Marking of engineering ammunition of the Soviet army. Ammunition Types of aviation ammunition

25.11.2019

In this section you will be able to get acquainted with various types of ammunition, both modern and those that were used in the past. The range of ammunition used by any modern army is truly enormous. These include artillery shells of various types and purposes, ammunition for armored vehicles, small arms, bombs and rocket weapons of aircraft and helicopters, tactical and anti-aircraft missiles, torpedoes, sea and land mines, grenades and much more.

The device of ammunition differs, they perform different tasks, there are guided and unguided ammunition. Weapons of mass destruction also belong to military supplies: there are nuclear weapons and shells filled with poisonous substances.

Ammunition is one of the most important components of any weapon, which is directly designed to defeat the enemy. It is the characteristics of the ammunition that largely determine the effectiveness of any weapon, the function of which, in essence, is only to fire a shot. The main revolutions in gunsmithing were associated with significant improvements in ammunition. An example is the invention of a unitary cartridge, the creation of smokeless powder, the appearance of an intermediate cartridge.

The long evolution of ammunition has led to the creation of automatic weapons systems, modern small arms and artillery.

Artillery ammunition has a difficult history. The first guns appeared in Europe around the 13th century, at first they fired stone cannonballs, but gradually the type of artillery ammunition changed. Cast iron and lead cores began to be used, and later explosive ammunition was invented. A real revolution in artillery was the invention of a unitary cartridge and breech-loading guns. The appearance of armored vehicles on the battlefield forced the designers to develop special ammunition to combat it.

In the last century, many types of ammunition were invented: cluster, sub-caliber, cumulative and chemical. The advent of military aviation led to the creation of aerial bombs and missiles.

Missile weapons have a no less long and difficult history. The first rockets were invented in ancient China, they were quite widely used in the 18th and 19th centuries, but the advent of rifled artillery and smokeless powder turned rockets into an anachronism. Only after the First World War, engineers returned to this type of weapon.

Rocket ammunition began to develop rapidly after the next world war, and today missiles are the basis of the armament of any modern army. Both infantrymen on the battlefield and strategic submarines are armed with missiles.

Russia has the latest technology in the field of rocketry, Russian missiles are considered the best in the world and are in high demand in the global arms market. The main competitor of our country in this area is traditionally the United States. Here you will find a description of the products of the American military-industrial complex and the technical characteristics of US combat missiles.

Today, one of the main directions in the development of ammunition is the creation of guided projectiles, bombs and missiles. The era of carpet bombing and the use of cluster munitions is coming to an end. Each projectile fired must hit the target, in addition, many modern systems work on the principle of "fire and forget." Today, the United States is developing guided bullets for sniper systems. Munitions are being developed that work based on unusual physical principles.

Information about explosives

Explosives serve as a source of energy necessary for throwing (throwing) bullets, mines, grenades, for breaking them, as well as for performing various blasting operations.

Explosives are such chemical compounds and mixtures that, under the influence of external influences, are capable of very rapid chemical transformations, accompanied by the release of heat and the formation of a large amount of highly heated gases capable of producing the work of throwing or destruction.

The powder charge of a rifle cartridge weighing 3.25 g burns out in about 0.0012 s when fired. When the charge is burned, about 3 large calories of heat are released and about 3 liters of gases are formed, the temperature of which at the time of the shot is 2400-29000. The gases, being highly heated, exert high pressure (up to 2900 kg / cm 2) and eject a bullet from the bore at a speed of over 800 m / s.

The process of rapid chemical change of an explosive from a solid (liquid) state to a gaseous state, accompanied by the conversion of its potential energy into mechanical work, is called explosion. During an explosion, as a rule, a reaction occurs when oxygen combines with the combustible elements of the explosive (hydrogen, carbon, sulfur, etc.).

An explosion can be caused by mechanical action - impact, prick, friction, thermal (electrical) action - heating, a spark, a flame beam, the explosion energy of another explosive that is sensitive to thermal or mechanical effects (explosion of a detonator cap).

Depending on the chemical composition of explosives and the conditions of the explosion (force of external action, pressure and temperature, quantity and density of the substance, etc.), explosive transformations can occur in two main forms, which differ significantly in speed: combustion and explosion (detonation).

Combustion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several meters per second and accompanied by a rapid increase in gas pressure; as a result of it, throwing or scattering of surrounding bodies occurs.

An example of the burning of an explosive is the burning of gunpowder when fired. The burning rate of gunpowder is directly proportional to pressure. In the open air, the burning rate of smokeless powder is about 1 mm / s, and in the bore when fired, due to an increase in pressure, the burning rate of gunpowder increases and reaches several meters per second.

Explosion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several hundred (thousand) meters per second and accompanied by a sharp increase in gas pressure, which produces a strong destructive effect on nearby objects. The greater the rate of transformation of the explosive, the greater the force of its destruction. When an explosion proceeds at the maximum possible speed under given conditions, then such a case of an explosion is called detonation. Most explosives are capable of detonating under certain conditions.

An example of the detonation of an explosive is the detonation of a TNT charge and the rupture of a projectile. The detonation speed of TNT reaches 6990 m/s.

The detonation of some explosive can cause the explosion of another explosive in direct contact with it or at a certain distance from it.

This is the basis for the device and the use of detonator caps. The transfer of detonation over a distance is associated with the propagation in the environment surrounding the explosive charge of a sharp increase in the pressure of the shock wave. Therefore, the excitation of an explosion in this way is almost no different from the excitation of an explosion by means of a mechanical shock.

Division of explosives according to the nature of their action and practical application

According to the nature of the action and practical application, explosives are divided into initiating, crushing (blasting), propelling and pyrotechnic compositions.

Initiators explosives are called those that have great sensitivity, explode from a slight thermal or mechanical effect and, by their detonation, cause the explosion of other explosives.

The main representatives of initiating explosives are mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate and tetrazene.

Initiating explosives are used to equip igniter caps and blasting caps. Initiating explosives and products in which they are used are very sensitive to external influences of various kinds, so they require careful handling.

Crushing (blasting) explosives are called those that explode, as a rule, under the action of the detonation of initiating explosives and, during the explosion, crush the surrounding objects.

The main representatives of crushing explosives are: TNT (tol), melinite, tetryl, RDX, PETN, ammonites, etc.

Crushing explosives are used as explosive charges for mines, grenades, shells, and are also used in blasting.

Crushing agents also include pyroxylin and nitroglycerin, which are used as a starting material for manufacturing.

Throwable called such explosives that have an explosive transformation in the form of combustion with a relatively slow increase in pressure, which allows them to be used for throwing bullets, mines, grenades, shells.

The main representatives of propellant explosives are gunpowder (smoky and smokeless).

Smoke powder is a mechanical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal.

Smokeless powders are divided into pyroxylin and nitroglycerine powders.

Rice. 53. The shape of the grains of smokeless powder:

a - plates; b - tape; c - tube; g - cylinder with seven channels

Pyroxylin powder is made by dissolving a mixture (in certain proportions) of wet soluble and insoluble pyroxylin in an alcohol-ether solvent.

Nitroglycerin powder is made from a mixture (in certain proportions) of pyroxylin with nitroglycerin.

The following can be added to smokeless powders: a stabilizer - to protect the powder from chemical decomposition during long-term storage; phlegmatizer - to slow down the burning rate of the outer surface of the powder grains; graphite - to achieve flowability and eliminate grain sticking. Diphenylamine is most often used as a stabilizer, and camphor as a phlegmatizer.

Smoke powders are used to equip fuses for hand grenades, remote tubes, fuses, to make a igniter cord, etc.

Smokeless powders are used as combat (powder) charges of firearms: pyroxylin powders - mainly in the powder charges of small arms cartridges, nitroglycerin, as more powerful - in the combat charges of grenades, mines, shells.

Grains of smokeless powder can be in the form of a plate, tape, single-channel or multi-channel tube or cylinder (see Fig. 53).

The amount of gases formed per unit time during the combustion of gunpowder grains is proportional to their burning surface. In the process of burning gunpowder of the same composition, depending on its shape, the burning surface, and therefore the amount of gases formed per unit time, can decrease, remain constant or increase.

Rice. 54. Burning grains of smokeless powder:

a - degressive form; b - with a constant burning surface, c - progressive form

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which decreases as they burn, are called gunpowders of a degressive form (see fig. 54). This is, for example, a record and a tape.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which remains constant during combustion, are called gunpowder With constant burning surface, for example, tube with one channel, cylinder with one channel. Grains of such gunpowder burn simultaneously both inside and from the outer surface. The decrease in the outer burning surface is compensated by the increase in the inner surface, so that the total surface remains constant for the entire burning time, if the burning of the tube from the ends is not taken into account.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which increases as they burn, are called powders of progressive form, for example, a tube with several channels, a cylinder with several channels. When the grain of such gunpowder burns, the surface of the channels increases; this creates a general increase in the burning surface of the grain until it breaks up into parts, after which combustion occurs according to the type of combustion of gunpowder of a degressive form.

Progressive combustion of gunpowder can be achieved by introducing a phlegmatizer into the outer layers of a single-channel powder grain.

When burning gunpowder, three phases are distinguished: ignition, ignition, combustion.

ignition- this is the excitation of the combustion process in any part of the powder charge by quickly heating this part to the ignition temperature, which is 270-3200 for smoke powders, and about 2000 for smokeless powders.

Ignition is the propagation of the flame over the surface of the charge.

Combustion- this is the penetration of the flame into the depth of each grain of gunpowder.

The change in the amount of gases formed during the combustion of gunpowder per unit time affects the nature of the change in gas pressure and the speed of the bullet along the bore. Therefore, for each type of cartridges and weapons, a powder charge of a certain composition, shape and mass is selected.

Pyrotechnic compositions are mixtures of combustible substances (magnesium, phosphorus, aluminum, etc.) oxidizers(chlorates, nitrates, etc.) and cementers(natural and artificial resins, etc.). In addition, they contain special impurities: substances that color the flame; substances that reduce the sensitivity of the composition, etc.

The predominant form of transformation of pyrotechnic compositions under normal conditions of their use is combustion. Burning, they give the corresponding pyrotechnic (fire) effect (lighting, incendiary, etc.).

Pyrotechnic compositions are used to equip lighting and signal cartridges, tracer and incendiary compositions of bullets, grenades, shells, etc.

Ammunition, their classification

Ammunition(munitions) - an integral part of weapons, directly intended for the destruction of manpower and equipment, the destruction of structures (fortifications) and the performance of special tasks (lighting, smoke, the transfer of propaganda literature, etc.). Ammunition includes: artillery rounds, warheads of rockets and torpedoes, grenades, aerial bombs, charges, engineering and naval mines, land mines, smoke bombs.

Ammunition is classified by affiliation: artillery, aviation, naval, rifle, engineering; by the nature of the explosive and damaging substance: with conventional explosives and nuclear.

The armies of a number of capitalist countries also have chemical (fragmentation-chemical) and biological (bacteriological) munitions.

By purpose, ammunition is divided into main (for destruction and destruction), special (for lighting, smoke, radio interference, etc.) and auxiliary (for training crew crews, special tests, etc.).

Artillery ammunition include shots with shells for various purposes: fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete wallpaper, incendiary, with ready-made submunitions, smoke, chemical, tracer, lighting, propaganda, sighting and target designation, practical, training and training.

For firing at the first artillery pieces, spherical shells (nuclei) and incendiary shells in the form of combustible mixture bags were used. In the fifteenth century iron, lead, then cast iron cannonballs appeared, which made it possible, while maintaining the energy of their impact, to reduce the caliber, increase the mobility of the guns and at the same time increase the firing range. From the sixteenth century buckshot with cast-iron or lead bullets began to be used, inflicting heavy losses on infantry and cavalry. In the second half of the XVI century. explosive projectiles were invented: thick-walled cast-iron balls with an internal cavity for breaking the charge. Subsequently, in Russian artillery they were called grenades (with a mass of up to l-th pood inclusive) and bombs (with a mass of more than l-th pood). In the eighteenth century explosive shells began to be divided into fragmentation, giving a large number of fragments to destroy living targets, and high-explosive - to destroy structures. The so-called grenade buckshot appeared, each element of which was a small explosive grenade. The so-called brandkugels were used as incendiary projectiles, consisting of the body of an ordinary explosive projectile filled with an incendiary composition. Incendiary elements were also invested in explosive projectiles for combined target destruction.

Found the use of lighting and smoke shells. At the beginning of the XIX century. Englishman Shrapnel developed the first fragmentation projectile with ready-made fragments, which in all its modifications received the name of the inventor. By the middle of the XIX century. smoothbore artillery reached its highest development. However, the range of its firing and the effectiveness of the ball projectiles used were very insignificant. Therefore, the improvement of artillery went along the line of creating rifled guns and oblong projectiles, which began to be widely used from the 60s. 19th century This made it possible to significantly increase the range and improve the accuracy of fire, as well as increase the efficiency of shells. At that time, grenades, shrapnel, buckshot, incendiary shells were used in field artillery, and armor-piercing shells appeared in naval and coastal artillery to destroy armored ships. Until the 80s. 19th century Smoke powder served as a throwing and explosive projectile. In the mid 80s. smokeless powder was invented, the widespread use of which since the 90s. 19th century led to an increase in the range of artillery by almost two times. At the same time, the equipment of shells with blasting explosives began with pyroxylin, melinite, and from the beginning of the 20th century. - TNT, etc.

By the beginning of the First World War, the artillery of all armies consisted mainly of high-explosive shells and shrapnel. Fragmentation grenades were also used in German artillery to fire at open live targets. To combat aircraft, anti-aircraft shrapnel and remote grenades were used. The appearance of tanks led to the development of anti-tank artillery with armor-piercing shells. Chemical and special projectiles (smoke, lighting, tracer, etc.) were also used. Increased consumption of artillery ammunition. If Germany is at war with France in 1870-71. spent 650 thousand shots, Russia in the war with Japan 1904-05. - 900 thousand, then in 1914-18. shell consumption was: Germany - about 275 million, Russia - up to 50 million, Austria-Hungary - up to 70 million, France about 200 million, England - about 170 million. The total consumption of artillery ammunition during the First World War exceeded 1 billion

In the Soviet Army in the 30s. the modernization of artillery was successfully carried out, and during the years of the first five-year plans, new models of guns and shells for them were developed, and rocket artillery was created. For the first time, 82-mm caliber rockets were successfully used from aircraft in 1939 in battles on the river. Khalkhin Gol. At the same time, lZ2-mm M-13 rockets were developed (for the legendary Katyushas and aircraft weapons), and a little later, 300-mm M-30 rockets. Great development before the war and during it received mortars - smooth-bore guns that fire feathered projectiles (mines). New types of armor-piercing shells were created: sub-caliber (with a solid core, the diameter of which is less than the caliber of the barrel) and cumulative (providing a directional effect of the explosion). The Great Patriotic War consumed a huge amount of ammunition, and the Soviet industry coped with this task.

In total, during the war, she produced over 775 million artillery shells and mines. After World War II, anti-tank guided missiles (missiles) appeared in service with the armies of a number of states. They fire from launchers from armored personnel carriers, vehicles, helicopters, as well as from portable launchers. The control of these projectiles in flight is carried out by wire, by radio, in an infrared beam or a laser beam. Active-rocket projectiles, projectiles for recoilless rifles are being improved, specialized ammunition of increased efficiency and ammunition for cluster munitions are being created. To defeat manpower and equipment, ammunition is created with fragments of a given shape and mass and with ready-made lethal elements (balls, rods, cubes, arrows). Fragments are obtained by applying cuts on the outer or inner surface of the body (when it breaks, it is crushed into cuts) or by creating a special surface of an explosive projectile with elementary cumulative grooves (when it breaks, the body is crushed by cumulative jets) and other methods. Improved cumulative shells. Cluster parts of rockets, rockets and artillery shells with a large number of cumulative feathered combat elements are being developed, scattered at a certain height to destroy tanks from above. Work is underway to create rocket and artillery shells that provide remote mining of the terrain with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines. High-explosive-armor-piercing projectiles with a flattening warhead loaded with plastic explosives are widely used. When meeting with a target, the head of such a projectile is crushed and comes into contact with the armor over a large area. The explosive charge is undermined by a bottom fuse, which ensures a certain direction of the explosion. On the opposite side of the armor, large fragments break off, hitting the crew and internal equipment of the tank. In order to improve the accuracy of shooting, work is underway to create the simplest flight control systems and homing heads for projectiles. From the 50s. in the United States, nuclear weapons are being created for artillery systems.

Aviation ammunition was first used in 1911-12. in the war between Italy and Turkey and in a relatively short time received significant development. They include aviation bombs, one-time bomb clusters, bomb bundles, incendiary tanks, cartridges for aircraft machine guns and cannons, warheads for guided and unguided aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft torpedoes, aircraft mines, etc.

Disposable bomb cassettes - thin-walled air bombs equipped with aircraft mines (anti-tank, anti-personnel, etc.) or small bombs (anti-tank, fragmentation, incendiary, etc.) weighing up to 10 kg. In one cassette there can be up to 100 or more mines (bombs), which are scattered in the air by special powder or explosive charges, activated by remote fuses at a certain height above the target. Bomb bundles - devices in which several aircraft bombs are connected by special devices into one suspension. Depending on the design of the bundle, the separation of bombs occurs either at the moment of dropping from an aircraft, or in the air after dropping a remote device. The cartridges of aviation machine guns and cannons differ from the usual ones due to the specifics of aviation weapons (high rate of fire, small calibers, dimensions, etc.). The most common calibers of aviation bullets are 7.62 and 12.7 mm, shells - 20,23,30 and 37 mm. Shells with an explosive shell (high-explosive, fragmentation, etc.) have fuses that fire with a slight delay after hitting an obstacle. The fuses can have self-liquidators, which, after a certain time after the shot, detonate shells in the air that did not hit the target, ensuring the safety of ground troops during air combat over their own territory. Warheads of aviation missiles have conventional or nuclear charges. They can be delivered to targets by air-to-air missiles at a range of up to several tens of kilometers, by air-to-ground missiles at hundreds of kilometers. Unguided rockets have conventional (rarely nuclear) warheads, a rocket engine (powder, liquid) and shock or proximity fuses. Their range reaches 10 km or more. Aircraft mines (anti-tank, anti-personnel, sea, etc.) are designed to lay minefields on land and sea from the air.

Marine munitions include naval and coastal artillery rounds, mines, depth charges, missile and torpedo warheads used by the navy to destroy naval targets. Ship and coastal artillery ammunition includes artillery rounds of various calibers and capacities. They use fragmentation tracer, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive and armor-piercing shells. Mines, first used at the end of the 18th century, remain an effective positional means of combating surface ships and submarines. Anchor galvanic impact mines of relatively low power were replaced by anchor, bottom, floating mines of high power, triggered by various physical fields of the ship. The torpedo, as an underwater projectile, entered service with ships in the second half of the 19th century and retains its importance as an effective means of destroying surface ships and submarines.

The depth charge, which appeared during the First World War, is an effective means of destroying submarines at considerable distances and various depths. The basis of the weapons of the modern Navy (Navy) is missile weapons with warheads in nuclear and conventional warheads. It can hit objects at ranges of several thousand kilometers.

Artillery and naval munitions include reactive munitions, which include unguided projectiles of land and sea multiple launch rocket systems, grenades (melee weapons).

Rocket munitions are delivered to the target due to the thrust generated during the operation of the rocket engine. They leave the guide launchers (leave the barrel of grenade launchers) at relatively low speeds, and acquire full speed in flight at the end of the active part of the trajectory.

An intermediate position between artillery and rocket projectiles is occupied by the so-called active rocket projectiles (mines), which combine the properties of conventional (active) and rocket projectiles. They are fired from artillery guns with an initial speed close to the speed of conventional projectiles. Due to the reactive charge that burns up during the flight of the projectile in the air, a certain increase in its speed and firing range is obtained. Rocket-active projectiles have the disadvantages of rocket projectiles, as well as reduced target efficiency.

Shooting ammunition is intended for direct destruction of enemy manpower and military equipment. They are unitary cartridges consisting of a bullet, a powder charge and a primer, united by a sleeve.

They are subdivided: according to the nature of the action of the bullet - with ordinary and special bullets (single and combined action); depending on the type of weapon in which they are used, on a pistol (revolver), machine gun, rifle and large-caliber.

Engineering ammunition - means of engineering weapons containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions; mines, charges (demining, demining) and explosives.

Nuclear ammunition is designed to destroy critical targets. They are in service with the missile forces, aviation, navy, in the US Army, in addition, artillery and engineering units. These include the head (combat) parts of missiles, aerial bombs, artillery shells, torpedoes, depth charges and engineering mines equipped with nuclear charges.

Chemical Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with toxic substances (S) of various durability and toxicity and is intended for the destruction of enemy manpower, contamination of weapons, military equipment, food, water and terrain. These include chemical artillery and rocket projectiles, mines, aerial bombs, elements of missile warheads and aircraft clusters, land mines, etc.

Biological Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with biological (bacterial) agents and is intended to destroy people, animals and plants.

Depending on the method of transferring a biological formulation to a combat state, there are: explosive ammunition; with mechanical opening; devices that convert a biological formulation into an aerosol state under the influence of an air flow or pressure of inert gases.

Special ammunition is used to smoke and illuminate the area, deliver propaganda literature, facilitate zeroing, target designation, etc.

These include: smoke, sighting and target designation, lighting, tracer, propaganda shells (mines, bombs), lighting and signal cartridges, etc.

The fundamental difference between special ammunition is that their internal cavity is filled not with an explosive charge, but with smoke, lighting, tracer compounds, leaflets. They also have fuses (tubes) and expelling or small bursting charges to open the case in the air or when hitting an obstacle.

Signal and lighting cartridges are shots that eject shells with a pyrotechnic composition (stars), when burned, colored lights (smoke) are formed as signals, or white (yellow) fire to illuminate the area.

Special ammunition is widely used to support combat operations.

Weapon caliber the diameter of the bore of a firearm (for rifled weapons in the USSR and a number of countries it is determined by the distance between opposite fields of rifling; in the USA, Great Britain and other countries by the distance between rifling), as well as the diameter of the projectile (mines, bullets) according to its largest cross section.

The caliber of a weapon is usually expressed in linear units: inches (25.4 mm), lines (2.54 mm), mm. In the XVI-XIX centuries. the caliber of the weapon was determined by the mass of the cannonball (for example, a 12-pound cannon).

Gun caliber is sometimes specified in hundredths (US) or thousandths (UK) of an inch. For example, .22 (5.6 mm), .380 (9 mm).

Often the caliber of a weapon is used to express so-called relative values, such as barrel length. The caliber of hunting rifles is indicated by the number of ball bullets cast from one English pound (453.6 g) of lead;

The caliber of an aviation bomb is its mass in kg.

Educational and educational goals:

3. To form the student's military professional culture of an officer, commanding qualities, skills and abilities;

4. To form the student's theoretical and practical bases for solving command and staff issues;

5. Cultivate perseverance in mastering military knowledge.

6. To instill in the personnel a sense of professional pride in the chosen specialty of an officer, hatred and respect for a potential enemy.

Time – 90 minutes

Study time calculation:

Material support:

1. Methodical development.

2. Computer and multimedia equipment of the auditorium.

3. Microsoft Office PowerPoint presentation on the topic.

4. Notebooks, stationery.

5. Journal of accounting for military training.

Literature:

a) main

1. Combat regulations for the preparation and conduct of combined arms combat. Part III (BUSV) M.: Military Publishing House, 2004.

2. Engineering support of the battle. Moscow: Military Publishing House, 1988.

3. Fortification: past and present. M.: Military Publishing, 1987.

b) additionally

1. Dictionary of military terms comp. A.M. Plekhanov. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1988.

c) normative

1. Charter of the internal service of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of November 10, 2007 No. 1495, M., 2008.

2. Combat charter of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Enacted by order of the Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation of March 11, 2006 No. 111, M., 2008.

VISUAL AIDS:

Related Microsoft Office PowerPoint Presentation "Purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics".

Task for self-training:

1. Study the material on the specified literature, finalize the lecture notes.

2. Be prepared for a lesson quiz.

3. Prepare answers to the following questions:

Appointment of engineering barriers.

Classification of engineering barriers.

Characteristics of engineering barriers.

Purpose of engineering ammunition.

Classification of engineering ammunition.

Rules for handling explosives.

Guidelines for the preparation and conduct of the lesson:

When starting to work on a lecture, the teacher begins with:

1. Studies of the Qualification requirements for a graduate according to VUS-063300, 445000 in the part related to the study of this topic.

2. Study of the Program for training specialists in VUS-063300, 445000, thematic plan.

3. Studying the text of the lecture.

4. Selection and study of literature, periodicals and the Internet resource.

5. Refinements of the text of the lecture.

6. Selection and preparation of educational and material base for the lesson.

7. Drawing up a plan for the lecture.

Structurally, a lecture on the topic of the lesson consists of three interrelated parts: introduction, main part, conclusion.

Purpose of entry- arouse interest in the topic under study, establish contact with students, direct their attention to the subject of the upcoming conversation. The introduction should not exceed 5 minutes.

In the introduction, it is recommended to write a) the name of the topic, b) the allocation of time for its study, c) the educational goals of the lecture (educational goals are not announced), d) the educational questions of the lecture, and e) the recommended literature. Then it is necessary to justify the importance of studying this topic, its relevance, connection with subsequent topics of the course and the relationship with other subjects of study.

Moving on to presentation main content lecture, the teacher must re-formulate before the audience the first question of the lecture as the initial thesis, pose a problem, the justification of which will be subject to all the logic of his reasoning in the course of presenting the material.

Having finished the presentation of the first question, the teacher should draw a conclusion on the material presented, invite students to ask questions that arose during the lecture and briefly answer them. Then, in the same sequence, proceed to the presentation of subsequent questions.

When opening training questions it is necessary to emphasize and highlight the main provisions of the issue (in the text of the lecture, these provisions are highlighted bold italic ).

During the lesson:

When opening first question it is necessary to focus on the purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics.

lighting material second educational issue, it is necessary to focus on the classification of engineering ammunition.

When bringing third educational question, it is necessary to set the trainees to study the safety requirements when handling explosives.

In order to activate the trainees, it is advisable to conduct a lecture on the topic using an active method, using elements of visual illustration (using slide shows or visual aids) and the feedback principle, using for this purpose pre-prepared questions for trainees on the topic being studied.

During the presentation of the main content of the lecture, to clarify educational issues, it is recommended to use a SMART board with a prepared set of slides, which should present:

- new concepts disclosed in the course of presentation of the material;

- illustration material.

(A set of Microsoft Office PowerPoint presentation slides is attached to the text of the lecture).

In order to control the assimilation of the material presented, it is recommended to ask 1-2 questions during the lecture on each of the main issues of the lecture.

For the first main question:

- Give the definition - an engineering barrier.

– Classification of engineering barriers.

On the second main question:

What engineering ammunition do you know?

On the third main question:

– Precautions when using explosives.

The teacher should evaluate each answer and put marks in the journal. Thus, during the lecture, 20% of the personnel present should be evaluated.

AT imprisonment teacher:

- makes brief conclusions on the lecture as a whole;

- evaluates the participation of trainees in the course of the lesson and the degree of achievement of the set learning goals;

- gives the task to students for self-training, brings information about additional literature on the topic of the lesson;

- answers the questions of the trainees on the topic of the lecture.

The order of the lecture.

1. Accept the report of the duty officer on the readiness of the training platoon for the lesson.

In the introductory part, it is necessary to conduct a written survey on the previous lesson Topic 7: "Engineering support for combat operations of units and units."

Test questions:

1. The main tasks of engineering support for combat operations.

2. Types and purpose of shelters.

Before moving on to working out the lecture, the teacher gives the opportunity to the platoon duty officer to bring the trainees, within 3 minutes, information about events in the world.

2. Introductory part:

- announce the topic, the purpose of the lesson, the procedure for conducting it, the main educational issues and the time allotted for their presentation;

- put learning objectives On the lecture;

- to bring to the students the basic educational literature on the topic.

3. Main part:

The presentation of the main questions of the lecture is carried out according to the following scheme:

a) a statement of the first main issue;

b) setting control questions for students on the first question;

c) conclusion on the first question;

d) the answer to the questions that arose during the presentation.

e) transition to the next main topic of the lecture, etc.

At the same time, the teacher monitors the lesson, the quality of the work of students.

4. Final part.

- make a general conclusion on the topic of the lecture;

- note the positive in the work of students and indicate the shortcomings;

- recall the date of independent work on this topic;

- answer students' questions;

– to announce grades;

Give assignments for independent work.

SOUTH FEDERAL UNIVERSITY

MILITARY TRAINING CENTER

Department of General Military and Tactical Training

TEXT OF THE LECTURE

VUS-063300, 445000

INTRODUCTION:

Today's lecture is a continuation of the theoretical course on the study of the academic discipline " General tactics» theme number 7 « Engineering support for combat operations of subunits and units» Lecture №16 « Purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics».

Since ancient times, Russian people have created various kinds of barriers with great skill to fight the enemy. This is evidenced, for example, by data on the nature of the defensive system of Kievan Rus. This defensive system consisted of a number of fortified towns and defensive lines of considerable length, the so-called "serpent ramparts". These ramparts, being not only barriers, but also fortifications, were usually arranged along rivers or had a moat on the outside. The height of the shaft reached 6-8 m, and the width - 16-17 m.

This system played an important role in the fight against nomads in the X-XI centuries.

Creating defenses and skillfully, using the natural properties of the terrain, the Russian troops at the same time made good use of artificial field fortifications: wattle fences, stakes driven into the ground - and were able, if necessary, to "launch" the forest, i.e. arrange a notch.

Zaseks were one of the most common barriers used by the Russians at the beginning of the 12th century.

In the XVI century. the notch (or the so-called notch line) did not consist of just forest blockages, but was a complex system of fortifications in which forest blockages-notches alternated with natural obstacles on the ground (rivers, lakes, swamps, ravines, etc.) and artificial (palisades, gouges, earthen ramparts and ditches erected in treeless gaps, that is, where there was nothing to build a notch in the proper sense of the word).

The barriers were widely used in the organization of the Sevastopol defense of 1854-1855. Here, in the defense system in front of the main defensive line, various kinds of barriers were arranged (ditches, wolf pits, land mines, notches).

In the combat operations of the Soviet Army, the barriers created by our troops found the widest application during the Great Patriotic War.

Already at the very beginning of the war, the Soviet Supreme High Command demanded that the troops widely practice the construction of ditches, blockages and other barriers, making every possible use of local materials and means for this.

Recently, the designs of engineering barriers, as well as the methods of their use, have received their further more advanced development, which further ensures the defense capability of the Russian Federation.

Classes on this topic will be conducted so that you (the students) can properly apply your knowledge in practice. And they correctly built a scheme for improving their knowledge, skills and abilities in this academic discipline.

The purpose of the lecture.

1. To reveal the essence of the engineering support of modern combined arms combat.

2. To acquaint students with the purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics.

3. Form the student:

Military professional culture of an officer, commanding qualities, skills and abilities;

Theoretical and practical bases for solving command and staff issues;

4. to educate students in the ability to navigate in a rapidly changing tactical stop.

5. - to instill in students skills in searching, summarizing and presenting educational material.

In accordance with these goals, as well as taking into account the topics of classes in the academic discipline " General tactics The following questions are discussed in the lecture.

First study question: Purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics.

Second study question: Appointment, classification of engineering ammunition.

Third study question: Rules for handling explosives.

I turn to the presentation of the questions of the lecture.

MAIN PART:

Question #1:Purpose, classification of engineering barriers and their characteristics.

Engineering obstacles are arranged for the purpose of inflicting losses on the enemy in manpower and equipment, delaying his advance and restricting maneuver.

Engineering barriers are engineering facilities, structures and destructions installed or arranged on the ground with the aim of inflicting losses on the enemy, delaying his advance, hindering maneuver and thereby contributing to the destruction of manpower and equipment by fire of all types and counterattacks of our troops.

Barriers are used in all types of combat, but most widely - in defense. On the offensive and in meeting engagements, they are used to cover the initial areas and flanks of advancing units, to repel enemy counterattacks and to secure captured lines; in a defensive battle - to cover strongholds, defense areas and gaps between them, as well as artillery firing positions, command posts and other important objects. In modern combat, a number of engineering and tactical requirements are imposed on the barrier system.

It should be highly effective in terms of the degree of destruction of the enemy, reduce the pace of his offensive, and hinder his actions; be resistant to all types of enemy fire and insurmountable; be closely linked to the fire system and not hamper the maneuver of their troops; be arranged taking into account the conditions of the area, season and climatic conditions.

The barrier system is created during the preparation and during the battle. To increase the effectiveness of obstacles, a greater number of them are installed on the revealed directions of enemy actions during the battle.

In addition to engineering units, units of military branches are involved in the construction of barriers; for their device, a remote method of mining is used.

Classification of engineering barriers (option).

According to the nature of the impact on the enemy, engineering barriers are divided into:

1. Non-explosive - anti-tank ditches, scarps, counterscarps, snow ramparts, gouges, forest blockages, barriers, as well as wire, electrified and water barriers

2. Mine-explosive obstacles (MVZ), consisting of minefields, groups of mines, single mines, as well as land mines and explosive charges used to produce destruction. According to the method of actuation, they are divided into managed and unmanaged.

3. Combined - representing a combination of cost centers and non-explosive barriers.

Purpose of engineering barriers:

Ensure high combat effectiveness and surprise impact on the enemy;

Allow quick installation on the ground and the use of mechanization;

Possess resistance against the shock wave of a nuclear explosion and means of overcoming barriers;

Do not hamper the maneuver of your troops;

Difficult to find;

Easy to disguise.

Sub-question #1 : Non-explosive barriers.

According to their purpose, non-explosive obstacles are divided into anti-tank and anti-personnel.

Antitank includes:

Anti-tank ditches;

Escarps;

Contrascarps;

Nadolby (wooden, metal, reinforced concrete, stone);

Barriers in the forest of logs and on the banks of reservoirs of ice;

Barriers made of metal hedgehogs;

Barricades in settlements;

Snow banks;

Stripes of icing on mountain slopes;

Holes on rivers and reservoirs;

Flooding of the area;

Forest and stone blockages in settlements.

Anti-personnel barriers are portable and permanent.

portable wire barriers are used mainly for quickly closing passages, destroyed sections of barriers, and also in cases where the construction of other barriers is difficult. They are usually made in advance and delivered to the installation site ready-made (inconspicuous wire nets, quickly installed barbed and smooth wire garlands, spirals, slingshots and hedgehogs).

To permanent barriers include wire fences on high and low stakes, wire fences, wire in a throw, snares and loops, fences in the forest, braiding stumps with barbed wire, etc.

Non-explosive barriers can be used alone or in combination with mine-explosive barriers. In the latter case, the greatest efficiency of their application is achieved.

To ensure the passage of friendly troops in non-explosive barriers, passages must be left, and for their quick closing, the necessary amount of means (wire spirals, slingshots, hedgehogs, etc.) is provided.

Sub-question #2:Mine-explosive barriers.

(name and text of the educational sub-question of the lecture)

The main characteristics of the cost center are:

Efficiency;

Density;

Consumption min;

The probability of hitting the enemy.

The consumption of mines refers to the number of anti-tank mines (ATMs), anti-personnel mines (APMs) per linear or square kilometer of a minefield.

It's called a minefield a section of terrain on which mines are laid in a given order and for a specific purpose.

The main characteristics of a minefield (MP) are:

Density;

Depth;

Front length.

Depth and density depend on the purpose of the minefield, the tactical situation, the characteristics of the terrain, the conditions for fixing, viewing and firing, as well as the number of rows of mines, the distance between the rows and the distance between the mines in the rows.

The minimum distance of the rear row of the MP from the positions occupied by its troops should exclude the defeat of personnel by a shock wave or fragments formed during the explosion of mines. As a rule, it should be at least 50 m, and for fragmentation mines, at least the radius of continuous destruction. The density of PTMP is from 550-1000 mines per 1 km of the front. To ensure a good overview and shelling of minefields, they should be located no more than 100-150 m from the positions of our troops.

Minefields must provide:

The greatest combat effectiveness (the maximum probability of hitting enemy targets).

Resistance to the effects of explosions of nuclear and conventional munitions, demining charges and neighboring mines is ensured by the use of blast-resistant mines, the installation of mines in the ground, the dispersed arrangement of mines in rows and rows of mines in a minefield).

The difficulty of detecting and making passages by the enemy (provided by careful camouflage; a variety of mine layouts, the installation of false mines, surprise mines, etc.)

The ability to quickly detect and clear minefields by their troops is ensured by careful fixation of minefields)

MP according to their purpose are divided into:

Anti-tank;

anti-personnel;

mixed;

Antiamphibious.

MP of any type can be:

Managed;

Unmanaged;

PTMP from anti-track mines are installed as a rule:

In 3-4 rows;

Distance between rows from 10 to 40 m;

Mining step 4-5.5 m;

MP depth from 60-100 m and more;

MP density from 550 to 1000 min per 1 km.

PPMP from high-explosive mines are installed:

In 2 rows or 4 rows;

Distance between rows from 2 to 4 m;

The distance between mines in a row is at least 1 m;

MP density - 2000 min per kilometer.

PPMP from fragmentation mines is installed:

In 2 rows;

Distance between rows 10-20 meters;

The distance between mines in a row is 1-2 radii of continuous destruction;

The MP density is 100-300 minutes per kilometer.

Mixed MPs are installed from PT and PP min. PPM are installed with PTM in groups of up to 2-3 pieces or in independent rows. The depth of a mixed minefield should not exceed 120-150 m.

PPMP, covering access to PTMP from the enemy side, are installed from them at a distance of 10-15 m.

False minefields are set according to combat schemes.

Imitation of mines is carried out by digging cans, metal objects, arranging tubercles, raising turf, pulling pieces of wire over the ground surface.

Each minefield, depending on the location in the battle order, must have a certain degree of combat readiness.

The first degree of readiness - the barriers are in full readiness: mines are installed, safety devices are removed, there are no signs and fences of the MP; detonators are inserted into explosive charges.

The second degree of readiness - the barriers are prepared for a quick introduction to full readiness (MPs are marked, if necessary they have passages, EDP-r are not inserted into explosive charges)

Anti-tank minefields are installed:

minelayers;

Helicopters equipped with mine laying kits;

Means of remote mining;

With the use of vehicles equipped with trays;

Manually (command or mine cord).

Question #2:Purpose, classification of engineering ammunition.

(name and text of the educational question of the lecture)

Engineering support is organized and carried out in order to create by units and subunits the necessary conditions for timely and covert advancement, deployment, to increase the protection of personnel and military equipment from all modern weapons, as well as to inflict losses on the enemy and hinder his actions.

To achieve the goals set, the subunits must skillfully use standard engineering equipment and engineering ammunition.

The army of the Russian Federation is armed with various engineering ammunition.

Engineering mines are engineering ammunition intended for the construction of mine-explosive barriers in order to destroy manpower, military and transport equipment of the enemy, destroy roads and various structures. Engineering mines include anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious, anti-vehicle, object, signal and booby-traps.

Mina - is an explosive charge (BB), structurally combined with a means for blasting (drive device, fuse).

Mines by purpose are divided into:

Anti-tank (TM-62, TM-57, TMK-2),

Anti-personnel (PMN, POMZ-2M, OZM-72, MON-50, MQH-90, MON-100, MON-200),

Antiamphibious (PDM-1, PDM-2, YARM),

Special (magnetic, signal, under-ice, surprise mines, booby traps, objective, etc.)

The main elements of PTM, PPM, PDM are:

explosive charge;

Fuse;

Drive device.

Anti-tank mines (PTM) of the Russian Federation.

Anti-personnel mines (PPM) of the Russian army.

Mina signal tension action. It is intended for giving a sound and light signal. The mine is set manually.

Foreword.
The term "mine" in military terminology has existed for a very long time. Professor V.V. Yakovlev in his book "The History of Fortresses" indicates that initially this term was used as far back as 300-400 years BC to denote digging under the walls and towers of fortresses with the aim of collapsing, collapsing the latter into an empty space (horn), arranged at the end of the underground gallery.
Later, the term "mine" denoted a powder charge laid in a tunnel under a fortress wall or tower. So, with several mines during the assault on the fortress of Kazan in 1552, Russian troops managed to make gaps in the fortress wall, which predetermined the success of the assault.

So gradually this term was finally fixed to designate an explosive charge that was not thrown like a projectile, structurally combined with explosives and intended to inflict damage on enemy personnel, structures, and equipment.
With the advent of sea mines designed to disable enemy ships, and especially with the invention of a self-propelled mine (torpedo), a condition was added to the definition of the concept of "mine" - "delivered to the target not with the help of artillery guns."

In modern conditions, with the development of remote mining systems, when a mine or several mines are delivered to the installation site, including in the case of artillery shells, the wording "... delivered to the target not with the help of an artillery gun" is outdated.

The concept of "mine" (the term "engineering mine" has begun to be used more and more often) should be understood as

"... an explosive charge, structurally combined with blasting means, designed to inflict damage on enemy personnel, structures, equipment and driven by the victim himself (a person, tank, machine) on blasting means (target sensor), or driven by action with the help of a certain type of command (radio signal, electrical impulse, hourly retarder, etc.)".

However, this definition of the term "mine" is rather vague, incomplete and somewhat contradictory.

In the first third of the 20th century, the term "mine" acquired another meaning. So they began to call, in general, an ordinary artillery shell fired from a specific type of artillery gun - a mortar. The whole difference between a mortar and a conventional artillery gun such as a cannon or howitzer is that it is smooth-bore and throws its projectiles (mines) along a very steep trajectory. A mortar mine differs from a cannon or howitzer shell only in its appearance and the way the powder charge is placed. In all other respects, the action of a mortar mine on a target is similar to the action of other types of projectiles (we will not go into subtleties).
Where this meaning of the term "mine" came from is not known for certain. The author offers his version, but emphasizes that this is only a version and does not consider that this is the ultimate truth.
During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, during the defense of the Port Arthur fortress, the Russians began to use sea mines rolling down the gutters to repel Japanese attacks on mountain positions. Then they began to use shipborne torpedo tubes on land to fire warheads of self-propelled sea mines (torpedoes) from mountainous positions down the Japanese. Then Captain Gobyato created an explosive charge, housed in a tin cone-shaped case. These charges were mounted on a wooden rod, which in turn was inserted into the 47 mm barrel. guns. The shot was fired with a cannon blank powder charge at the maximum turn of the barrel up. This projectile, by analogy with the sea mines already used for the same purpose, received the name "pole mine".
During the First World th war, the experience of Gobyato was remembered and the modified mines of Gobyato were widely used. True, at that time these guns were called bombers, and their shells were called bombs.

During the revival of this type of weapon in the thirties, the terms "bomb" and "bomb thrower" were considered not very suitable, because. these two words are already firmly entrenched in aviation (air bomb) and the navy (depth charge, bomb bomb). They remembered the name mortar and mine. So this term was fixed in its second meaning.

From the author. However, in English, German and most other languages, what we call a mortar is called differently - "mortar" (Moertel, the mortar, mortier, malta, mortero, ...). In my opinion, the term "mortar" is more suitable for this type of artillery system

So, the term "mine" is used in our country today in two meanings - a mine, as an artillery shell, and a mine, as an engineering ammunition. Often, to distinguish what exactly is being discussed in this context, the clarifying terms "engineering mine", "mortar mine" are used. Below in the text we will talk about the classification of engineering mines only.

End of preface.

There is no single legally approved or standardized classification of engineering mines. In any case, in the Soviet (Russian) Army. There are several generally accepted types of classification, depending on the criterion (principle) by which groups of mines are divided in this type of classification:

1. By purpose.

2. According to the method of causing harm by this type of mine.

3. According to the degree of controllability of the mine.

4. According to the principle of the target sensor used.

5. By the shape, direction and size of the affected area.

6. According to the method of delivery to the place of application (installation method).

7.By the type of explosive used in the mine.

8. By neutralization and recoverability.

9. By the presence of self-destruction or self-neutralization systems.

10. By the time of arming.

The first type of classification is considered to be the main one.

By purpose, mines are divided into three main groups:

I. Anti-tank.
II. Anti-personnel.
III. Special:
1.Anti-vehicle:
a) anti-train (railway);
b) anti-car (road);
c) anti-aircraft (aerodrome);
2. Anti-landing;
3.Objective;
4.Signal;
5. Traps (surprises);
6.Special.

In some Guides, Instructions, mines are divided by purpose not into three main groups, but into eight (anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-vehicle, anti-amphibious, object, signal, traps, special). The author believes that the division into three groups is still more correct. The fact is that military personnel of all branches of the armed forces (motorized riflemen, tankers, artillerymen, paratroopers, etc.) must be able to use anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, and only sappers work with all other mines.

Basically, all types of mines can be produced in three main modifications - combat, training, training and simulation (practical).
In order not to confuse the reader, let's consider the main groups of mines in their other types of classification.

I. Anti-tank mines designed to destroy or remove from the ranks of tanks and other armored vehicles of the enemy. They can also hit unarmored vehicles, and in some cases people, although the latter is not included in the scope of the tasks of this type of mine, but is a side, random result.

According to the type of target sensor, anti-tank mines are:

- magnetic action (triggered by the impact on the target sensor of the magnetic field of the machine);
- thermal action (triggered when the target sensor is exposed to the heat generated by the tank);
- inclined action (triggered when the machine body deviates the antenna (rod) from the vertical position);
- seismic action (triggered by shaking, vibration of the soil when the machine is moving);
- infrared action (triggered when the body of the machine obscures a beam of light in the infrared range, illuminating the sensitive sensor-fuse).

Various combinations of target sensors are possible, and it is not necessary that the operation of the target sensor cause the mine to explode. The operation of one target sensor may be aimed at activating the second stage sensor. For example, in a mine of the TM-83 type, the seismic target sensor, when a tank enters the zone of its activity, only turns on a thermal sensor, which, when the tank acts on it, already causes a mine explosion.

Typically, the stepwise use of sensors is aimed at saving the resource of the main target sensor or power supply.

There are target sensors with multiplicity elements. Such a sensor initiates a mine only on the second or subsequent impact of the target on the mine. For example, the fuse MVD-62 of the Soviet mine TM-62, which works only when it is hit a second time. Moreover, no more than 1 second should elapse between pressing. Or the No.5 Mk 4 fuse of the Mk7 English mine, which only works when it is hit a second time.

According to the method of causing harm, anti-tank mines are divided into:
- anti-track (destroy the tracks of the caterpillar, the wheel and thereby deprive the tank of mobility);
- anti-bottom (pierce the bottom of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members);
- anti-aircraft (pierce the side of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members).
- anti-roof (hit the tank from above).

According to the degree of controllability, anti-tank mines are divided into unguided and guided. As a rule, in anti-tank mines, controllability consists in switching the target sensor from the control panel to a combat or safe position by the operator. Control can be carried out via a command radio link or via a wired line. The meaning of such controllability lies in the fact that when moving through the minefield of their tanks, they are not undermined, and enemy tanks, on the contrary. The controllability of anti-tank mines in the sense of detonating mines by the operator when the tank is in the affected area is not currently used.

According to the method of installation of anti-aircraft mines, they are divided into:

As a rule, most types of anti-tank mines installed by means of mechanization can be installed manually and vice versa. Remote mines are usually used only by this method of delivery and installation.

According to the recoverability and neutralization of anti-aircraft mines, they are divided into:

Both of these terms are quite similar to each other, but they do not mean the same thing.
Neutralization consists in the ability to transfer the mine fuse to one of two positions - safe or combat (it does not matter - by removing the fuse from the mine or using a switch, safety checks, etc.).
Retrievability is the ability to remove the mine from the installation site. If the mine is not recoverable, then when you try to remove it, it will explode.

According to the type of explosive used, all anti-tank mines are mines with chemical explosives. Anti-tank mines with nuclear (atomic) explosives are not available in any of the armies of the world.

Anti-tank mines may or may not have a self-destruction (self-neutralization) system. Self-destruction provides for, after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal), the production of a mine explosion, and the self-neutralization system provides for the transfer of the fuse to a safe position after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature , humidity, radio signal, wired signal).

According to the time of bringing them into combat position, anti-tank mines are divided into two main groups -

II. anti-personnel mines designed to destroy or disable enemy personnel. How as a rule, these mines are unable to cause significant damage to enemy tanks, armored vehicles and vehicles. The maximum is to damage the car wheel, trim, glass, radiator.

According to the type of target sensor, anti-personnel mines are:
-pressure action (mine is triggered when a person's leg sensor is pressed);

- breakaway action (the operation of a mine occurs when the integrity of a thin low-strength wire is violated when it is touched by a foot or body);
- seismic action (the operation of a mine occurs from the shaking of the soil when a person moves);
-thermal action (the operation of a mine occurs when the sensor is exposed to heat emanating from the human body);
- infrared action (the mine is triggered when the human body obscures a beam of light in the infrared range, illuminating the sensitive sensor-fuse);
- magnetic action (the mine reacts to the metal that a person has).

Various combinations of target sensors are possible, i.e. a mine may have not one, but two or three target sensors, each of which can trigger the mine independently of the others. Either the mine is triggered only when the sensors are triggered simultaneously, or the triggering of one sensor causes the activation of another. Options can be very different.

According to the method of causing harm to PP, mines are divided:

-fragmentation (inflict damage with fragments of their hull or ready-made lethal elements (balls, rollers, arrows). Moreover, depending on the shape of the affected area, such mines are divided into mines of circular destruction and mines of directed destruction;
-cumulative (inflict damage with a cumulative jet that pierces the foot of the foot).

According to the degree of controllability, PP mines, like anti-tank mines, are divided into guided and unguided. But if in anti-tank mines, controllability consists in switching by the operator from the target sensor distance to a combat or safe position, then some types of PP mines can simply be undermined by the operator from the control panel when enemy soldiers are in the mine's affected area. The meaning of such controllability lies in the fact that when moving through the minefield of their soldiers, they are not undermined, and the enemy soldiers, on the contrary.

According to the method of installing PP mines are divided into:
- installed manually (sappers by soldiers);
- installed by means of mechanization (tracked and trailed mine spreaders);
- installed by means of remote mining (missile, aviation, artillery systems).
As a rule, most types of PP mines installed by means of mechanization can be installed manually and vice versa. Remote mines are usually used only by this method of delivery and installation.

According to the recoverability and neutralization of PP mines are divided into:

- retrievable non-neutralized,
- non-removable non-decontaminable.

According to the type of explosive used, all PP mines are mines with a chemical explosive. PP mines with nuclear (atomic) explosives are not available in any of the armies of the world.

PP mines may or may not have a self-destruction (self-neutralization) system. Self-destruction provides for, after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal), the production of a mine explosion, and the self-neutralization system provides for the transfer of the fuse to a safe position after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature , humidity, radio signal, wired signal).

PP mines are divided into two main groups according to the time they are brought into combat position -
1. Brought into combat position immediately after the removal of the safety blocking devices.
2. They are brought into a combat position after the removal of safety interlocks after a certain period of time required to remove the miners from the mine to a safe distance (usually from 2 minutes to 72 hours).

III-1. Anti-vehicle mines designed to destroy or disable vehicles enemy moving along transport routes (roads, railways, parking lots, runways and platforms, taxiways of airfields). Anti-tank mines disable both unarmored and armored vehicles. These mines are not intended to destroy or injure personnel, although very often damage to vehicles leads to the simultaneous defeat of personnel.

According to the type of target sensor, anti-vehicle mines are:
-pressure action (triggered by pressing the target sensor with a caterpillar, a car wheel);
- magnetic action (triggered by the impact on the target sensor of the magnetic field of the machine);
- thermal action (triggered when the target sensor is exposed to the heat generated by the vehicle;
- inclined action (triggered when the machine body deviates the antenna (rod) from the vertical position);
- seismic action (triggered by shaking, vibration of the soil when the machine is moving);
- infrared action (triggered when the body of the machine obscures a beam of light in the infrared range, illuminating the sensitive sensor-fuse);
-acoustic action (triggered when the threshold value of the vehicle engine noise level is exceeded).

According to the method of causing harm to anti-tank missiles, mines are divided:
- high-explosive (inflict defeat by the force of an explosion - complete or partial destruction of the machine, the mover of the machine (wheels, tracks), etc.);
fragmentation (inflict damage on the vehicle with fragments of their hull or ready-made lethal elements (balls, rollers, arrows);
-cumulative (inflict damage with a cumulative jet or impact core).

According to the degree of controllability, anti-tank mines, like anti-tank mines, are divided into guided and unguided. But if in anti-tank mines, controllability consists in switching by the operator from the distance of the target sensor to a combat or safe position, then some types of anti-tank mines can simply be undermined by the operator from the control panel when the enemy vehicle is in the zone of destruction of the mine.

According to the method of installation of anti-tank mines, mines are divided into:
- installed manually (sappers by soldiers);
- installed by means of remote mining (missile, aviation, artillery systems).

According to the recoverability and neutralization of anti-tank mines, they are divided into:
- recoverable neutralized;
- extractable non-neutralized;
- non-removable non-decontaminable.

According to the type of explosive used, all anti-tank mines are mines with a chemical explosive. There are no anti-vehicle mines with nuclear (atomic) explosives in any of the armies of the world.

According to the time of bringing them into combat position, anti-tank mines are divided into two main groups -
1. Brought into combat position immediately after the removal of the safety blocking devices.
2. They are brought into a combat position after the removal of safety interlocks after a certain period of time required to remove the miners from the mine to a safe distance (usually from 2 minutes to 72 hours).

Features of the design of anti-vehicle mines allows the use of many of them as multipurpose mines.. As a rule, as objective mines, i.e. mines that explode after a certain specified period of time. Or exploded by the operator from the control panel via a command wire or radio link.

III-2. Anti-amphibious mines designed to disable or destroy enemy watercraft (boats, boats, pontoons, floating machines) when these watercraft are moving on the water. The destruction or injury of personnel for this type of mine is a side, secondary result of the operation of the mine.

According to the type of target sensor, PD mines are:
- magnetic action (the mine reacts to the metal of the vessel's hull);
-acoustic action (triggered when the threshold value of the noise level of the propeller of the craft is exceeded);
-contact action (the operation of a mine occurs when the hull of the craft comes into contact with the sensitive elements of the target sensor (antenna, rod, crumpled horn, etc.).

According to the method of causing harm to AP mines, as a rule, belong to one type:
- high-explosive (they inflict damage with a water hammer arising from the explosion of a mine charge - there is a violation of the tightness of the hull, a breakdown from the engine mount and equipment of the machine).

According to the degree of controllability, AP mines, like PT mines, are divided into guided and unguided. But if in anti-tank mines, controllability consists in switching by the operator from the target sensor distance to a combat or safe position, then some types of AP mines can simply be undermined by the operator from the control panel when the enemy vehicle is in the mine's strike zone. However, the author is not aware of any type of guided missile launcher currently in service anywhere.

According to the method of installation of PD mines are divided into:
- installed manually (sappers by soldiers);
- installed using mechanical means.
- installed by means of remote mining (missile, aviation, artillery systems).
As of 2013, the author is aware of one brand of anti-landing remotely placed mine. This is a Russian PDM-4.

By recoverability and neutralization, PD mines are divided into:
- recoverable neutralized;
- extractable non-neutralized;
- non-removable non-decontaminable.

According to the type of explosive used, all PD mines are mines with a chemical explosive. Antiamphibious mines with nuclear (atomic) explosives are not available in any of the armies of the world.

PD mines may or may not have a self-destruction (self-neutralization) system. Self-destruction provides for, after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal), the production of a mine explosion, and the self-neutralization system provides for the transfer of the fuse to a safe position after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature , humidity, radio signal, wired signal).

PD mines by the time they are brought into combat position are divided into two main groups -
1. Brought into combat position immediately after the removal of the safety blocking devices.
2. They are brought into a combat position after the removal of safety interlocks after a certain period of time required to remove the miners from the mine to a safe distance (usually from 2 minutes to 72 hours).

III-3. Object mines designed to destroy or remove from system, damage to various fixed or moving enemy objects (buildings, bridges, dams, locks, factory workshops, docks, slipways, road sections, moorings, oil and gas pipelines, water pumping stations, treatment facilities, large tanks with fuel and gas, fortifications , rolling stock, cars, armored vehicles, airfield facilities, power plant turbines, oil rigs, oil pumps, etc., etc.).

The destruction or incapacitation of personnel is usually an incidental, but not an accidental task of objective mines. And in a number of cases, the destruction or damage of an object is carried out with the aim of inflicting maximum losses on both personnel and combat and other equipment of the enemy. For example, the destruction of a dam as an object may have the goal of causing a wave of release and flooding of vast territories in order to destroy enemy personnel and disable his weapons.

Object mines usually do not have target sensors. The explosion is carried out after a predetermined period of time or by applying a control signal via wires or radio links.

According to the method of causing harm, OM are divided into:
- high-explosive (inflict defeat by the force of an explosion of a certain (often significant) amount of explosives);

According to the degree of controllability, OM are divided into:
-controlled (The first type - the explosion is carried out by a signal by wire or radio. The second type - a timer (time counter) is activated by a control signal, which, after a predetermined or entered by a control signal, will cause a mine explosion);
-unmanaged (explosion occurs after a specified period of time).

All OMs are installed only manually. By means of mechanization, only auxiliary work is carried out (extraction of pits, dressing of charging niches in the thickness of the object undermined, etc.). There are no remotely installed OMs yet, but it is possible to develop them and put them into service.

According to the recoverability and neutralization of OM, they are divided into:
- recoverable neutralized;
- extractable non-neutralized;
- non-removable non-decontaminable.

According to the type of explosive used, explosives are divided into:
- mines with chemical explosive;
- mines with a nuclear explosive (at present, such mines are probably in service with the US and British armies. There are no such mines in other countries.)

OM may or may not have a self-destruction (self-neutralization) system. Moreover, a self-neutralization system is more often used, which does not explode a mine, but transfers it to a safe state.

OM by the time of bringing them into combat position are not divided into groups, but are brought into combat position after the removal of safety blocking devices after a specified period of time required to remove the miners from the mine to a safe distance or to withdraw our troops from the given area (usually from 2 minutes up to 72 hours).

III-4. signal mines are not intended to destroy or damage anyone or anything. The task of the CM is to give out the presence of the enemy in a given place, to designate it, to draw attention to this place of its units.
In terms of size, characteristics, and installation methods, SMs are close to anti-personnel mines.

By type of target sensor, SM are:
-pressure action (mine is triggered by pressing the sensor of a person's leg, car wheel, tank caterpillar);
- tension action (the operation of the mine occurs when the wire sensor is pulled by the foot or body of a person);
- breakaway action (the operation of a mine occurs when the integrity of a thin low-strength wire is violated when it is touched by a foot or body, the car body);
- seismic action (the operation of a mine occurs from the shaking of the soil during the movement of a person or equipment);
-thermal action (the mine is triggered when the sensor is exposed to heat emanating from the human body or from the engine of the car);
- infrared action (the mine is triggered when the human body or the body of the car obscures a beam of light in the infrared range, illuminating the sensitive sensor-fuse);
- magnetic action (the mine reacts to the metal that a person has or the metal of the car body).
A combination of two, three or more target sensors is possible.

According to the method of causing harm (if I may say so), signal mines are divided:
- sound (when triggered, they emit loud sounds that can be heard at a considerable distance);
- light (when triggered, they give bright flashes of light, or a bright light burns for a certain time, or the mine throws up flares (stars);
- smoke (when triggered, a cloud of colored smoke is formed);
- combined (sound and light, sometimes smoke);
radio signal (transmit a detection signal to the control panel.

According to the installation method, signal mines are divided into:
- installed manually (sappers by soldiers);
- installed by means of mechanization (tracked and trailed mine spreaders);
- installed by means of remote mining (missile, aviation, artillery systems).

As a rule, most of the types of SM installed by means of mechanization can be installed manually and vice versa. Remote mines are usually used only by this method of delivery and installation.

According to recoverability and neutralization, SM are divided into:
- recoverable neutralized;
- non-removable non-decontaminable.
Signal mines do not have explosives; as a rule, they do not have self-destruction (self-neutralization) systems.
All signal mines, as a rule, are transferred to a combat position instantly after the removal of safety blocking devices

III-5. Booby traps (surprise mines) designed to be removed from formation or destruction of enemy personnel, equipment, weapons, objects; creating an atmosphere of nervousness, fear in the enemy ("minophobia"); deprivation of his desire to use local or abandoned (captured) household items, premises, means of communication, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition and other objects; suppression of enemy work on the neutralization of mines of other types, clearance of terrain or objects. As a rule, booby-traps are triggered as a result of an enemy's attempt to use household items, premises, communications equipment, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition and other objects; clear the area, objects, neutralize mines of other types.

MLs are divided into two main types:
- non-provoking (triggered when trying to use an object, neutralize a mine of a different type, etc.);
provocative (by its behavior, the ML induces the enemy to perform actions that will cause the mine to explode.

For example, when an enemy soldier enters a room, a provocative-type ML, designed in the form of a telephone, starts making phone calls, causing a person to want to pick up the phone, which in turn will cause a mine explosion). An example of a non-provocative type of ML is the MS-3 mine, which is installed under an anti-tank mine and is triggered when trying to remove anti-tank weapons from the installation site

The types of ML target sensors are diverse and are determined by the design features of each specific sample of a booby trap. Basically, they can be divided into the following types:
- responsive to switching on (triggered when you try to activate this sample of the device, device. For example, turn on the radio, start the car engine, cock the shutter or release the hook of the weapon, pick up the handset, light the gas stove);
- unloading action (triggered when trying to pick up an object, open a box, box, open a package, etc.);
- reacting to a change in the position of an object with a mine enclosed in it in space (tilt, move, rotate, lift, push, etc.);
- inertial action (triggered when the speed of the object with the mine enclosed in it changes, i.e. at the initial moment of movement, acceleration, braking);
-photo-actions (triggered when the light affects the light-sensitive element. For example, when the electric lighting in the room is turned on or off; when the box or package is opened; when the flash lamp of the camera is triggered, etc.);
- seismic action (triggered by vibration that occurs when the target approaches (man, machine, etc.));
-acoustic action (triggered when the sensor is exposed to sounds (human voice, engine noise, sounds of shots, etc.));
-thermal action (triggered when the sensor is exposed to heat (the heat of the human body, the motor of a car, a heating device, etc.));
- magnetic action (triggered when exposed to the magnetic fields of a car, metal that a person has, a mine detector, etc.));
- choric action (triggered when a certain value of the volume of a given room is reached. For example, a mine will explode only when at least a certain number of people gather in the room.);
- baric action (triggered when a certain ambient pressure is reached - air, water. For example, a mine will explode when the aircraft reaches a certain height.

Various combinations of target sensors are possible, i.e. a mine may have not one, but two to five target sensors, each of which can trigger the mine independently of the others. Either the mine is triggered only when the sensors are triggered simultaneously, or the triggering of one sensor causes the activation of another. Options can be very different.

According to the method of causing harm, MLs are divided into:
- high-explosive (inflict defeat by the force of the explosion - separation of limbs, destruction of the human body, etc.);
-fragmentation (inflict damage with fragments of their hull or ready-made lethal elements (balls, rollers, arrows). Moreover, depending on the shape of the affected area, such mines are divided into mines of circular destruction and mines of directed destruction;
-cumulative (inflict damage with a cumulative jet).

According to the installation method, booby traps are divided into:
- installed manually (sappers by soldiers);
- installed by means of remote mining (missile, aviation, artillery systems).
The main installation method is manual.

According to recoverability and neutralization, ML are divided into:
- recoverable neutralized,
- retrievable non-decontamination,
- non-removable non-decontaminable.

According to the type of explosive used, all MLs are mines with chemical explosives. Mines with nuclear (atomic) explosives are not available in any of the armies of the world.
Booby traps may or may not have a self-destruction (self-neutralization) system.

ML according to the time of bringing them into combat position are divided into two main groups -
1. Brought into combat position immediately after the removal of the safety blocking devices.
2. They are brought into combat position after the removal of safety blocking devices after a certain period of time required to remove the miners from the mine to a safe distance (usually from 2 minutes to 72 hours) or leave the area by our troops.

The use of booby-traps (min-surprises) is of a special, specific nature. These mines have been and are being used by all warring armies and armed groups, although to a rather limited extent. At the same time, as a rule, the use of ML by its own troops is carefully disguised (very often, including from its own military personnel of other branches of the military), and their use by the enemy is advertised and exaggerated in every possible way. This is due, firstly, to great difficulties in determining the moment when this mining can begin (otherwise, losses may be incurred by their own troops); secondly, it is usually impossible to determine subsequently the effectiveness of mining and the degree of harm to the enemy; thirdly, a significant part of such mines inflicts damage not on enemy soldiers, but on local residents, which in some cases is inexpedient; Fourthly, the majority of ML is adapted for use in populated areas, premises, facilities, and the bulk of the fighting is carried out in the field.

III-6. Special mines. This group includes mines that cannot be more or less clearly assigned to any of the the above. They are designed to harm the enemy in specific ways.

The following types of special mines are currently known:
- under ice (designed to destroy the ice cover of water bodies in order to exclude the crossing of enemy troops on ice);
-anti-mines (perform the protective task of conventional minefields, groups of mines, single mines. They work when the mine sensor is exposed to mine detector fields (magnetic, radio frequency, laser);
- anti-probe (perform the protective task of conventional minefields, groups of mines, single mines. They work when the mine probe sensor is touched);
- chemical land mines and mines (create a zone of contamination with chemical warfare agents when triggered);
- bacteriological (biological) (designed to infect the area with pathogens and create foci of epidemics of dangerous diseases of people and animals);
- fire bombs (when triggered, they inflict damage with burning oil products (gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil), incendiary mixtures (napalm, pyrogel), solid incendiary substances or mixtures (termite, phosphorus);
- stone-throwing land mines (when triggered, they inflict defeat with stones thrown out by the force of an explosion of a conventional explosive);
- alloyed (discharged into the river upstream and explode upon contact with a bridge, dam, sluice, watercraft).
- self-propelled mines.

In other respects, special mines are close to anti-tank or anti-personnel mines.
Chemical mines and landmines are not currently in service anywhere in connection with the Chemical Weapons Treaty, and their appearance in service in the future is highly doubtful. XM were in service with the armies of the United States and Great Britain, they were quite widely used by them in the Korean War of 1951-53, limitedly in the Vietnam War of 1966-75.

The existence of biological mines is theoretically possible, but the author does not know samples of such mines. Attempts to use bacteriological weapons (including mines) were made by the Japanese during the Second World War in the Pacific theater of operations, by the Americans in the Korean War of 1951-53, but no encouraging results were achieved. Also attempts were made by France during the war in Algeria in the fifties.

Fire, stone-throwing landmines are more often homemade. They are not in service anywhere as regular samples of mines.
The inclusion of anti-mine and anti-probe mines in the group of special mines is controversial. The author agrees with the opinion that these mines are more likely to be booby traps.

Self-propelled mines today are represented only by German self-propelled mines of the Goliath type from the Second World War.

There is also quite a lot of ammunition that is difficult to unequivocally attribute to mines. For example, a combined ZMG grenade-mine

Sources

1. Engineering ammunition. Guide to the material part and application. Book one. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1976
2. Engineering ammunition. Guide to the material part and application. Book two. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1976
3. Engineering ammunition. Guide to the material part and application. Book three. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1977
4. Engineering ammunition. Guide to the material part and application. Book four. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1977
5. B.V. Varenyshev et al. Textbook. Military engineering training. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1982
6. E.S. Kolibernov and others. Handbook of an officer of the engineering troops. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1989
7. E.S. Kolibernov et al. Engineering support for combat. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow. 1984
8. Guide to demolition work. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1969
9. Manual on military engineering for the Soviet Army. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1984
10.V.V. Yakovlev. Fortress history. AST. Moscow. Polygon. St. Petersburg. 2000
11.K. von Tippelskirch. Geschichte des zweiten Weltkrieges. Bonn.1954.
12. Guide to remote mining in an operation (combat). Military publishing house. Moscow. 1986
13. Collection of sets of engineering ammunition. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1988

Over the past decades, large-scale measures have been taken in the armies of developed countries to improve conventional weapons, among which an important place was given to engineering weapons. Engineer weapons include engineering ammunition that creates the best conditions for the effective use of all types of weapons and the protection of friendly troops from modern weapons, making it difficult for the enemy to inflict significant losses on him. The use of engineering munitions in recent local conflicts has shown their growing role in solving operational and tactical tasks.

Remote mining systems appeared in service with the engineering troops, which made it possible to lay mines during the battle and at a considerable distance from the front line - on enemy territory. Engineering munitions also make it possible to create conditions for the troops to quickly overcome enemy minefields. In this case, the most promising volume explosion ammunition is used.

What applies to engineering ammunition? These are, first of all, mines for various purposes - anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious and recently appeared anti-helicopter, as well as demining charges and a number of auxiliary charges. A modern mine is a multifunctional device. Some samples of new mines contain an element of artificial intelligence and have the ability to optimize the selection of a target from several targets and its attack.

Special mention should be made of anti-personnel mines, over the prohibition of which a campaign of states wishing to finally disarm Russia has begun. In connection with the sharp reduction in the size of the Armed Forces, the role of engineering ammunition is increasing. Considering that engineering munitions mainly play a defensive role, our political and military leadership should not disarm, but should contribute to the improvement and increase in the effectiveness of this type of weapon, which is quite reliable and has high performance-cost ratios. The general direction and purpose of the development of engineering weapons is mainly determined by the ability to effectively hit modern and future targets in the interests of the ground forces.

Consider the features and technical characteristics of engineering ammunition.

Until recently, in developed countries, a large number of anti-tank mines of different designs were produced, from the whole variety of existing designs of which three main types can be distinguished: anti-track, anti-bottom and anti-airborne.

Until recently, anti-track mines were considered the main ones, but they are gradually losing their importance. The main disadvantage of these mines is their limited combat capability: usually only individual units of the tank chassis are disabled. Nevertheless, anti-track mines are still in fairly large quantities in the troops of various countries.

Anti-track mines are designed to take out tracked and wheeled combat and transport vehicles by destroying or damaging, mainly, their undercarriage (tracks, wheels). The installation of these mines is carried out using minelayers or manually (both in the ground and on its surface). Domestic anti-track mines have a cylindrical shape, with the exception of the TM-62D mine, which has the shape of a parallelepiped. The main characteristics of domestic anti-track mines are presented in Table 1, and foreign - in Table 2. Figure I, 2 shows the design schemes of mines TM-46 and TM-62T. Anti-track mines are equipped with mechanical pressure fuses, which are screwed into the central socket of the hull. The pressure on the fuse from the tank caterpillar is transmitted through the pressure cover. Sockets for additional fuses are provided in the side and bottom parts of the mine body. They are used when it is necessary to place mines in an unrecoverable position. Basically, the bodies and fuses of modern mines are made of plastic, so they cannot be detected using induction mine detectors. Due to the tightness of mine hulls, most of them can be used to mine water barriers.

Fig.1. Anti-track mine TM-46:

a) appearance; b) - a section of a mine; 1 - body; 2 - diaphragm; 3 - cover; 4 - MVM fuse; 5 - explosive charge; 6 - intermediate detonator; 7 - cap; 8 - handle.

Table 1 The main characteristics of anti-track mines

Mine	Weight, kg	BB type	Dimensions dia. x height, mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge
TM-46	8,5	5,7	T	300x109	steel
TM-56	107	7.0	T	316x109	steel
TM-57	8,7	5,9	T	316x108	steel
	8,79	6,62	ms
	. .8,8 ,	7,0	TGA-16
TM-62M	9.0	7.18	T	320x90	steel
	9,6	7.8	MC
	9.62	7,78	TGA-16
	8,72	6,68	A-50
TM-62D	11.7-	8.7-		340x340x110	wood
	-13,6	-10,4
	12.4	8.8	TGA-16
TM-62P	11.0	8,0	T	340 x 80	plastic
	11.5	8,3	MC
	11.5	8,3	TGA-16
	10.6	7.4	A-50
	10,0	6.8	A-80
	11.0	7,8	A-XI-2
TM-62P2	8.6	7.0	T	320x90	plastic
	9,1	7,0	MS
	9,1	7,0	TGA-16
	8.3	6,1	A-50
TM-62PZ	7,2	6,3	T	320x90	plastic
	7,8	6,8	MS
	7,8	6.8	TGA-16
	7,8	6.8	TM
TM-62T	8,5	7,0	T	320 x 90	the cloth
	9,0	7.5	TGA-16

table 2 Foreign anti-track mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight.kg	Dimensions, mm	Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter (length x width)	height
M15	USA	14,3	10,3	337	125	steel
M19	USA	1?,6	9,53	332x332	94	plastic
M56	USA	3,4	1.7	250x120	100	aluminum
AT-1	Germany	2,0	1,3	55	330	steel
L9A1	England	11.0	8,4	1200x100	80	plastic
SB-61	Italy	3,2	2,0	232	90	plastic

Table 3 Foreign anti-bottom mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight, kg	Dimensions, mm	Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter (length x width)	height
M70 M73	USA	2.2	0.7	127	76	steel
AT-2	Germany	2,0	0.7	100	130	steel
PRO	France	6.0	2.0	280x165	105	plastic
SB-MV/T FFV028	Italy	5,0	2,6	235	100	plastic
SD	Sweden	5,0	3.5	250	110	steel

Fig.2. Anti-track mineTM-62T:

1-case; 2- explosive charge; 3 - ignition glass; 4 - fuse MVP-62; 5 - fuse drummer; 6 - a checker of the ignition cup; 7 - transfer charge fuse; 8 - primer-detonator fuse.

From the point of view of equipment, domestic mines are “omnivorous”. They are equipped with TNT (T), mixtures of A-IX2, MS, TM; alloys TGA-16, TG-40; ammotols A-50, A-80, etc.

The data in Table 1 indicate that most of the presented anti-track mines have significant dimensions and a large mass of explosives.

The most interesting is the English anti-track mine L9AI, which has an elongated shape (its dimensions are 1200x100x80 mm). For the device of an anti-tank minefield, such mines require two times less than mines with a cylindrical body. Elongated mines are more convenient to store and transport. The body of the L9A1 mine is plastic. The pressure cover is located in the upper part of the body and occupies two thirds of its length. To install this mine in the ground or on its surface, a trailed mine layer is used.

In a number of countries, for remote mining systems, several samples of anti-track mines have been developed, designed to destroy the undercarriage of a tank during a contact explosion. These mines are relatively small in size and weight.

Anti-track mine M56 (USA) is a component of the helicopter mining system. The body of the mine has the shape of a half-cylinder and is equipped with four drop-down stabilizers, which reduce the speed of the fall of the mine (mining is carried out from a height of about 30 m). A pressure cover is located on the flat surface of the housing. The electromechanical fuse is located in the end part of the housing and has two stages of protection. The first is removed when the mine exits the cluster installation, the second - one or two minutes after falling to the ground. In the combat position, the mine can be turned with a pressure cover both up and down. The fuse is equipped with a self-destruct element, which causes the mine to explode after a certain time. Mina M56 is carried out in three versions. The mines of the first (main) version are equipped with a single-stroke fuse, the second - with a two-stroke fuse, triggered by repeated impact on the pressure cover. The fuse of the mine of the third option is activated by shaking the body of the mine or changing its position. The mines of the last two options are intended to prevent the enemy from manually removing them from the passages or making passes in the minefield using roller trawls.

West German mines AT-1 are equipped with 110-mm cluster munitions of the Lars MLRS. Each munition contains 8 mines, equipped with a pressure fuse, elements of non-decontamination and self-destruction.

Italy has developed several samples of anti-track mines designed for installation by helicopter systems, including the SB-81 mine, which has a plastic case and an electromechanical fuse with a pressure sensor. In addition to helicopters, this mine can be installed by a minelayer.

Anti-bottom mines, in comparison with anti-track mines, have a significantly higher destructive effect. Exploding under the bottom of the tank and punching it, they hit the crew and disable the armament and equipment of the vehicle. The explosion of such a mine under the caterpillar of the tank disables it. Anti-bottom mines are equipped with a shaped charge or a charge based on the principle of an impact core. Most anti-bottom mines have proximity fuses with magnetic sensors that detect changes in the magnetic field as the tank passes over the mine. Such a fuse is installed at the Swedish anti-bottom mine FFV028. When the tank passes over the mine, electrical voltage is applied to the electric detonator, which initiates the explosion of the overburden, and then (with some time delay) the main charge (the armor penetration of the mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm). When an overburden charge is triggered, the upper part of the fuse, the cover of the mine body and the camouflage layer of soil are dropped, thereby creating favorable conditions for the formation of an impact core. A typical layout of the anti-bottom mine SB-MV / T is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. The layout of the anti-tank mine SB-MV / T: 1 - magnetic sensor; 2 - power supply; 3 - software element of the mine neutralization device; 4-seismic sensor; 5 - a device for delaying the transfer of the fuse to the firing position; 6 - the lever for transferring the fuse to the firing position; 7 - fuse inclusion element; 8 - main charge; 9 - transitional charge; 10 - detonator; 11 - primer-igniter; 12 - overburden charge.

The French anti-bottom mine HPD is equipped with a fuse with magnetic and seismic sensors. The armor penetration of a mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm. The mine explodes when both sensors are triggered simultaneously. To drop the hull cover and the camouflage layer of soil in the HPD mine, an additional (overburden) charge was used. The mining of these mines is carried out with the help of a minelayer.

Much attention is paid to the development of anti-bottom mines for remote mining systems. In the United States, for example, spreadable anti-bottom mines have been created using artillery and aircraft mining systems (M70, M73 and BLU-91 / B mines). These mines are small in size and equipped with proximity fuses with magnetic sensors and anti-removal elements. M70 and M73 mines are components of the RAAMS artillery anti-tank mining system (for 155-mm howitzers). The cluster projectiles of this system contain nine M70 or M73 mines, which have shaped charges directed in opposite directions, which does not require special orientation on the ground surface. By design, these mines are the same and differ only in the period of self-destruction.

Table 4 The effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines

Anti-track mine effectiveness	The effectiveness of the anti-bottom mine
The tank is devoid of mobility;	The tank is devoid of mobility and firepower;
- damaged caterpillar;	- punched bottom;
- damaged roller and suspension,	- the units inside the tank were significantly damaged as a result of a mine explosion and ammunition detonation,
- the crew is shell-shocked, but partially combat-ready.	- the crew is completely disabled;
- firepower saved;	- repair (if at all possible) in the factory.
- repair in the field is possible

The West German anti-bottom mine AT-2 is designed to build anti-tank barriers using ground, missile and aircraft mining systems. The mine has a warhead based on the principle of an impact core.

The comparative effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines is presented in Fig. 4 and in Table 4.

Anti-aircraft mines are designed to destroy tanks and armored vehicles at a distance of several tens of meters. These mines are effective when used to block roads and make barriers in forests and settlements. The striking element of anti-aircraft mines is an impact core or a cumulative anti-tank grenade fired from a guide tube.

The French and British armies are armed with the MAN F1 mine (Fig. 5), which has a warhead (armor penetration of 70 mm from a distance of 40 m) on the principle of an impact core. The body of the mine can be rotated in a vertical plane relative to the support, consisting of two racks and a support ring. The fuse is activated by a 40-meter contact wire.

The American M24 anti-aircraft mine consists of an 88.9 mm grenade (from the M29 anti-tank rifle), a guide pipe, a fuse with a contact sensor made in the form of a tape, a power source and connecting wires. The guide pipe acts as a container in which the mine is stored and transported. Place the unit at a distance of about 30 m from the road or passage. When a tank caterpillar hits the contact strip, the fuse circuit closes and the anti-tank grenade is fired. An improved model of this mine, the M66, has been developed. It differs from the M24 in that. that infrared and seismic sensors are used instead of a contact sensor. The mines are transferred to the combat position after the seismic sensor is triggered. It also includes an infrared target sensor. The grenade is fired as soon as the armored target crosses the emitter-receiver line.

Anti-tank minefields (ATMP) are installed primarily in tank-hazardous directions in front of the front, on the flanks and junctions of subunits, as well as in depth to cover artillery firing positions, command and observation posts and other objects. An anti-tank minefield usually has dimensions along the front of 200 ... 300 m or more, in depth - 60 ... 120 m or more. Mines are installed in three to four rows with a distance between rows of 20 ... 40 m and between mines in a row - 4 ... 6 m for anti-tracked and 9 ... 12 m for anti-bottom mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of the minefield is 550 ... 750 anti-track or 300 ... 400 anti-bottom mines. On especially important areas, PTMG1 can be installed with an increased consumption of mines: up to 1000 or more anti-track mines or 500 or more anti-bottom mines. Such minefields are commonly referred to as high efficiency minefields.

Fig.5. The layout of the anti-aircraft mine MAN F1:

1-charge; 2 - copper lining; 3 - support ring; 4 - detonator cap; 5 - fuse; 6 - power supply; 7 - transitional charge; 8 - detonator.

Fig.4. Comparative effectiveness of the destructive action of anti-line and anti-caterpillar mines:

1 - zone of action of the anti-bottom mine;

2 - zone of action of an anti-track mine.

Table 5 Foreign anti-aircraft mines

Mine	Country of manufacture	Weight, kg		Dimensions, mm		Housing material
		general	explosive charge	diameter	height
M24, M66	USA	10,8	0,9	89	609	steel
MAH F1	France	12,0	6,5	185	270	steel

Anti-personnel mines vary in design and are mainly of the high-explosive or fragmentation type. The main characteristics of some samples of domestic anti-personnel mines are presented in Table 6. The name MON-50 means that this mine has a fragmentation-directed action. These mines are in service with various countries. Usually, the plastic cases of such mines are made in the form of a curved prism, in which a plastic explosive charge with a large number of fragments is placed. For ease of installation on the ground, there are hinged legs at the bottom of the mine body. The most common way to set the mine in action is to use a regular trip fuse, which is triggered when the target touches the tensioned wire. When a mine explodes, a flat beam of fragments is formed. Directional fragmentation mines are designed to destroy personnel moving in deployed combat formations.

The PMN index means that this mine is an anti-personnel push action. The device of the PMN anti-personnel mine is shown in Fig.6.

Currently, bouncing fragmentation anti-personnel mines are widely used. The operation of such a mine occurs when a walking person touches a tension wire or when pressure is applied to special conductors connected by an explosive chain. As a result of this, an expelling powder charge is ignited, with the help of which a mine is thrown to the height of the chest of a walking person, where an explosion occurs and people in this zone are hit by fragments.

Anti-personnel minefields (APMP) are placed in front of the forward edge and, as a rule, in front of anti-tank minefields in order to cover them. They can be from high-explosive mines, fragmentation mines, as well as a combination of high-explosive and fragmentation mines. PPMP, depending on their purpose, is installed with a length along the front from 30 to 300 m or more, in depth - 10 ... 50 m or more. The number of rows in a minefield is usually two to four, the distance between rows is 5 m or more, between mines in a row is not less than 1 m for high-explosive mines and one or two continuous destruction radii for fragmentation mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of the minefield is accepted: high-explosive - 2000 ... 3000 pieces; fragmentation - 100 ... 300 pcs. In areas where infantry advances in large masses, PPMPs of increased efficiency can be installed - with double or triple consumption of mines.

Table 6 Main characteristics of anti-personnel mines

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	height
MON-50	2,0	0.7	PVV-5A	225x153	54	plastic
MOH-90	12,4	6.5	PVV-5A	343x202	153	plastic
MON-100	7,5	2.0	T	236	83	steel
	7.0	1,5	A-50
MON-200	30,0	12.0	T	434	131	steel
	28,7	10,7	A-50
PMN	0.58	0,21	T	100	56	plastic
LMN-2	0.95	0.4	TG-40	122	54	plastic

Fig.6. Anti-personnel mine PMN:

a) - general view; b) - cut; 1 - body; 2 - shield; 3 - cap; 4 - wire or tape; 5 - stock; 6 - spring; 7 - split ring; 8 - drummer; 9 - mainspring; 10 - thrust sleeve; 11 - safety check; 12 – metal element; 13 - explosive charge; 14 - fuse MD-9; 15 - plug; 16 - cap; 17 - gasket; 18 - metal frame; 19 - string.

Table 7 The main characteristics of anti-amphibious mines

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	height
PDM-1M	18,0	10,0	T	380	143	steel
PDM-2	21,0	15.0	T	380	342	steel
PDM-3Ya	34,0	15.0	T	650		steel
YRM	12,1	3.0	T	275	34V	steel

Table 8 The main characteristics of special mines

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions, mm		Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	height
ZhDM-6	24.2	14,0	1	250	230	steel
ADM-7	24,2	14,0	T	215	265	steel
ADM-8	24,2	14,0	T	220	252	steel
MPM	0.74	0,3	TG-50	148x72	46	plastic
SPM	2,35	0,93	MS	248x114	72	steel
BPM	7,14	2,6	T	292	110	steel
BPM	7,44	2.9	TGA-16	292	110	steel

Fig.7. Mina PDM-2 on a low stand:

1 - rod; 2 - check; 3 - fuse; 4 - housing with an explosive charge; 5 – lock nut; 6 - bopt; 7 - flange; 8 - upper beam; 9 - lower beam; 10 - steel sheet; 11 - washer; 12 - latch; 13 - handle; 14 - roller.

Fig.8. Mine body PDM-2:

1 - body; 2 - central neck; 3-glass; 4 - intermediate detonator; 5 - side neck; 6 - nipple; 7 - charge; 8 - gaskets; 9 - plugs.

Fig.9. Charge S3-3L:

a) - general view; b) - cut; 1 - body; 2 - explosive charge; 3 - intermediate detonators; 4 - ignition socket for the detonator cap; 5 - socket for a special fuse; 6 - plugs; 7 - handle; 8 - rings for binding the charge.

1 - body; 2 - cumulative lining; 3 - explosive charge; 4 - intermediate detonator; 5 - seal nest; 6 - handle; 7 - retractable legs; 8 - cork.

Fig.10. Charge S3-6M:

1 - capron shell; 2 – polyethylene sheath; 3 – plastic explosive charge; 4 - intermediate detonators; 5 - rubber couplings; 6 - metal clips; 7 - socket for a detonator cap; 8 - socket for a special fuse; 9 - plugs; 10 - union nut; 11 - rings for binding the charge.

At present, the engineering troops of developed countries have nuclear mines with a TNT equivalent from 2 to 1000 tons.

Assessing the effectiveness of nuclear mines, foreign experts believe that they can be used as a multi-purpose weapon against advancing enemy forces. It is believed that the explosion of nuclear mines located in special concrete or earth wells creates zones of destruction and contamination, which are capable of dismembering the battle formations of enemy troops, directing its advance to areas advantageous for inflicting conventional and nuclear strikes on it. An important direction in the use of nuclear mines is considered to be the strengthening of mine-explosive barriers in tank-hazardous areas. The protective effect of nuclear mines is due to the creation, as a result of explosions, of craters, blockages, zones of destruction and contamination, which are a serious obstacle to the movement of troops.

The crater from a nuclear mine explosion is a formidable obstacle, since its large size, steep slopes and rapid filling with water greatly impede the movement of not only vehicles, but also tanks.

The size of the craters will depend on the TNT equivalent of nuclear mines, the depth of their laying and the methods of detonation. When a mine explodes on the surface of the earth with a power of 1.2 kt, a funnel is formed with a diameter of 27 m and a depth of 6.4 m; the same charge, detonated at a depth of 5 m, forms a funnel with a diameter of 79 m and a depth of up to 16 m, and at a depth of 20 m - with a diameter of 89 m and a depth of 27.5 m. The protective effect of a nuclear mine explosion is enhanced by radioactive fallout over a large area.

Antiamphibious mines are used to mine water lines in areas of possible landings to destroy amphibious amphibious vehicles and combat vehicles. The main characteristics of these mines are presented in Table 7, the distinguishing feature of which is their use in a submerged position.

The device of anti-amphibious mines and their main components are shown on the example of the PDM-2 mine in Fig. 7, 8.

For mining railway tracks (ZhDM-6), highways (ADM-7, ADM-8) and other specific tasks, special mines are used (Table 8). Mines MPM, SPM, BIM have the property of "sticking" (with the help of a magnet or adhesive material) and have a quasi-cumulative lining for the formation of significant holes in obstacles.

To make passages in anti-tank and anti-mine fields, elongated demining charges are used (Table 9). They are advanced manually or mechanized, or launched into a minefield with the help of jet engines. Therefore, explosive charges are placed in metal pipes or in flexible fabric or plastic sleeves (hoses). Charges UZ-1, UZ-2, UZ-Z and UZ-ZR are metal pipes in which pressed pieces of TNT are placed. The UZ-67 charge consists of a sleeve (material - nylon-based fabric), in which TNT blocks are strung on a flexible hose with explosives of the A-IX-1 type. Charges UZP-72 and UZP-77 are based on a flexible rope with wound layers of plastic charge from PVV-7, placed in a sleeve made of special fabric.

Table 9 Main characteristics of elongated demining charges

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions	mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	height
UZ-1	5,3	2,88	T	53	1200	steel
UZ-2	10,24	5,33	T	53	2000	steel
UZ-Z	43	8 kg / p. m.	T	53	1950	steel
UZ-ZR	43		T	53	1950	steel
UZ-67	55.5	41,6	T+A-XI -1	80	10 500	steel
UZP-72	47,7	41.2	PVV-7	80	10 500	steel
UZL-77	47,7	41.2	PVV-7	80	10 500	steel

Note: p.m. - linear meter.

Table 10 Main characteristics of concentrated charges

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions	mm	Housing material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	height
SZ-1	1,4	1,0	T	65x116	126	steel
NW-W	3.7	3.0	T	65x171	337	steel
NW-FOR	3,/	2,8	T	98x142	200	steel
SZ-6	7,3	5.9	T	98x142	395	steel
sz-vm	6,9	6.0	PVV-5A	82	1200	the cloth
SZ-1P	1,5	L.b	PVV-5A	45	600	the cloth
SZ-4P	4,2	4,2	PVV-5A	45	2000	the cloth

Table 11 Main characteristics of shaped charges

Mine	Weight, kg		BB type	Dimensions mm		Material
	general	explosive charge		(length x x width)	hull height
KZ-1	14,47	9.0	TG-40	350	570	steel
KZ-2	14,8	9,0	TG-40	350	650	steel
KZ-4	63,0	49,0	TG-50	410	440	steppe
KZ-5	12.5	8,5	TG-40	215	280	steel
KZ-6	3,0	1,8	TG-40	112	292	steel
KZ-7	6,5	4,2	TG-40	162	272	steel
KZU	18,0	12,0	TG-50	195x225	500	steel
KPC	1,0	0,4	TG-50	52x160	200	steel
	0,56	0,185	TG-40	76x70	1507	steel
KZU-1	0,0	032	TG-40	85x105	160	steel

Table 12 Characteristics of TNT checkers
Table 13 Characteristics of checkers made of plastic explosives
Table 14 Characteristics of detonating cords

Fig.12. Cumulative charge KZU-2:

a) - longitudinal section; b) - cross section; 1 - foam insert; 2 - explosive charge (TG-40); 3 - body; 4 - plug; 5 - gasket; 6 - bushing; 7 - gasket; 8- glass; 9 - checker BB A-XI-1; 10 - cap; 11 - ring; 12 - latch; 13 - strap; 14 - bracket; 15 - leaf spring; 16 - magnet; 17 - cumulative lining; 18 - clamp.

Fig.13. KZU-2 charge installation diagrams (the arrow indicates the installation location of the electric detonator or fuse)

To carry out demolition work in emergency situations, for example, when it is necessary to make a homemade mine in the shortest possible time, concentrated charges are used (Table 10). Charges SZ-ZA (Fig. 9), SZ-6, SZ-6M (Fig. 10) can be used for blasting under water. It should be noted that SZ-ZA, SZ-6 and SZ-6M charges can be successfully used in underwater blasting.

Shaped charges (Table 11) are used to punch or cut through thick metal slabs during the destruction of armored and reinforced concrete defensive structures.

The design and elements of the shaped charges KZ-2, KZU-2 are shown in Fig. 11-13.

In engineering troops, for demolition work, TNT and plastic explosives are used in the form of checkers, the main characteristics of which are presented in Table. 12.13.

Detonating cords are widely used to transfer an explosive impulse during explosions in engineering troops (Table 14).

Of all the munitions in service with the Russian army, engineering munitions are remarkable in that they are dual-use munitions, i.e. can be used in blasting in the national economy to solve specific problems in the mining, metallurgical and oil industries. For this reason, funding is not required for their disposal. Engineering munitions that have reached the end of their service life should be transferred to civilian organizations conducting explosive work (for example, in the mining industry). By now, millions of tons of so-called scrubs have accumulated at metallurgical plants, which are large-sized multi-ton objects with a significant iron content. Due to the crisis state of our metallurgical industry, these scrubs can serve as a good source of raw materials. But for obvious reasons, such scrubs cannot be transported and loaded into blast furnaces; they need to be split. In this case, engineering ammunition is an indispensable tool for solving this problem. At the same time, the technology for cutting such a scrub is as follows. By detonating a shaped charge (KZ-1, KZ-2, KZ-4), a crater (significant in depth and diameter) is created in the scrub, which is filled with explosives and blasted. As a result of these activities, the scrub is destroyed into parts that can be transported and loaded into a blast furnace. This is just one of thousands of examples of the use of engineering ammunition in the national economy.

The creation of a new generation of highly effective dual-use engineering ammunition will, on the one hand, ensure the combat operations of the Ground Forces and, on the other hand, their use in the national economy (after the expiration of their service life) will significantly save the financial resources of our state.

Marking of engineering ammunition of the Soviet army. Ammunition Types of aviation ammunition

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