Foreign scientist in Russell. Biographies, stories, facts, photographs. Early life and rise to fame. Socialism

Russell did not recognize any authority. At the same time, he, like Voltaire, was a very passionate person. In some newspaper photographs taken during his violent speeches, he looked like an avenging angel. Throughout his life, Russell sharply criticized traditional views in all areas of human life - love, education, religion, women's rights, politics and the nuclear arms race.

Russell was born into one of the oldest and most famous families in England. His Presbyterian grandmother, who was distinguished by her strictness, was involved in his upbringing. Bertrand grew up as a shy and sensitive child and suffered immensely from the fact that he committed, as he himself believed, many “sins.”

At the age of 18, Russell became interested in studying mathematics, because he was very interested in the question: “is it possible to know anything in this world.” This hobby became his life's work. Bertrand soon gained fame in scientific circles.

Russell actively opposed any wars. In 1918, he even ended up behind bars because he “posed a threat to the country’s national security.” However, during the Second World War, Bertrand, having sacrificed his principles, supported the actions of the anti-fascist coalition.

In 1950, Russell received the Nobel Prize for Literature. By this time he had already become a widely known literary and public figure. However, the authorities could not forgive him for his harsh statements about the Vietnam War, the assassination of John Kennedy, and nuclear weapons tests. In his old age, Russell took an active part in protest marches and sit-ins, after which he again found himself behind bars. “I really don’t want to leave this world,” the scientist said sadly shortly before his death.

Russell always believed that he would never know a woman until he slept with her. In his work "Marriage and Morality" he defended trial and free marriage unions.

At the age of twenty, he fell madly in love with 15-year-old Alice Pearsall Smith. His chosen one lived in Philadelphia and came from a famous Quaker family. Russell kissed her for the first time only four months after he asked her to marry him. Having learned about this, Bertrand's grandmother angrily called the girl a “child thief” and a “cunning, insidious woman.” The young people, meanwhile, were animatedly discussing how many times a week they would indulge in love when they became husband and wife. However, brought up in strict traditions, the bride and groom resisted the temptation and did not lose their virginity until their wedding in 1894.

After the first experiences in the marital bed, Alice declared that sex was given to women by God as a punishment, and Russell, who held a different opinion, did not even “consider it necessary” to argue on this issue. However, both believed in free love, but neither of them was in a hurry to experience it. For the first five years of their married life, they did not know what cheating was.

In 1901, Russell fell in love with Evelina Whitehead, the talented wife of his co-author A.N. Whitehead. Their relationship remained purely platonic, but this woman made Bertrand look at the world with different eyes. During a bicycle ride, he suddenly clearly realized that he did not love Alice, which he hastened to inform his wife about. “I did not want to be cruel to her, but in those days I believed that in intimate life one should always tell the truth,” he wrote.

For five years, Russell and Alice carefully maintained the appearance of a happy family relationship, but occupied separate bedrooms. “About twice a year I tried to restore our sexual relationship in order to alleviate her suffering, but I was no longer attracted to her, and these attempts were unsuccessful,” Bertrand admitted with regret.

In 1910, he met Lady Ottoline Morrell, the wife of Liberal MP Philip Morrell. This is what this woman looked like in the eyes of a man in love with her: “She was very tall, with a long thin face, a little like a horse’s, and she had magnificent hair.” They carefully hid their romantic relationship: Ottoline did not dare to divorce her husband, since it could damage his political career. Philip, who learned about his wife’s infidelity, did not create a scandal, appreciating their prudence. Russell soon left Alice. The former lovers met only in 1930, but already as “good friends.” Bertrand later admitted: “Ottoline destroyed the Puritan in me.”

So Russell ceased to be a Puritan. After an affair with Lady Morrell, he embarked on love adventures. His intimate life was a series of serious romances, light flirting and meaningless relationships. One can only wonder how he managed to avoid noisy scandals and revelations. In his letters to Ottoline and other mistresses, Bertrand described in detail his relationships with other women. But, surprisingly, his ladies were calm about his adventures.

In 1914, Russell went to lecture in American cities. In Chicago, Helen Dudley, the daughter of a surgeon, attracted his attention. She accepted his invitation to stay in England. In a letter to Ottoline, he honestly admitted everything, adding at the end: “Darling, do not think that this means that I have begun to love you less.”

When Helen arrived in England, Russell's passion had already subsided. In addition, he has already begun an affair with the talented and beautiful Irene Cooper Ullis. Russell hated all precautions, while Irene, fearing a scandal, carefully hid their relationship. Russell finally broke down: “Why the hell did I make love to her?”

In 1916, Russell met Lady Constance Malleson. The 21-year-old actress performed on the stage under the name Colette O'Neill. Her marriage to actor Miles Malleson was free by mutual agreement. Russell often vacationed with Constance and her husband. The lovers separated, then got back together... And so for thirty years. Colette always sent him red roses for his birthday. Russell wrote to Ottoline: “My feelings for Colette cannot be called even a shadow of my feelings for you.”

Russell dreamed of having children. In 1919 he met Dora Black, a feminist, but she wanted to have children out of wedlock. At the height of his affair with Colette, Russell went to China, where he took a vacant position at Peking University. Dora also went to Asia with him.

When they returned to England in August 1921, Dora was nine months pregnant. “We didn't take any precautions from the beginning,” Bertrand told a friend. After much deliberation, Russell and Dora finally decided to get married, although their marriage was free. They formalized their relationship a month before the birth of the child.

When his second child was born, Russell founded an experimental school. The atmosphere at school was extremely liberal. In it, in particular, the right of all school teachers to free love was defended. Russell became close to young teachers, and then went to America to lecture. Dora, meanwhile, was not bored either, and started an affair with the American journalist Griffin Barry, and gave birth to two more children from him.

Russell clearly did not like this application of his theory of free love in practice. In their marriage contract, in particular, he included the following clause: “If the wife gives birth to a child from another man, this will be followed by a divorce.” The couple divorced in 1935. Russell was of the opinion that one woman could be physically attracted no more than seven or eight years old. Dora wanted to have another child with him, but Russell "considered it impossible."

His affair with 21-year-old Joan Falwell is very typical of Russell. He immediately told her: “The only thing I am afraid of is that I may not satisfy you sexually, since I am no longer young... However, there are ways in which this shortcoming can be corrected.” Many years later, Joan admitted: “After our third dinner together, I started sleeping with him... This continued for more than three years. In bed, however, he often could not succeed, so I left for someone else.”

In 1930, Russell became close to Patricia Spence, his children's pretty teacher. In 1936 they got married and had a son. During World War II they moved to the USA. Patricia no longer felt happy. Russell's daughter suggested: “She realized that her marriage did not bring her joy. His passion gave way to courtesy, which could not satisfy the romantically minded young woman.”

In 1946, the 74-year-old scientist began an affair with the young wife of a Cambridge University teacher. They dated for three years. Colette wrote him a letter full of undisguised bitterness: “Now I have no illusions left. What a terrible end to all our years spent together... Three times I became a part of your life, and three times you pushed me away.”

Patricia Spence divorced Russell in 1952. In the same year, he married his longtime friend Edith Finch, an American writer. Russell finally had the opportunity to get his “extremely strong sexual instincts” in order as he turned 80 years old. His family life with Edith was happy. On his last birthday, as always, he received a gift from Colette - a bouquet of red roses.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell - English mathematician, logician, philosopher; became famous for his active social activities, writings, and public speeches on a wide variety of social, political, and ethical topics. Member of the Royal Society of London, member of the council of Trinity College (Cambridge), Nobel Prize laureate in literature, convinced pacifist. Born on May 18, 1872 in Ravenscroft (Monmouthshire), he was a descendant of one of the oldest famous families. In particular, his paternal grandfather was prime minister. The boy was left an orphan at the age of 4, so he was raised by Countess Russell, his grandmother, who raised the boy in strictness.

From 1890 to 1894, Russell was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge University, after which he became a Bachelor of Arts. While still an 18-year-old boy, Russell showed a passionate interest in mathematics; in the study of science, he sought the answer to the question of the possibility of knowing anything in this world. The hobby was destined to turn into a lifelong endeavor and bring Bertrand fame, first in narrow scientific circles, and then glorify him throughout the world. In 1903, he published the book “Principles of Mathematics,” in which all mathematics was reduced to a series of logical postulates.

Inspired by the enormous success of the book, the scientist began to develop this direction. In 1910-1913 their joint three-volume work “The Foundation of Mathematics” with A. Whitehead was published. Russell adhered to pacifist beliefs; in 1914 he was a member and later leader of the Anti-Mobilization Committee. His works written during the First World War and after it (“War and Justice” (1916), “Principles of Social Reconstruction” (1916), “Political Ideals” (1917), “Roads to Freedom” (1918), etc.) Calls to others to ignore military service resulted in a 6-month prison sentence for him.

Having shown interest in the “communist experiment” and harboring certain hopes, Bertrand Russell paid a visit to Soviet Russia in 1920, where he had a meeting with Lenin and Trotsky. In the same year, the book “The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism” was published, in which the writer shared his impressions of the trip and the disappointment he experienced. In 1921, Russell visited China and Japan. In the Middle Kingdom, he gave lectures on philosophy, and at the same time worked on the book “Problems of China,” published in 1922. During 1924-1931. As a philosophy teacher, he lectured in the USA, moving from city to city. In 1927, Russell and his wife, as an experiment, opened their own school, in which their own child was raised. The public learned what results the pedagogical experiment led to from the book “Education and Social Order,” published in 1932.

In the 30s Russell's main interests included pedagogy and international relations, and he devoted six books to them. In 1931, Bertrand inherited the title of count and continued to actively lead public life. Russell was an ardent opponent of any theories implying the suppression of the individual by the state; he equally passionately criticized fascism and Bolshevism, in particular, in the book Scylla and Charybdis, or Communism and Fascism (1939).

Attention to current political problems did not cancel out studies in the philosophical field: for example, in the 40s. A number of fundamental works were published, in particular, “On the Question of Meaning and Truth” (1940), “Philosophy and Politics” (1947), “Knowledge of Man”, “Limits and Boundaries” (1948). Since 1944, Russell has been active in parliament, being a member of the House of Lords. In 1950, he, by that time a very well-known public figure, the author of numerous works, became the Nobel Prize laureate in literature: thereby the public recognizes his merits as an outstanding humanist and rationalist.

In 1950-1960 Bertrand Russell's activity in matters of international life and foreign policy is growing. His writings became the ideological foundation for the Pugwash movement of scientists. After participating in one of the demonstrations to ban nuclear weapons, 89-year-old Russell spent a week in a London prison. When the Cuban missile crisis broke out, in 1962 he actively corresponded with N. Khrushchev and J.F. Kennedy, initiating a conference of world leaders that would eliminate the threat of nuclear conflict. Russell was a passionate denouncer of American intervention in Vietnam, and had a sharply negative attitude towards the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops in 1968. In parallel, throughout 1967-1969. Russell was working on an autobiography, summing up his long and eventful life. The public figure died of influenza on February 2, 1970 in Penrhyndydirth.

The content of the article

RUSSELL, BERTRAN(Russell, Bertrand) (1872–1970), English philosopher and mathematician who made a significant contribution to the development of mathematical logic, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1950). Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born in Trelleck (Wales) on 18 May 1872. The grandson of Lord John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, Bertrand Russell inherited the title in 1931. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge University in 1890. Subsequently a member of the Royal Society of London, was Elected a member of the Council of Trinity College, Cambridge University, he lectured in philosophy at a number of universities and colleges. Essentially important results were obtained by Russell in the field of symbolic logic and its application to philosophical and mathematical problems.

Symbolic logic.

Russell's most important work is Beginnings of mathematics (Principia Mathematica, in three volumes, publ. in 1910–1913) was co-written with A. N. Whitehead. This work contains a precise formulation of logic and a detailed proof that the theorems of pure mathematics follow from the principles of logic, and the concepts of mathematics can be defined in terms of logic. In later work it was shown that the system Principia Three indefinable terms are enough; Russell called them the "minimal vocabulary" of mathematics because, in theory, all mathematics and logic could be formulated in these terms alone. The thesis about the reducibility of mathematics to logic was put forward by Russell in his work Principles of Mathematics (Principles of Mathematics, 1903), a number of important provisions Principia was outlined by him in articles published earlier. Among them are the following concepts.

The theory of descriptions.

Expressions "author" Waverley" and "golden mountain" are examples of what Russell called "descriptions", i.e. descriptive expressions. Russell showed that such expressions can be eliminated from language by logical reformulations of the sentences in which they appear. For example, say that "Author Waverley was a Scot,” is to say, “Someone wrote Waverley and was a Scotsman." To say “The Golden Mountain does not exist” is to say “Nothing that exists is both gold and a mountain.” This theory eliminated the need to assume that sentences such as “The Golden Mountain does not exist” assert something that does not exist, and thereby presuppose a realm of entities that includes non-existent objects. In addition, description theory proposed a new type of definition, sometimes called "contextual definition." Instead of providing terms that could be substituted for descriptive expressions in sentences containing them, Russell's definition provided a method for substituting other sentences that had a different structure and did not contain descriptive expressions in place of the sentences themselves. According to Russell, the possibility of such definitions indicates that the grammatical form of the original sentence does not provide a clue to its true meaning.

Elimination of cardinal numbers and classes.

Russell showed that all the properties of number can be preserved if cardinal numbers are defined in terms of classes. The cardinal number of a given class has been defined as the class of all those classes which are similar to that class; classes are “similar” if the elements included in them can be put into one-to-one correspondence with each other. "One-to-one correspondence" was defined using logic dictionary terms. Hence, there is no need to assume that in addition to classes there are such objects as numbers. (A similar definition of number was given by G. Frege in 1884.) Russell further showed that there is no need to assume the existence of classes themselves; by means of contextual definitions, sentences that appear to talk about classes can be replaced by other, more complex sentences that talk about properties rather than classes. These definitions showed that objects such as classes and numbers, which had previously been inferred from certain data and whose existence was therefore problematic, could be interpreted as logical structures constructed from data. Thus, these definitions are an application of Occam's razor, the principle that entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily. Russell called certain objects in this way “logical constructions” (or “logical fictions”).

Philosophy.

Russell was convinced that, using the logical-analytical method Principia, philosophy can become a science. His specialized philosophical works were largely inspired by the desire to find a minimal vocabulary for our non-mathematical knowledge.

Our knowledge of the outside world (Our Knowledge of the External World, 1914) was the first attempt to apply this method in philosophy. Following Whitehead, Russell showed that points and instants of time in mathematical physics could be regarded as constructs built on the brute data of sensory experience, and proposed that physical objects should be treated in a similar way. One of the traditional problems of philosophy is the relation of a physical object (for example, a tree) to its perception in sensory experience. Russell hoped to solve this problem by proposing a method of translating sentences about physical objects into sentences containing references solely to perceptions in sense experience. Thus, a tree can be regarded as a logical construct and need not be dealt with as a putative metaphysical entity beyond sense data. However, at work Matter Analysis (Analysis of Matter, 1927), in which Russell analyzed the fundamental concepts of physics, he proposed two important modifications.

1. Although physical objects, including electrons and protons, are logical constructs, actual perceptions (or “percepts”) are only one type of material from which objects are constructed. The true elements of the Universe are events(some of them are percepts), each of which occupies a finite amount of space and time.

2. Percepts are components not of external objects, but of the brain of the person who perceives them. Russell believed that the properties and temporal relations of a percept indicate that its most plausible location is the brain of the perceiver; and this is especially evident in the case of the perception of a distant object, such as a star. The spatial localization of perceptions within the brain does not mean, however, their identification with the physical processes occurring in the brain.

In progress Analysis of consciousness (Analysis of Mind, 1921) Russell subjected the concepts of psychology to a logical analysis. From his point of view, consciousness, belief, perception, memory and desire are all reducible to the final constituent elements that we come to when analyzing matter. This position is sometimes called "neutral monism" because, according to this approach, both matter and consciousness are constructed from the same neutral "stuff." Objects such as the “soul” and “I”, which were discussed in traditional psychology, do not seem significant enough to Russell to represent them even in the form of constructions. Personal identity, he believed, can be expressed through various types of continuity, for example through the continuity of experience.

IN Analysis of matter Russell suggested the fundamental nature of physics in the sense of the reducibility of the laws of other sciences, including psychology, to physical laws. However, he noted that his own views on the universe coincided in some ways with the position of idealism, since percepts are one of the types of elements from which matter is built, and in them we have an “intimate knowledge of sensible qualities” that physics cannot achieve.

In the book Human knowledge: its scope and boundaries (Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits, 1945) Russell argues that mental events differ from physical events precisely in that they can be directly known. In order to justify inferences from mental to physical events, from percepts to the things themselves, special postulates are required, which Russell reduces to five basic ones: the postulate of quasi-constancy, the postulate of independent causal lines, the postulate of spatiotemporal continuity, the structural postulate and the postulate of analogy. Taken together, they provide prior probability to inductive conclusions that are themselves more often false than true. However, even on the basis of these postulates of the scientific method, Russell wrote, “physical phenomena are known only in relation to their space-time structure. The qualities inherent in these phenomena are unknowable - so absolutely unknowable that we cannot even say whether they differ from the qualities of psychic phenomena known to us.”

Social reform activities.

Russell is widely known primarily for his writings and public lectures on social and ethical topics, as well as for his public activities. He was convinced that sentences that assert the desirability of something as an ethical end or an intrinsically valid or ultimate good are expressions of emotion and therefore cannot be true or false. However, this does not mean that one should strive to overcome ethical feelings. Russell believed that the motive for his own activities was the desire to, if possible, unite and harmonize the desires of human beings. In pursuit of this goal, he wrote extensively on topics such as international relations, economics, education, marriage, and morality. Russell's liberal and unorthodox views led to his being banned from teaching at City College in New York and, at one time, at Cambridge University in England. During the First World War he was imprisoned for his pacifist activities. Russell was one of the first members of the Fabian Society, was elected to Parliament and, from 1944, took an active part in the work of the House of Lords. For the outstanding literary merits of his scientific and journalistic works, the philosopher was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Russell became increasingly involved in international discussions. Immediately after World War II, he insisted that the West use its then-monopoly on nuclear weapons and force the USSR to cooperate in maintaining world peace. However, the unfolding of the Cold War and the proliferation of nuclear weapons convinced him that humanity was under threat of destruction. The Russell-Einstein declaration of protest is known, which led to the organization of the Pugwash movement of scientists. Russell joins demonstrations to ban nuclear weapons. After one of these demonstrations, he was imprisoned in London, where he remained for a week (1961). In 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, he maintained intensive correspondence with John F. Kennedy and N.S. Khrushchev, calling for the convening of a conference of heads of state that would avoid a nuclear conflict. These letters, as well as letters to the heads of other states of the world community, were published in the collection Victory without weapons (Unarmed Victory, 1963). In the last years of his life, Russell fought passionately against US intervention in Vietnam. He also condemned the Soviet and Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Russell died near Penryndydright (Wales) on February 2, 1970.

Russell also wrote the following works: ABC of atoms (The ABC of Atoms, 1923); ABC of relativity (The ABC of Relativity, 1925); Education and Welfare (Education and the Good Life, 1926); Skeptical Essays (Conceptual Essays, 1928); Marriage and morality (Marriage and Morals, 1929); Conquering happiness (The Conquest of Happiness, 1930); Scientific worldview (The Scientific Outlook, 1931); Education and social order (Education and the Social Order, 1932); Praise of Idleness (In Praise of Idleness, 1935); Exploring meaning and truth (An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, 1941); History of Western Philosophy (A History of Western Philosophy, 1945); Human knowledge, its scope and boundaries (Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits, 1948); Power and the individual(Authority and the Individual, 1949); Unpopular essays (Unpopular Essays, 1950); Impact of science on society (The Impact of Science on Society, 1952); Portraits from memory (Portraits from Memory, 1956) and three-volume Autobiography (Autobiography, 1967–1969).

Bertrand Russell - Science and Religion (Book Chapters)

Bertrand Russell - Philosophical Dictionary of Mind, Matter, Morals

Bertrand Arthur William Russell(English) Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell ) - English mathematician, philosopher and public figure.

Russell was born on May 18, 1872 in Trelleck, Wales. He studied and later taught at the University of Cambridge, and was repeatedly invited to teach at universities in other countries, primarily the USA. His first book was "German Social Democracy"(1896; Russian translation 1906). While studying at the university, he was influenced by “absolute idealism” (the British version of neo-Hegelianism), but later, together with his colleague D. E. Moore, he became an opponent of idealistic metaphysics, laying the foundation for the tradition of analytical philosophy. After defending his dissertation on the foundations of geometry, Russell wrote a book on the philosophy of Leibniz (1900), where he showed for the first time the modern significance of his logical ideas. He presented the first presentation of his own logicist views on mathematics in the book "Principles of Mathematics"(1903), but the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910-1913), created together with the Cambridge mathematician A. N. Whitehead, brought him real fame. Job "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy"(1919) was written by him in prison, where he was imprisoned in 1918 for six months for his pacifist activities. His book "Problems of Philosophy"(1912; Russian translation 1914) is still considered in Anglo-Saxon countries the best introduction to philosophy. His books are devoted to issues of language and cognition. "Our knowledge of the external world" (1914 ), "An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth"(1940) and generalizing work "Human cognition: its scope and boundaries"(1948). In 1920-1921 he visited Soviet Russia (the result of this trip was the book “The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism”, 1920) and China. Russell is the author of the famous "History of Western Philosophy"(1945; Russian translation 1959) and the three-volume "Autobiography" (1967-1969). Russell was keenly interested in the problems of marriage and family, education, and took part in pedagogical experiments. He was active in social and political activities; in 1955, together with Einstein, he initiated the Pagoush movement, as well as the campaign for nuclear disarmament (1958). Russell's huge manuscript archive has survived. Bertrand Russell died on February 2, 1970.

Russell's philosophy

Subject of philosophy

In Russell's works one can find several definitions of the subject of philosophy, but the greatest interest is in his early interpretation of philosophy as a correct logical (in-depth) analysis of language (“logic is the essence of philosophy”). The most important quality of philosophy, according to Russell, is the ability to eliminate all kinds of paradoxes. In The History of Western Philosophy, he characterizes philosophy as “a no man's land between science and theology”; in general, it deals with problems that have not yet been mastered by science.

Basic concepts of ontology and theory of knowledge

Russell spoke of his inherent “reality instinct,” which allows for the presence in the world of “sense data,” common sense objects (individual objects), as well as universals (that is, properties and relations), but excludes “unicorns,” “winged horses,” and "round squares". The analytical philosopher must find logical ways to deny dubious entities, of which there are especially many in metaphysics. Fundamentally important for Russell was the distinction between two types of knowledge - “knowledge-acquaintance” and “knowledge by description”. The first is the original and immediate knowledge of sense data and universals. Russell called the elements of language confirmed by “knowledge-acquaintance” “names.” “Knowledge by description” is secondary. It is inferential knowledge about physical objects and the mental states of other people, obtained through the use of “denoting phrases.” The main logical problems and misunderstandings are generated precisely by “denoting phrases,” for example, the phrase “the author of Waverley” in the sentence “Scott is the author of Waverley” does not itself have its own object, that is, it is devoid of meaning. Russell developed a mechanism for analyzing and eliminating ambiguous "denotative phrases." He also discovered problems with proper names: for example, the mythological name Pegasus gives rise to the “paradox of existence” (the thesis about the existence of a non-existent object). Later, he recognized all proper names as ambiguous and came to the conclusion that language “connects” with the world only through demonstrative pronouns (“this” and “that”), which “are logically proper names.”

Mathematical and semantic paradoxes

While studying set theory, Russell discovered a paradox that later received his name. This paradox concerns the special "class of all classes that are not members of themselves." The question is, is such a class a member of itself or not? There is a contradiction in answering this question. This paradox attracted widespread attention from scientists, because at the beginning of the 20th century set theory was considered an exemplary mathematical discipline, consistent and completely formalized. The solution proposed by Russell was called “type theory”: a set (class) and its elements belong to different logical types, the type of a set is higher than the type of its elements, which eliminates the “Russell paradox” (type theory was also used by Russell to solve the famous semantic paradox "Liar" ). Many mathematicians, however, did not accept Russell's solution, believing that it imposed too severe restrictions on mathematical statements.

Logical atomism

Russell sought to establish a correspondence between the elements of language and the world. The elements of reality in his concept correspond to names, atomic and molecular sentences. In atomic sentences (“this is white”, “this is to the left of that”) the possession of some property or the presence of a relation is fixed. There are atomic facts corresponding to such propositions in the world. In molecular sentences, the atomic sentences included in them are connected using linking words “or”, “and”, “if”. The truth or falsity of molecular sentences depends on the truth or falsity of the atomic sentences contained in them. According to Russell, the theory of logical atomism arose under the influence of the ideas of his student - the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein - and was intended to provide the most complete, economical and accurate description of reality. Russell assumed that in a logically perfect language of science, each sign would correspond to the components of a certain fact, thereby avoiding ambiguities and paradoxes. This point of view was criticized in the 1930s by the “late” Wittgenstein and representatives of linguistic philosophy.

Philosophy of consciousness

In the book "Analysis of Consciousness"(1920) Bertrand Russell, following W. James and representatives of American neorealism, put forward the theory of “neutral monism,” characterizing it as an attempt to combine the materialist position in contemporary psychology (behaviorism) with the idealistic position in physics, “dematerializing matter.” Russell rejects the philosophical division between matter and spirit, criticizes substantialist concepts of consciousness, as well as the idea of ​​intentionality of consciousness. He treats matter as a logical fiction, a convenient designation for the sphere of action of causal laws. In psychology and physics, different causal laws operate, however, since the data of psychology are sensations, the data of the physical sciences are also mental data. In general, Russell's original explanation of what happens in the world is closer to a psychological explanation than to a physical one. In his later works, this tendency to psychologize philosophical and scientific knowledge intensified, which was influenced by the phenomenalism of D. Hume.