to the beginning and middle of the century. This is due to the fact that many bourgeois families went bankrupt and found themselves in an unenviable financial situation. At the same time, scientific and technological progress did not stand still, which brought tulle and machine-made lace tablecloths into the interior.

Instead of houses in the 19th century, apartments became more popular, combining the eclecticism of many architectural styles. The place of the estates was taken by country dachas, the interiors of which were often decorated in a pseudo-Russian style, which consisted of finishing beams with carved ceilings and a constant buffet in the dining room.

Towards the end of the year, the Art Nouveau style came into its own, suggesting smooth curved lines in all interior items without exception.

The interior of the 19th century in terms of the richness of different styles can perhaps take first place among other centuries, since under the influence of historicism it reflected such trends as classicism, rococo, gothic, in the middle of the century eclecticism of styles arose, and at the end it came into its own unique modern.

annotation

A.I.Moskalenko

Multi-apartment residential buildings as a type of mass urban development appeared in the last quarter of the 19th century. During the construction of buildings, simpler design solutions were used compared to those currently adopted. They were replaced by buildings built in the constructivist style. They were mostly three - five-story, brick. Houses were designed for a large number of residents and consisted of a large number of separate sections, often rectangular (or close to it) in plan. In these buildings, constructive innovations appeared for the first time in the form of rigidity cores (stairwells), rigid load-bearing and enclosing shells (external load-bearing walls), a post-and-beam system, vertical communication corridors, and lightweight partitions.

Keywords: construction, structural systems, walls, floors, partitions, method

Multi-apartment residential buildings as a type of mass urban development appeared in the last quarter of the 19th century. These were mainly “apartment buildings”, i.e. multi-apartment high-rise buildings, the apartments in which were “rented”. The buildings were built mainly 2–3 floors high (sometimes 4, rarely 5 floors). The sizes of apartments in these houses varied, mainly from 4 to 8 living rooms, with a kitchen and sanitary services. In the first houses there were no bathrooms; they appeared as an obligatory part of apartments at the very end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The heating in these houses was stoves, and the kitchens had cookers. Often, kitchens, along with sanitary services and servants' rooms, were moved into separate building volumes attached to the main residential volume of the building. Sometimes “back stairs” were installed next to the kitchens (Fig. 1). Lighting was provided by kerosene lamps; electric lighting appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. That is, the engineering support systems for buildings were reduced to water supply and sewerage.

Rice. 1. Plan of 2-3 floors of an apartment building

The water supply and sewerage networks were constructed with high quality and a high degree of reliability (the city water supply system in Rostov-on-Don, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, operated until the mid-60s of the 20th century). Leaks from these systems were very insignificant (for water pipes this figure was 1-2%).

All of the above made it possible to use simpler design solutions in the construction of buildings compared to those currently adopted:

The buildings were built on strip foundations.

The external load-bearing walls formed a continuous closed contour of a complex outline; The internal load-bearing walls were not rectilinear in plan and were often open.

Wooden partitions made of vertically placed thick boards were used as internal load-bearing walls.

At the end of the 19th century, wooden stairs were installed in 2-3-story buildings, and the landings were also wooden; the walls of the staircases were partially made of plank partitions (evacuation requirements were violated). The mandatory requirement for the construction of stone stairs and the enclosing of stairs with brick (fireproof) walls appeared in the first years of the 20th century.

During the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war, the class of people who lived in apartment buildings almost completely disappeared (they were liquidated or left the country). Society was largely mixed up. Part of the rural population moved to cities. Part of the urban population was sent “to the countryside” to proletarianize agriculture (the movement of 25- and 30-thousanders). The population of cities has increased dramatically. A lot of new housing was needed.

This problem was solved in two ways: using existing buildings and building new residential buildings.

In accordance with the decrees “On the socialization of the land” (dated 02/19/1918) and “On the abolition of the right of private ownership of real estate in cities” (dated 08/20/1918), the municipalization of housing began, changing the social structure of urban settlement in accordance with the equalizing principle “ war communism" (“take away and divide”). Several families from workers' barracks, barracks, basements and other places of residence moved into large bourgeois dwellings. By 1924, about 500 thousand people were resettled in Moscow, about 300 thousand people in Petrograd.

Under these conditions, new forms of community life took shape. In former tenement buildings, communal communities with public kitchens and dining rooms, laundries, kindergartens, and red corners were created. In Moscow in 1921 there were 865 communal communes. In Kharkov in 1922 there were 242 household communes.

At the same time, the ideology of society changed. Ideology placed itself above objective circumstances. The belief in the possibility of their subjugation turned ideology into the basis of the existence of absolutely everything, including architecture. The strategy determined not only a new structure of social mechanisms, but also a new person, whose consciousness did not depend on the past and its traditions. The order of goals began with the destruction of the old world; then it was planned to build a new world, as it were, “from scratch.”

The requirements for the industrialization of construction entailed the expansion of existing standardization, the emergence and implementation of new standards, and the typification of structures. The systematic development of housing standards was carried out. The standard presupposed a clear model of a life situation. Its uniqueness was secured by sets of built-in objects.

Under conditions of severe economic restrictions, the programmatic practicality of the constructivists and the ascetic forms they used received support in public opinion (although simplicity was sometimes not a metaphor for the “spirit of the era,” but a consequence of real poverty). The functional method is strictly limited by the situation. From the first post-revolutionary years, a social order arose, generated by the spontaneous emergence of everyday communes. As a rule, they were unstable, and disintegrated along with the passing of extreme situations during the civil war. But the program of the RCP (b) (March 1918) declared the formation of a system of communes to be part of the strategic plan for building society.

Buildings built in the constructivist style were mostly three to five stories high and made of brick. Houses were designed for a large number of residents and consisted of a large number of separate sections, often rectangular (or close to it) in plan. The layout of each section is corridor, communal apartments; kitchens, bathrooms and bathrooms are common to several apartments. Wet rooms and kitchens were located near the walls of the staircases, in places adjacent to the end walls. Stairwells were most often located in the building at the ends of the sections, perpendicular to the longitudinal walls, with intermediate landings adjacent to the outer walls, and floor landings facing the inside of the building.

Fig. 2. Three-story building with rectangular purlins and ceilings on wooden beams

Structural system - buildings with load-bearing longitudinal walls. The building had three longitudinal load-bearing walls: two external and one internal. The outer walls are solid, with window openings (there were no balconies in the apartments). The stability of the building in the longitudinal direction was ensured by external longitudinal load-bearing walls, and in the transverse direction - by external end walls and staircase walls. Basements under the entire building. That is, in these buildings, for the first time, constructive innovations appeared in the form of rigidity cores (stairwells), rigid load-bearing and enclosing shells (external load-bearing walls), post-beam systems, vertical communication corridors, lightweight partitions.

The outer walls are made of solid brick masonry, two bricks thick (510 mm), plastered on the inside. The interfloor sections (from the top of the window openings of the lower floor to the bottom of the window openings of the upper floor) were made of cheaper sand-lime brick, the interwindow partitions were laid of more durable red brick. The internal load-bearing wall was one and a half bricks thick (380 mm) and consisted of a series of brick pillars (red brick) made of solid brickwork, connected to each other at the floor level by main beams. The dimensions of the pillars in plan are from 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1030 mm) to 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1290 mm). The distance between the pillars (clean) was from 1.55 to 3.1 m (Fig. 2).

The floors were made of wood. The main beams (purlins) were made of wood and embedded in the masonry of the pillars to the depth of one brick (250 mm). The ends of the beams were wrapped (from the side surfaces, but not from the end) with felt soaked in clay mortar and roofing felt, and an air gap 30 mm deep was left at the ends and the ends were not insulated. After installing the beams, the nests in the masonry were sealed with cement-sand (cement-lime) mortar. Sometimes the main beams were round in cross-section, and more often they were hewn into two edges (top and bottom). Interfloor ceilings were arranged along the main beams (along secondary beams).

Under the “wet” rooms (bathrooms and bathrooms) monolithic reinforced concrete floors were installed on steel beams embedded in the brickwork of the walls. The floors were made of heavy concrete grade 70 or 90, reinforced with a knitted mesh of round wire rod reinforcement (St 3) with a cell size from 100*100 to 150*150 mm. The ceilings were made without backfill (top) and ceiling plaster (bottom). Often, grouting and whitewashing of the ceiling was carried out on the concrete below; concrete floors were made of cement-sand mortar with an iron-plated surface.

The partitions were made of slag filling on a wooden frame. Frame posts made of timber with a cross section of 90*50 mm (sometimes 100*40 mm) with a pitch of 700÷900 mm were placed spaced between the beams (purlins) of the floors. The frame was sheathed on both sides with edged (sometimes unedged) boards 16 mm thick. The whole thing was covered with shingles on both sides and plastered with lime mortar.

It follows that the basics of planning and design solutions, as well as the structural schemes of buildings that were built at the end of the 20th century and are currently under construction, took shape in the first half of the 20th century.

Literature

1. A.V. Ikonnikov “Architecture of the 20th century. Utopias and reality” volume I. M.: Progress-Tradition, 2001, - 656 p. 1055 ill.

2. L.A. Serk "Course of Architecture. Civil and industrial buildings” volume I. Structural diagrams and elements of civil engineering. M.: GOSSTROYIZDAT, 1938, - 440 p. 409 ill.

3. A.I. Tilinsky “Manual for the design and construction of buildings” St. Petersburg: Publishing house A.S. Suvorina, 1911, - 422 p. 597 ill. 239 traits

Moscow 100 years ago was not the capital, but only wealthy people could afford their own housing there. Most of the townspeople relied on rent: in the city, expensive manor apartments, apartments of varying quality in tenement buildings, furnished rooms, and even corners and beds were rented out in the city. About how Muscovites solved the housing problem at the beginning of the twentieth century - in a special project of RBC Real Estate

In 1882 in Moscow there were 143 apartment buildings of four floors and above, and by 1900 - 553. In 1906, the city government issued 1,859 building permits, in 1908 - 2,248, and in 1910 - 2,955

Apartment buildings

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a construction boom began in Moscow - at this time the city began to be actively built up with multi-storey apartment buildings. By 1917, they accounted for 40% of residential real estate in Moscow.

An apartment building is a building built by the owner of a plot of land specifically for renting out apartments. It was with them that the era of apartment buildings began in which Muscovites live today: now apartments mainly belong to residents, in Soviet times their sole owner was the state, and at the beginning of the twentieth century apartments were exclusively rental housing.

Apartment buildings were distinguished by a higher number of storeys (from four floors), the location of apartments around staircases, and front facades. The buildings belonged entirely to both private individuals and various organizations: educational institutions, monasteries, commercial and charitable societies.

High development activity at the beginning of the twentieth century was supported by the availability of free land for development. “New construction took place for the most part on lands that were sold en masse by representatives of the impoverished nobility,” said Galina Ulyanova, Doctor of Historical Sciences, leading researcher at the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences. — These plots were located on the territory of old city estates. Merchants bought land with buildings for future use, but in the first 10-15 years they did not build anything on them; at best, they rented them out as warehouses. They also bought “empty” plots, that is, empty plots. At first, the new owners simply did not know how profitable it would be to develop these plots of apartment buildings. But gradually they matured for radical decisions, and the territory inside the Garden Ring began to change.”

At the beginning of the 20th century, four categories of apartment buildings emerged on the Moscow real estate market, which differed significantly in the comfort and size of housing.

The first type included houses with so-called manorial apartments. The second type includes houses for highly paid employees of banks, insurance companies, joint-stock companies and private entrepreneurs. The third type included houses with small apartments for people with average incomes (officials and teachers). And finally, the fourth type is houses with bed-and-closet apartments, in which poor people who came to Moscow to earn money lived. They housed a variety of inexpensive housing, including rooming houses in basements for the poorest segments of the population.

Apartment house plan

Prepared by historian Pavel Gnilorybov, founder of the “Architectural Excesses” channel

Half of the first floor is occupied by a grocery store. The clerks behave respectably most of the time, but sometimes they smoke in the backyard, laugh loudly, and weigh out “bream” to the boys.

Trade displeases the captain living across the wall. He retired from military service at a low rank, loves to remember the Russian-Turkish war and makes records.

On the second floor a young doctor sees patients. He received his education five years ago and fashionably explains all diseases in the 20th century with a nervous component, so the doctor does not suffer from a shortage of patients, listening to their complaints for a long time.

The diversity of the apartment building, where everyone strives to snatch a couple of kopecks, is disrupted by the antiquarian - he collects engravings, etchings, sits for hours over his treasures, but in order to make ends meet, he runs a second-hand bookshop on Nikolskaya Street.

On the third floor, in the first apartment, three students from Moscow University live together. The higher the floor, the lower the cost. The students are commoners. Parents rarely send money, so young men work as tutors, proofreaders in a printing house, and teach over-aged fools from noble families.

At the very top, the owner of this small apartment building keeps order. Several strong walls made of red brick are his entire capital. During his lifetime, the old man was a wheelwright from God, he earned respect, authority and regular customers, which allowed him to invest in housing construction on the outskirts of Moscow in his old age. The landlord collects money from his tenants himself. The military man, the doctor and the antique dealer pay carefully. Sometimes students are late in paying, but the old man is generally loyal.

The first elevator in Moscow was installed in the apartment building of N. I. Siluanov at 17 Rozhdestvensky Boulevard in 1904

Manor apartments

In the prestigious apartment buildings built in Moscow at the beginning of the twentieth century, the apartments were large and expensive - they were called lordly ones. Such housing was usually rented by nobles who moved to the city from village estates, wealthy merchants from other cities who often visited the capital, as well as professors, doctors, and lawyers with good earnings and a regular clientele.

The expression “manor's apartment” in newspaper advertisements for housing for rent meant that its price was significantly higher than the average. But there weren’t enough people willing to move into luxury apartments. According to the authors of the book “Daily Life in Moscow. Sketches of urban life at the beginning of the 20th century” by Vladimir Ruga and Andrei Kokorev, a housing census conducted in 1907 showed that 7% of such apartments in Moscow were empty.

Renting lordly apartments cost an average of 120-140 rubles. per month, but there were offers that were even more expensive. Usually they had 7-15 rooms with good furniture, quarters for servants. Buildings with such apartments had running water, sewerage, laundry, Dutch heating, and in some even an elevator.

Galina Ulyanova, Doctor of Historical Sciences, leading researcher at the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences:

“People who could rent an apartment, if not in the Assyrian style, then at least four to six ordinary rooms, were by no means poor. These are those who will later be called representatives of the middle class, the existence of which has been debated in Russia for a good hundred years: employees of banks, firms, railway companies, impoverished (and therefore working) nobles, doctors, lawyers, teachers of universities and gymnasiums. For many categories of employees, payment for housing was specially provided for when determining the size of salaries, because government apartments were provided only to a lucky few. In the archive I found information that, for example, the professor of the Moscow Technical School (which later became Baumansky) Yakov Yakovlevich Nikitinsky in 1894-1898 received 2,400 rubles as a salary per year. plus 300 rub. “canteens” (for meals) plus 300 rubles. "apartment" The salary of a municipal engineer in Moscow was higher - the manager of the construction of the Rublevskaya pumping station, Ivan Mikhailovich Biryukov, received 5,000 rubles in 1900. per year plus 1200 “apartment” rubles.

Red “tickets” are announcements about the availability of vacant apartments, green ones are about the availability of free rooms. The Moscow authorities established this order in 1908

Apartments for the middle class

For people of medium and low incomes in Moscow there was a catastrophic lack of quality housing. Housing with a convenient layout in a durable building with running water and sewerage was considered high-quality. But 100 years ago, finding a suitable apartment in the capital was extremely difficult; during the rental season, there was a hunt throughout the city for red and green “tickets” on the doors of houses, indicating the availability of vacant apartments.

The apartment rental season in Moscow began in August, because Muscovites moved to live outside the city for the summer, and closer to autumn they began to look for city apartments again. Often I had to change my place of residence also because the landlords constantly increased the rent.

“Apartments that cost 50 rubles five or six years ago. per month, now you can’t withdraw less than 80-100 rubles. Relatively recent prices for apartments consisting of two small rooms with a kitchen are RUB. at 30 per month - no longer exist. Now this is the cost of an attic space or two rooms without a kitchen on the outskirts of a factory. Without exaggerating, we can say that 50 or 60 percent is a typical Moscow difference in terms of apartment increases of any kind, compared with the prices of 1904-1905,” Vladimir Ruga and Andrei Kokorev cite in the book “Daily Life of Moscow. Sketches of urban life at the beginning of the 20th century”, a quote from the material of the newspaper “Voice of Moscow” from 1910.

Given the high demand for housing, barns, barns and even stables were converted into apartments, historians write. Many of these apartments even had good finishing, but residents complained about dampness and cold. However, there was no choice - only such apartments remained on the market after the seasonal peak.

Furnished rooms and lodgings

In the Moscow real estate market of the early twentieth century, historians identify the so-called furnished rooms, or meblirashki, as they were popularly called, - this is a cross between an apartment building and a hotel. Before the First World War, there were about two hundred of them in Moscow.

Undemanding Muscovites and visitors, who were satisfied with housing for 30 kopecks, settled in furnished apartments. per day, says the book by Vladimir Ruga and Andrei Kokorev. For this money you could rent a room with the necessary furniture and services (cleaning, serving tea, etc.), and more expensive rooms could have a piano. Furnished rooms differed from private apartments mainly in that they had clear regulations: visiting hours, permissible noise levels, etc.

Bed and closet apartments are the cheapest and lowest quality rental housing that could be found in Moscow 100 years ago. They rented out small cells with a bed, chair and table, or just beds (sometimes separated by a curtain), or even a corner, a place on the stove or on the same bed with a neighbor. The conditions there were usually unimaginably crowded, dirty, stuffy and unsanitary. The cost of a bed in such apartments cost an average of 5 rubles. per month.

At the very end of the 19th century, a census was conducted in Moscow, according to the results of which 16 thousand bed-and-closet apartments were registered, which sometimes occupied entire houses, historians write. More than 80% of such apartments were located outside the Garden Ring, closer to factories and train stations.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, the culture of dacha life was actively developing in Moscow. Both wealthy Muscovites and middle-income people went en masse to live outside the city for the summer. There were offers for every taste and budget.

The highest prices for renting and purchasing suburban housing were in the Zvenigorod and Kazan directions, but the prestigious Rublevo-Uspenskoe was also in demand today. It is curious that some Moscow districts, which today are not considered prestigious, were at that time expensive summer cottages. For example, according to Galina Ulyanova, in 1912, dachas in Novogireevo were rented out at a price of 6 thousand rubles. over the summer, and in Lublin they already cost 12 thousand rubles. Whereas in Serebryany Bor, where the Soviet party nomenklatura later had dachas, at the beginning of the twentieth century a house could be rented for 3-6 thousand rubles. And in Sokolniki during these same years, dachas were offered for only 100-300 rubles. for the entire summer season.

People of average income could not afford to pay for a Moscow apartment and a dacha at the same time, so in April - early May they left their city housing and moved to dachas with all their belongings. Many managed to save 100 rubles on the difference between city and country prices. During the summer, in addition, there was no need to guard the Moscow apartment. At the end of the season, summer residents returned and rented housing in Moscow again.

At the same time, holiday villages began to appear. Seeing the summer rush, entrepreneurs began to organize and rent out dachas in the near Moscow region. The range of prices in one holiday village was significant: renting a house could cost 60 rubles or 800 rubles. during the summer. Over time, the family aristocracy began to make money from summer residents, renting out houses in their estates near Moscow at a price of 100 rubles. up to 2.5 thousand rubles. Suppliers of related services were also included in the dacha business. For example, announcements about “installing a water closet at the dacha” were not uncommon even then.

Multi-apartment residential buildings as a type of mass urban development appeared in the last quarter of the 19th century. These were mainly “apartment buildings”, i.e. multi-apartment high-rise buildings, the apartments in which were “rented”. The buildings were built mainly 2-3 floors high (sometimes 4, rarely 5 floors). The sizes of apartments in these houses varied, mainly from 4 to 8 living rooms, with a kitchen and sanitary services. In the first houses there were no bathrooms; they appeared as an obligatory part of apartments at the very end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The heating in these houses was by stoves, and the kitchens had cookers. Often, kitchens, along with sanitary services and servants' rooms, were moved into separate building volumes attached to the main residential volume of the building. Sometimes “back stairs” were installed next to the kitchens (Fig. 1). Lighting was provided by kerosene lamps; electric lighting appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. That is, the engineering support systems for buildings were reduced to water supply and sewerage.

Rice. 1.

The water supply and sewerage networks were constructed with high quality and a high degree of reliability (the city water supply system in Rostov-on-Don, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, operated until the mid-60s of the 20th century). Leaks from these systems were very insignificant (for water pipes this figure was 1-2%).

All of the above made it possible to use simpler design solutions in the construction of buildings compared to those currently adopted:

• - The buildings were built on strip foundations.
• - The external load-bearing walls formed a continuous closed contour of a complex outline; The internal load-bearing walls were not rectilinear in plan and were often open.
• - Wooden partitions made of vertically placed thick boards were used as internal load-bearing walls.
• - At the end of the 19th century, wooden stairs were installed in 2-3-story buildings, and landings were also made of wood; the walls of the staircases were partially made of plank partitions (evacuation requirements were violated). The mandatory requirement for the construction of stone stairs and the enclosing of stairs with brick (fireproof) walls appeared in the first years of the 20th century.

During the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war, the class of people who lived in apartment buildings almost completely disappeared (they were liquidated or left the country). Society was largely mixed up. Part of the rural population moved to cities. Part of the urban population was sent “to the countryside” to proletarianize agriculture (the movement of 25- and 30-thousanders). The population of cities has increased dramatically. A lot of new housing was needed.

This problem was solved in two ways: using existing buildings and building new residential buildings.

In accordance with the decrees “On the socialization of the land” (dated 02/19/1918) and “On the abolition of the right of private ownership of real estate in cities” (dated 08/20/1918), the municipalization of housing began, changing the social structure of urban settlement in accordance with the equalizing principle " war communism" ("take away and divide"). Several families from workers' barracks, barracks, basements and other places of residence moved into large bourgeois dwellings. By 1924, about 500 thousand people were resettled in Moscow, about 300 thousand people in Petrograd.

Under these conditions, new forms of community life took shape. In former tenement buildings, household communes were created with public kitchens and dining rooms, laundries, kindergartens, and red corners. In Moscow in 1921 there were 865 household communes. In Kharkov in 1922 there were 242 household communes. multi-family development constructive

At the same time, the ideology of society changed. Ideology placed itself above objective circumstances. The belief in the possibility of their subjugation turned ideology into the basis of the existence of absolutely everything, including architecture. The strategy determined not only a new structure of social mechanisms, but also a new person, whose consciousness did not depend on the past and its traditions. The order of goals began with the destruction of the old world; then it was planned to build a new world, as it were, “from scratch.”

The requirements for the industrialization of construction entailed the expansion of existing standardization, the emergence and implementation of new standards, and the typification of structures. The systematic development of housing standards was carried out. The standard presupposed a clear model of a life situation. Its uniqueness was secured by sets of built-in objects.

Under conditions of severe economic restrictions, the programmatic practicality of the constructivists and the ascetic forms they used received support in public opinion (although simplicity was sometimes not a metaphor for the “spirit of the era,” but a consequence of real poverty). The functional method is strictly limited by the situation. From the first post-revolutionary years, a social order arose, generated by the spontaneous emergence of household communes. As a rule, they were unstable, and disintegrated along with the passing of extreme situations during the civil war. But the program of the RCP (b) (March 1918) declared the formation of a system of communes to be part of the strategic plan for building society.

Buildings built in the constructivist style were mostly three to five stories high and made of brick. Houses were designed for a large number of residents and consisted of a large number of separate sections, often rectangular (or close to it) in plan. The layout of each section is corridor, communal apartments; kitchens, bathrooms and bathrooms are common to several apartments. Wet rooms and kitchens were located near the walls of the staircases, in places adjacent to the end walls. Stairwells were most often located in the building at the ends of the sections, perpendicular to the longitudinal walls, with intermediate landings adjacent to the outer walls, and floor landings facing the inside of the building.

Fig 2.

Structural system - buildings with load-bearing longitudinal walls. The building had three longitudinal load-bearing walls: two external and one internal. The outer walls are solid, with window openings (there were no balconies in the apartments). The stability of the building in the longitudinal direction was ensured by external longitudinal load-bearing walls, and in the transverse direction - by external end walls and staircase walls. Basements under the entire building. That is, in these buildings, for the first time, constructive innovations appeared in the form of rigidity cores (staircases), rigid load-bearing and enclosing shells (external load-bearing walls), a post-beam system, vertical communication corridors, and lightweight partitions.

The outer walls are made of solid brick masonry, two bricks thick (510 mm), plastered on the inside. The interfloor sections (from the top of the window openings of the lower floor to the bottom of the window openings of the upper floor) were made of cheaper sand-lime brick, the interwindow partitions were laid of more durable red brick. The internal load-bearing wall was one and a half bricks thick (380 mm) and consisted of a series of brick pillars (red brick) made of solid brickwork, connected to each other at the floor level by main beams. The dimensions of the pillars in plan are from 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1030 mm) to 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1290 mm). The distance between the pillars (clean) was from 1.55 to 3.1 m (Fig. 2).

The floors were made of wood. The main beams (purlins) were made of wood and embedded in the masonry of the pillars to the depth of one brick (250 mm). The ends of the beams were wrapped (from the side surfaces, but not from the end) with felt soaked in clay mortar and roofing felt, and an air gap 30 mm deep was left at the ends and the ends were not insulated. After installing the beams, the nests in the masonry were sealed with cement-sand (cement-lime) mortar. Sometimes the main beams were round in cross-section, and more often they were hewn into two edges (top and bottom). Interfloor ceilings were arranged along the main beams (along secondary beams).

Under the “wet” rooms (bathrooms and bathrooms) monolithic reinforced concrete floors were installed on steel beams embedded in the brickwork of the walls. The floors were made of heavy concrete grade 70 or 90, reinforced with a knitted mesh of round wire rod reinforcement (St 3) with a cell size from 100*100 to 150*150 mm. The ceilings were made without backfill (top) and ceiling plaster (bottom). Often, grouting and whitewashing of the ceiling was carried out on the concrete below; concrete floors were made of cement-sand mortar with an iron-plated surface.

The partitions were made of slag filling on a wooden frame. Frame posts made of timber with a cross section of 90*50 mm (sometimes 100*40 mm) with a pitch of 700 x 900 mm were placed spaced between the beams (purlins) of the floors. The frame was sheathed on both sides with edged (sometimes unedged) boards 16 mm thick. The whole thing was covered with shingles on both sides and plastered with lime mortar.

It follows that the basics of planning and design solutions, as well as the structural schemes of buildings that were built at the end of the 20th century and are currently under construction, took shape in the first half of the 20th century.

Literature

• 1. A.V. Ikonnikov "Architecture of the 20th century. Utopias and reality" volume I. M.: Progress-Tradition, 2001, - 656 p. 1055 ill.
• 2. L.A. Serk "Course of architecture. Civil and industrial buildings" volume I. Structural diagrams and elements of civil engineering. M.: GOSSTROYIZDAT, 1938, - 440 p. 409 ill.
• 3. A.I. Tilinsky "Manual for the design and construction of buildings" St. Petersburg: Publishing house A.S. Suvorina, 1911, - 422 p. 597 ill. 239 traits

Multi-apartment residential buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Assoc. department GSiH, Rostov-on-Don

Multi-apartment residential buildings as a type of mass urban development appeared in the last quarter of the 19th century. These were mainly “apartment buildings”, i.e. multi-apartment high-rise buildings, the apartments in which were “rented”. The buildings were built mainly 2–3 floors high (sometimes 4, rarely 5 floors). The sizes of apartments in these houses varied, mainly from 4 to 8 living rooms, with a kitchen and sanitary services. In the first houses there were no bathrooms; they appeared as an obligatory part of apartments at the very end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The heating in these houses was by stoves, and the kitchens had cookers. Often, kitchens, along with sanitary services and servants' rooms, were moved into separate building volumes attached to the main residential volume of the building. Sometimes “back stairs” were installed next to the kitchens (Fig. 1). Lighting was provided by kerosene lamps; electric lighting appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. That is, the engineering support systems for buildings were reduced to water supply and sewerage.

Rice. 1. Plan of 2-3 floors of an apartment building

The water supply and sewerage networks were constructed with high quality and a high degree of reliability (the city water supply system in Rostov-on-Don, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, operated until the mid-60s of the 20th century). Leaks from these systems were very insignificant (for water pipes this figure was 1-2%).

All of the above made it possible to use simpler design solutions in the construction of buildings compared to those currently adopted:

The buildings were built on strip foundations.

The external load-bearing walls formed a continuous closed contour of a complex outline; The internal load-bearing walls were not rectilinear in plan and were often open.

Wooden partitions made of vertically placed thick boards were used as internal load-bearing walls.

At the end of the 19th century, wooden stairs were installed in 2-3-story buildings, and the landings were also wooden; the walls of the staircases were partially made of plank partitions (evacuation requirements were violated). The mandatory requirement for the construction of stone stairs and the enclosing of stairs with brick (fireproof) walls appeared in the first years of the 20th century.

During the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war, the class of people who lived in apartment buildings almost completely disappeared (they were liquidated or left the country). Society was largely mixed up. Part of the rural population moved to cities. Part of the urban population was sent “to the countryside” to proletarianize agriculture (the movement of 25- and 30-thousanders). The population of cities has increased dramatically. A lot of new housing was needed.

This problem was solved in two ways: using existing buildings and building new residential buildings.

In accordance with the decrees “On the socialization of land” (dated 01/01/2001) and “On the abolition of the right of private ownership of real estate in cities” (dated 01/01/2001), the municipalization of housing began, changing the social structure of urban settlement in accordance with the equalizing principle “ war communism" (“take away and divide”). Several families from workers' barracks, barracks, basements and other places of residence moved into large bourgeois dwellings. By 1924, about 500 thousand people were resettled in Moscow, about 300 thousand people in Petrograd.

Under these conditions, new forms of community life took shape. In former tenement buildings, household communes were created with public kitchens and dining rooms, laundries, kindergartens, and red corners. In Moscow in 1921 there were 865 household communes. In Kharkov in 1922 there were 242 household communes.

At the same time, the ideology of society changed. Ideology placed itself above objective circumstances. The belief in the possibility of their subjugation turned ideology into the basis of the existence of absolutely everything, including architecture. The strategy determined not only a new structure of social mechanisms, but also a new person, whose consciousness did not depend on the past and its traditions. The order of goals began with the destruction of the old world; then it was planned to build a new world, as it were, “from scratch.”

The requirements for the industrialization of construction entailed the expansion of existing standardization, the emergence and implementation of new standards, and the typification of structures. The systematic development of housing standards was carried out. The standard presupposed a clear model of a life situation. Its uniqueness was secured by sets of built-in objects.

Under conditions of severe economic restrictions, the programmatic practicality of the constructivists and the ascetic forms they used received support in public opinion (although simplicity was sometimes not a metaphor for the “spirit of the era,” but a consequence of real poverty). The functional method is strictly limited by the situation. From the first post-revolutionary years, a social order arose, generated by the spontaneous emergence of everyday communes. As a rule, they were unstable, and disintegrated along with the passing of extreme situations during the civil war. But the program of the RCP (b) (March 1918) declared the formation of a system of communes to be part of the strategic plan for building society.

Buildings built in the constructivist style were mostly three to five stories high and made of brick. Houses were designed for a large number of residents and consisted of a large number of separate sections, often rectangular (or close to it) in plan. The layout of each section is corridor, communal apartments; kitchens, bathrooms and bathrooms are common to several apartments. Wet rooms and kitchens were located near the walls of the staircases, in places adjacent to the end walls. Stairwells were most often located in the building at the ends of the sections, perpendicular to the longitudinal walls, with intermediate landings adjacent to the outer walls, and floor landings facing the inside of the building.

Fig. 2. Three-story building with rectangular purlins and ceilings on wooden beams

Structural system – buildings with load-bearing longitudinal walls. The building had three longitudinal load-bearing walls: two external and one internal. The outer walls are solid, with window openings (there were no balconies in the apartments). The stability of the building in the longitudinal direction was ensured by external longitudinal load-bearing walls, in the transverse direction - by external end walls and staircase walls. Basements under the entire building. That is, in these buildings, for the first time, constructive innovations appeared in the form of rigidity cores (staircases), rigid load-bearing and enclosing shells (external load-bearing walls), a post-beam system, vertical communication corridors, and lightweight partitions.

The outer walls are made of solid brick masonry, two bricks thick (510 mm), plastered on the inside. The interfloor sections (from the top of the window openings of the lower floor to the bottom of the window openings of the upper floor) were made of cheaper sand-lime brick, the interwindow partitions were laid of more durable red brick. The internal load-bearing wall was one and a half bricks thick (380 mm) and consisted of a series of brick pillars (red brick) made of solid brickwork, connected to each other at the floor level by main beams. The dimensions of the pillars in plan are from 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1030 mm) to 1.5*4.0 bricks (380*1290 mm). The distance between the pillars (clean) was from 1.55 to 3.1 m (Fig. 2).

The floors were made of wood. The main beams (purlins) were made of wood and embedded in the masonry of the pillars to the depth of one brick (250 mm). The ends of the beams were wrapped (from the side surfaces, but not from the end) with felt soaked in clay mortar and roofing felt, and an air gap 30 mm deep was left at the ends and the ends were not insulated. After installing the beams, the nests in the masonry were sealed with cement-sand (cement-lime) mortar. Sometimes the main beams were round in cross-section, and more often they were hewn into two edges (top and bottom). Interfloor ceilings were arranged along the main beams (along secondary beams).

Under the “wet” rooms (bathrooms and bathrooms) monolithic reinforced concrete floors were installed on steel beams embedded in the brickwork of the walls. The floors were made of heavy concrete grade 70 or 90, reinforced with a knitted mesh of round wire rod reinforcement (St 3) with a cell size from 100*100 to 150*150 mm. The ceilings were made without backfill (top) and ceiling plaster (bottom). Often, grouting and whitewashing of the ceiling was carried out on the concrete below; concrete floors were made of cement-sand mortar with an iron-plated surface.

The partitions were made of slag filling on a wooden frame. Frame posts made of timber with a cross section of 90*50 mm (sometimes 100*40 mm) with a pitch of 700÷900 mm were placed spaced between the beams (purlins) of the floors. The frame was sheathed on both sides with edged (sometimes unedged) boards 16 mm thick. The whole thing was covered with shingles on both sides and plastered with lime mortar.

It follows that the basics of planning and design solutions, as well as the structural schemes of buildings that were built at the end of the 20th century and are currently under construction, took shape in the first half of the 20th century.

Literature

1. “Architecture of the 20th century. Utopias and reality” volume I. M.: Progress-Tradition, 2001, - 656 p. 1055 ill.

2. “Architecture course. Civil and industrial buildings” volume I. Structural diagrams and elements of civil engineering. M.: GOSSTROYIZDAT, 1938, - 440 p. 409 ill.

3. “Manual for the design and construction of buildings” St. Petersburg: Publishing house, 1911, - 422 p. 597 ill. 239 traits