Bertrand Russell biography. Biographies, stories, facts, photographs. Philosophy and mathematics

05.04.2024

Bertrand Arthur William Russell(English) Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell ) - English mathematician, philosopher and public figure.

Russell was born on May 18, 1872 in Trelleck, Wales. He studied and later taught at the University of Cambridge, and was repeatedly invited to teach at universities in other countries, primarily the USA. His first book was "German Social Democracy"(1896; Russian translation 1906). While studying at the university, he was influenced by “absolute idealism” (the British version of neo-Hegelianism), but later, together with his colleague D. E. Moore, he became an opponent of idealistic metaphysics, laying the foundation for the tradition of analytical philosophy. After defending his dissertation on the foundations of geometry, Russell wrote a book on the philosophy of Leibniz (1900), where he showed for the first time the modern significance of his logical ideas. He presented the first presentation of his own logicist views on mathematics in the book "Principles of Mathematics"(1903), but the three-volume “Principia Mathematica” (1910-1913), created together with the Cambridge mathematician A. N. Whitehead, brought him real fame. Job "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy"(1919) was written by him in prison, where he was imprisoned in 1918 for six months for his pacifist activities. His book "Problems of Philosophy"(1912; Russian translation 1914) is still considered in Anglo-Saxon countries the best introduction to philosophy. His books are devoted to issues of language and cognition. "Our knowledge of the external world" (1914 ), "An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth"(1940) and generalizing work "Human cognition: its scope and boundaries"(1948). In 1920-1921 he visited Soviet Russia (the result of this trip was the book “The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism”, 1920) and China. Russell is the author of the well-known "History of Western Philosophy"(1945; Russian translation 1959) and the three-volume "Autobiography" (1967-1969). Russell was keenly interested in the problems of marriage and family, education, and took part in pedagogical experiments. He was active in social and political activities; in 1955, together with Einstein, he initiated the Pagoush movement, as well as the campaign for nuclear disarmament (1958). Russell's huge manuscript archive has survived. Bertrand Russell died on February 2, 1970.

Russell's philosophy

Subject of philosophy

In Russell's works one can find several definitions of the subject of philosophy, but the greatest interest is in his early interpretation of philosophy as a correct logical (in-depth) analysis of language (“logic is the essence of philosophy”). The most important quality of philosophy, according to Russell, is the ability to eliminate all kinds of paradoxes. In The History of Western Philosophy, he characterizes philosophy as “a no man's land between science and theology”; in general, it deals with problems that have not yet been mastered by science.

Basic concepts of ontology and theory of knowledge

Russell spoke of his inherent “reality instinct,” which allows for the presence in the world of “sense data,” common sense objects (individual objects), as well as universals (that is, properties and relations), but excludes “unicorns,” “winged horses,” and "round squares". The analytical philosopher must find logical ways to deny dubious entities, of which there are especially many in metaphysics. Fundamentally important for Russell was the distinction between two types of knowledge - “knowledge-acquaintance” and “knowledge by description”. The first is the original and immediate knowledge of sense data and universals. Russell called the elements of language confirmed by “knowledge-acquaintance” “names.” “Knowledge by description” is secondary. It is inferential knowledge about physical objects and the mental states of other people, obtained through the use of “denoting phrases.” The main logical problems and misunderstandings are generated precisely by “denoting phrases,” for example, the phrase “the author of Waverley” in the sentence “Scott is the author of Waverley” does not itself have its own object, that is, it is devoid of meaning. Russell developed a mechanism for analyzing and eliminating ambiguous "denotative phrases." He also discovered problems with proper names: for example, the mythological name Pegasus gives rise to the “paradox of existence” (the thesis about the existence of a non-existent object). Later, he recognized all proper names as ambiguous and came to the conclusion that language “connects” with the world only through demonstrative pronouns (“this” and “that”), which “are logically proper names.”

Mathematical and semantic paradoxes

While studying set theory, Russell discovered a paradox that later received his name. This paradox concerns the special "class of all classes that are not members of themselves." The question is, is such a class a member of itself or not? There is a contradiction in answering this question. This paradox attracted widespread attention from scientists, because at the beginning of the 20th century set theory was considered an exemplary mathematical discipline, consistent and completely formalized. The solution proposed by Russell was called “type theory”: a set (class) and its elements belong to different logical types, the type of a set is higher than the type of its elements, which eliminates the “Russell paradox” (type theory was also used by Russell to solve the famous semantic paradox "Liar" ). Many mathematicians, however, did not accept Russell's solution, believing that it imposed too severe restrictions on mathematical statements.

Logical atomism

Russell sought to establish a correspondence between the elements of language and the world. The elements of reality in his concept correspond to names, atomic and molecular sentences. In atomic sentences (“this is white”, “this is to the left of that”) the possession of some property or the presence of a relation is fixed. There are atomic facts corresponding to such propositions in the world. In molecular sentences, the atomic sentences included in them are connected using linking words “or”, “and”, “if”. The truth or falsity of molecular sentences depends on the truth or falsity of the atomic sentences contained in them. According to Russell, the theory of logical atomism arose under the influence of the ideas of his student - the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein - and was intended to provide the most complete, economical and accurate description of reality. Russell assumed that in a logically perfect language of science, each sign would correspond to the components of a certain fact, thereby avoiding ambiguities and paradoxes. This point of view was criticized in the 1930s by the “late” Wittgenstein and representatives of linguistic philosophy.

Philosophy of consciousness

In the book "Analysis of Consciousness"(1920) Bertrand Russell, following W. James and representatives of American neorealism, put forward the theory of “neutral monism,” characterizing it as an attempt to combine the materialist position in contemporary psychology (behaviorism) with the idealistic position in physics, “dematerializing matter.” Russell rejects the philosophical division between matter and spirit, criticizes substantialist concepts of consciousness, as well as the idea of intentionality of consciousness. He treats matter as a logical fiction, a convenient designation for the sphere of action of causal laws. In psychology and physics, different causal laws operate, however, since the data of psychology are sensations, the data of the physical sciences are also mental data. In general, Russell's original explanation of what happens in the world is closer to a psychological explanation than to a physical one. In his later works, this tendency to psychologize philosophical and scientific knowledge intensified, which was influenced by the phenomenalism of D. Hume.

The life of the English scientist and public figure Bertrand Russell is almost a century-long history of Europe. Born during the heyday of the British Empire, in the 20th century. he witnessed two terrible world wars, revolutions, the collapse of the colonial system and lived to see the nuclear era.

Marriage and Morality is the book for which Bertrand Russell received the Nobel Prize in 1950. It outlines not only a brief history of the emergence of the institutions of marriage and family, but also touches on issues that concern every man and every woman - about sexual feelings and love, about marriage and divorce, about family and raising children, about prostitution, eugenics and many others , playing an important role in our lives.

In the preface to the first edition of the book, Russell wrote: “I have tried to say what I think of the place of man in the universe and how capable he is of achieving well-being... In human affairs, as we can see, there are forces that promote happiness, and forces that contribute to misfortune. We do not know which of them will prevail, but in order to act wisely, we must know about them."

"The History of Western Philosophy" is the most famous, fundamental work of B. Russell.
First published in 1945, this book is a comprehensive study of the development of Western European philosophical thought - from the rise of Greek civilization to the 1920s. Albert Einstein called it "a work of the highest pedagogical value, standing above the conflicts of groups and opinions."

Bertrand Russell - Science and Religion (Book Chapters)

Religion and science are two aspects of social life, of which the first has been important from the very beginning of the known history of the human mind, while the second, after a very short existence among the Greeks and Arabs, was revived only in the 16th century and since then has had an increasingly strong influence on ideas and on the entire lifestyle of modern man.

In the legacy of the English philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate, and active fighter for peace, Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), the problems of atheism occupy a significant place. Russell is a passionate propagandist of free thought; his articles of an atheistic nature have such a revealing intensity that it is difficult to find in other modern non-Marxist authors.
Many of these articles, translated into Russian for the first time, are included in a collection intended for a wide range of readers.

Pearls of subtle humor mixed with witty phrases, each of which resembles an aphorism, are generously scattered on literally every page of this unique collection, which critics called a collection of “very serious jokes.”
So. Satan opens a doctor's office and promises his clients all sorts of shocks and excitement.

This collection presents the works of B. Russell, which characterize the doctrine he called logical atomism. The doctrine that interests us, as can be seen from the constant references, was created under the undoubted influence of the views of his student and then colleague L. Wittgenstein and, to a large extent, can be understood only in the perspective of the latter’s ideas. This dependence is ambiguous and the degree of its significance varies from job to job.

Bertrand Russell - Philosophical Dictionary of Mind, Matter, Morals

Excerpts from the writings of Lord Bertrand Russell. As a rule, each paragraph is from a different article. Bertrand
Russell - modern (1872-1970) philosopher, historian of philosophy and mathematician - one of the founders of modern mathematical logic. In addition, in 1952 he received the Nobel Prize in... literature.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell- English mathematician, logician, philosopher; became famous for his active social activities, writings, and public speeches on a wide variety of social, political, and ethical topics. Member of the Royal Society of London, member of the council of Trinity College (Cambridge), Nobel Prize laureate in literature, staunch pacifist. Born on May 18, 1872 in Ravenscroft (Monmouthshire), he was a descendant of one of the oldest famous families. In particular, his paternal grandfather was prime minister. The boy was left an orphan at the age of 4, so he was raised by Countess Russell, his grandmother, who raised the boy in strictness.

From 1890 to 1894, Russell was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge University, after which he became a Bachelor of Arts. While still an 18-year-old boy, Russell showed a passionate interest in mathematics; in the study of science, he sought the answer to the question of the possibility of knowing anything in this world. The hobby was destined to turn into a lifelong endeavor and bring Bertrand fame, first in narrow scientific circles, and then glorify him throughout the world. In 1903, he published the book “Principles of Mathematics,” in which all mathematics was reduced to a series of logical postulates.

Inspired by the enormous success of the book, the scientist began to develop this direction. In 1910-1913 their joint three-volume work “The Foundation of Mathematics” with A. Whitehead was published. Russell adhered to pacifist beliefs; in 1914 he was a member and later leader of the Anti-Mobilization Committee. His works written during the First World War and after it (“War and Justice” (1916), “Principles of Social Reconstruction” (1916), “Political Ideals” (1917), “Roads to Freedom” (1918), etc.) Calls to others to ignore military service resulted in a 6-month prison sentence for him.

Having shown interest in the “communist experiment” and harboring certain hopes, Bertrand Russell paid a visit to Soviet Russia in 1920, where he had a meeting with Lenin and Trotsky. In the same year, the book “The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism” was published, in which the writer shared his impressions of the trip and the disappointment he experienced. In 1921, Russell visited China and Japan. In the Middle Kingdom, he gave lectures on philosophy, and at the same time worked on the book “Problems of China,” published in 1922. During 1924-1931. As a philosophy teacher, he lectured in the USA, moving from city to city. In 1927, Russell and his wife, as an experiment, opened their own school, in which their own child was raised. The public learned what results the pedagogical experiment led to from the book “Education and Social Order,” published in 1932.

In the 30s Russell's main interests included pedagogy and international relations, and he devoted six books to them. In 1931, Bertrand inherited the title of count and continued to actively lead public life. Russell was an ardent opponent of any theories implying the suppression of the individual by the state; he equally passionately criticized fascism and Bolshevism, in particular, in the book Scylla and Charybdis, or Communism and Fascism (1939).

Attention to current political problems did not cancel out studies in the philosophical field: for example, in the 40s. A number of fundamental works were published, in particular, “On the Question of Meaning and Truth” (1940), “Philosophy and Politics” (1947), “Knowledge of Man”, “Limits and Boundaries” (1948). Since 1944, Russell has been active in parliament, being a member of the House of Lords. In 1950, he, by that time a very well-known public figure, the author of numerous works, became the Nobel Prize laureate in literature: thereby the public recognizes his merits as an outstanding humanist and rationalist.

In 1950-1960 Bertrand Russell's activity in matters of international life and foreign policy is growing. His writings became the ideological foundation for the Pugwash movement of scientists. After participating in one of the demonstrations to ban nuclear weapons, 89-year-old Russell spent a week in a London prison. When the Cuban missile crisis broke out, in 1962 he actively corresponded with N. Khrushchev and J.F. Kennedy, initiating a conference of world leaders that would eliminate the threat of nuclear conflict. Russell was a passionate denouncer of American intervention in Vietnam, and had a sharply negative attitude towards the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops in 1968. In parallel, throughout 1967-1969. Russell was working on an autobiography, summing up his long and eventful life. The public figure died of influenza on February 2, 1970 in Penrhyndydright.

Biography from Wikipedia

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell(English Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell; May 18, 1872, Trelleck, Wales - February 2, 1970, Wales) - British philosopher, mathematician and public figure. Known for his work in defense of pacifism, atheism, as well as liberalism and left-wing political movements, he made invaluable contributions to mathematical logic, the history of philosophy and the theory of knowledge. Less known are his works on aesthetics, pedagogy and sociology. Russell is considered one of the founders of English neorealism, as well as neopositivism.

In 1950 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Swedish Academy academician Anders Österling described Russell as "one of the most brilliant representatives of rationalism and humanism, a fearless fighter for freedom of speech and freedom of thought in the West."

The American philosopher Irwin Edman valued Russell's works very highly, even compared him with Voltaire, emphasizing that he, “like his famous compatriots, the philosophers of old, is a master of English prose.”

Russell is considered one of the most influential logicians of the 20th century.

The editorial notes for the memorial collection Bertrand Russell - Philosopher of the Century (1967) noted that Russell's contributions to mathematical logic were the most significant and fundamental since Aristotle.

He belonged to an old aristocratic family of politicians, scientists and intellectuals, which was famous for its activities in the political life of the country since the 16th century; the most famous representative of the family after Bertrand Russell himself was his grandfather, Lord John Russell, who twice headed the government of Queen Victoria in the 1840s and 1860s.

Bertrand Russell was born to John Russell, Viscount Amberley, and Catherine (Stanley) Russell. By his fourth birthday he became a complete orphan. After the death of his parents, he and his two older brothers were taken into the care of their grandmother, Countess Russell, who adheres to Puritan views. From an early age, Bertrand showed interest in a wide variety of areas of natural history and loved to spend his free time reading books from the extensive library collected by his grandfather at the Pembroke Lodge estate.

Early life and rise to fame. Socialism

In December 1889, Bertrand Russell entered Trinity College, Cambridge. In his second year of study, at the suggestion of A. Whitehead, Russell was elected to the Apostles debating society. This society included both students and teachers, including J. Moore, J. McTaggart, with whom Russell would collaborate fruitfully in the future.

Russell, the son of a lord of one of the most influential families, was appointed diplomatic representative of Great Britain, first in Paris, then in Berlin. In Germany, Russell studied virtually the entire range of German philosophy, among other things the economic writings of Marx. There he, fluent in German, communicated with famous socialists of that time: Wilhelm Liebknecht, August Bebel and others. Russell was imbued with the ideas of left reformism, that is, the gradual reorganization of the whole world on the principles of democratic socialism. In 1896, Russell published his first significant work, “German Social Democracy,” where, surprisingly for a relatively young philosopher, he examined the problems and ways of developing left-wing ideas.

This and some other works made Russell a famous scientist. Upon his arrival home in 1896, he received an invitation to lecture at the London School of Economics, which he did with continued success. Russell also gave a course of lectures at US universities. In 1900, he participated in the World Philosophical Congress in Paris and met a number of famous scientists. Whitehead's book, The Principles of Mathematics (1903), brought him international recognition. It is still considered one of his most famous works (especially in English-speaking countries).

In 1908, the philosopher became a member of the Royal Society. In the same year he became a member of the Fabian Society.

The Fabians considered socialism an inevitable result of economic development, but recognized only the evolutionary path and opposed revolution. Russell, however, does not completely share the views of the Fabians, since he was an opponent of state control of social production.

At the same time, he proclaimed that the existence of the capitalist system was doomed, believed that industries should be managed by working people, and not by entrepreneurs and the state, and tried to prove the autonomy and independence of political institutions from the economic basis of society. He sympathized with anarchism, and considered the power of the state to be the main cause of unhappiness in the modern world.

World War I. Pacifism

During the First World War, Bertrand Russell was involved in a range of complex socio-political problems of war and peace, the structure of the state and its administration. While England was preparing for war, Russell was imbued with the ideas of pacifism, the basis of which was his socialist beliefs for Russell. Russell becomes a member of the Anti-Conscription Organization, which was a very brave act at a time when all people talked about in England was “defending the fatherland.” For opposing the authorities, Russell is deprived of his place at Trinity College, but most of all Russell is upset because of quarrels with many friends for whom pacifism was unacceptable in the face of a military threat to Great Britain.

In 1916, Russell anonymously published a leaflet, “Two Years of Hard Work for Those Who Refuse to Obey the Dimensions of Conscience,” in which he defended the right of a person to refuse military service for political or religious reasons. After several people were condemned for distributing it, Russell, not afraid of losing his authority, revealed the authorship through the Times newspaper and expressed the idea that political freedom in England was becoming a farce. For this, the authorities are bringing him to trial. Russell said that not only he, but the whole of traditional British freedom was in the dock. As a result of the legal proceedings, Russell was fined £100, his library was confiscated and he was not allowed to travel to the USA to lecture.

In My Political Ideals (1917), Russell argues that the only worthy political goal is to ensure the fullest development of the natural creative potential of every person in society, which ultimately amounts to radical liberal reform and the destruction of the system that divides people into classes and other conservative groups (including religious ones). This allows us to classify him as a Social Democrat. True democracy, according to Russell, must strive towards socialism.

Attempts to curb the convinced pacifist do not yield results, and in the article “The German Peace Offers” (January 3, 1918), Russell speaks out sharply against the wave of slander and falsifications of the policies of the Bolsheviks and Lenin spread by the “patriotic press,” as well as the reluctance of the Entente to join Russia’s peace proposals. Russell also condemns the US entry into the war, emphasizing that American soldiers arriving in England could be hired as strikebreakers. In 1918, Russell was imprisoned in Brixton Prison for 6 months. There, prisoner No. 2917 read a lot (from Voltaire to Chekhov) and even wrote “Introduction to the Philosophy of Mathematics” (1919). At the same time, the famous Russian Bolshevik Maxim Litvinov was in the same prison.

R. P. Dutt, a figure in the English and international labor movement, then a member of the Independent Labor Party, who met Russell at a meeting convened by the Socialist Students' Organization at Oxford in the autumn of 1919, wrote that the famous scientist's advocacy of mass opposition to the war "put him in those days into the fighting ranks of the socialists.”

Long before the actual start, and right up until the very end of hostilities, Russell was categorically against war.

After the proclamation of Soviet power in Russia, Russell wrote in 1918 that this event offered hope for future prosperity throughout the world, and even admitted that he admired the Bolsheviks. On May 19, 1920, Russell, as part of the Labor delegation, went to the Soviet Republic and stayed there until June 17, 1920. Russell visits the Kremlin, where he meets V.I. Lenin and talks with him for more than an hour. During this trip, he also met with Trotsky, Gorky and Blok, and gave lectures at the Petrograd Mathematical Society. Russell was able to meet with representatives of the opposition, as well as ordinary people.

Russell recognized the Soviet model of development as not consistent with truly communist ideas and was largely disillusioned with the Bolsheviks. In his book of memoirs about this trip, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (1920), Russell wrote:

If Bolshevism turns out to be the only strong and active competitor to capitalism, then I am convinced that no socialism will be created, but only chaos and destruction will reign

He who, as I do, regards the free intellect as the chief engine of human progress, cannot fail to oppose Bolshevism as fundamentally as he opposes the Roman Catholic Church.

Bolshevism is not just a political doctrine, it is also a religion with its own dogmas and sacred scriptures. When Lenin wants to prove a point, he quotes Marx and Engels as much as possible

Despite his criticism of Bolshevism, Russell did not give up on leftist ideas themselves, and continued to call himself a socialist and even a communist. In the same book, Russell wrote:

I believe that communism is necessary for the world.

I came to Russia as a communist, but communication with those who have no doubts strengthened my own doubts a thousandfold - not about communism itself, but about the wisdom of such reckless adherence to a creed that for its sake people are ready to endlessly multiply adversity, suffering, and poverty.

Even under existing conditions in Russia one can still feel the influence of the life-giving spirit of communism, the spirit of creative hope, the search for means to destroy injustice, tyranny, greed - everything that interferes with the growth of the human spirit, the desire to replace personal competition with joint actions, the relationship between master and slave - with free cooperation . This hope helps the best part of the communists to withstand the trials of the harsh years that Russia is going through, this same hope inspires the whole world. This hope is not a chimera, not a fantasy, but it can only be realized through hard work, a more objective study of the facts and, above all, persistent propaganda, which should make the need for the transition to communism obvious to the vast majority of the workers. It is possible that Russian communism will fail and die, but communism as such will not die.

The existing capitalist system is doomed. Its injustice is so glaring that only ignorance and tradition force wage workers to endure it. When ignorance recedes, tradition weakens; the war destroyed the power of tradition over the human mind. Perhaps, under the influence of America, the capitalist system will last about fifty years, but it will gradually weaken and will never regain the positions held in the 19th century. Trying to support it means wasting energy that could be used to build something new.

Another book based on impressions from the trip was the book “Bolshevism and the West” (1924).

One of those who expressed doubts about the veracity of Russell's words was Aaron Steinberg. Steinberg admits that Russell did not deny his own statement about the hostility of the Soviet regime to freedom of thought, however, he nevertheless notes in his memoirs that “Bertrand Russell conducted propaganda among us for the government of Lenin and Trotsky.” According to Steinberg, what Russell said at the secret meeting was strikingly different from what Russell said later, so Steinberg concluded: “...Russell's books are very worth reading, but his assessment of political events, since it relies on his personal judgments about people, is very doubtful "

Trip to China

At the invitation of the “Society of New Teachings,” organized by the leader of the reform movement Liang Qichao, Russell went to China on October 12, 1920, where he stayed until June 10, 1921. In China, as a professor at Peking University, Russell taught special courses on mathematics, logic, morality, religion, and theory of knowledge, and discussed the ways of developing socialism in this country. In his lectures, the thinker advocated for communism, but opposed the dictatorship of the proletariat, arguing that only “enlightenment will help raise the consciousness of the propertied classes and avoid wars and revolutions.”

Russell's lectures, which reflected his ideas of free thought and criticism of religion, gave impetus to a new direction of the atheist movement in China. They were published by the Shaonyan Zhongguo publishing house in a special collection “Problems of Religion” (1921). The most significant influence on the Chinese intelligentsia was Russell's thoughts on a democratic version of socialism.

Both before and after his arrival, quite a lot of works by the English thinker on mathematics, logic, and the socio-political development of society were translated in China, which became very popular among Chinese reformers and progressive figures engaged in the search for the future state structure of the country.

As Wang Xingong noted, the philosophy of the English thinker “does not set as its goal the achievement of some kind of wealth or happiness, it is designed to help people understand this simple and at the same time complex world around us.”

In 1920, the Bertrand Russell Society was created at Peking University and the Russell Monthly was published (January 1921). The philosophy of Losa, as Russell was called in China, had a strong influence on progressive youth during the anti-imperialist May 4th Movement.

Bacon Hill School. Pedagogy

In 1921, Russell married for the second time to Dora Winifred Black, who was his secretary during a trip to Russia. It was she who wrote the chapter “Art and Education” for his book “The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism.” Russell has two children (his first marriage to Alice (sometimes Alice) Whitall Pearsall Smith was childless).

Russell begins to intensively study pedagogy, including innovative methods of education. His views on education are integral to his socio-political liberal views. Russell seeks to protect the free mind from outdated conservative views (which Russell includes any religion). Children, Russell believes, should be raised in kindness, in understanding the usefulness of the moral standards of society, without coercion. Russell believes it is a terrible thing to separate children by their economic background, gender, race and nationality. The purpose of education for Russell is to protect a person’s creative abilities from the influence of chauvinism, bureaucracy, and class stereotypes. Russell sharply criticizes the English system of upbringing and education and proposes its democratization.

The most important results of his work in this area were the books “On Education” (1926), “Marriage and Morality” (1929), “Education and the Social System” (1932). Together with his wife, Russell opens the Beacon Hill School, which was aimed primarily at troubled young children. The school existed until the start of the war.

A peculiar refrain of his ideas in pedagogy was the thesis that if love, supported by knowledge, became the real basis of education, the world would be transformed. Russell repeated this idea in later works.

His ideas on pedagogy, according to experts, were not as progressive as the views of the outstanding English teachers of that time G. Lane and A. S. Neil or the Americans G. Broudy and J. Dewey, but this school allowed and encouraged greater freedom of self-expression for students . Russell wrote that “children should be citizens of the universe,” raised without coercion, without fear. His pedagogical views were in many ways reminiscent of the ideas of the utopian socialists Owen and Fourier, who opposed religious education.

Although many scholars often neglect Russell's contributions to education, more than twenty years later Russell would be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his book Marriage and Morality (1929).

20s - 30s

In the brochure “Daedalus,” English biologist John Haldane, using the image of a mythological hero, argued that development can only be for the benefit of humanity. In 1925, Russell published the pamphlet Icarus, in which, using another image of the same myth, Icarus, on the contrary, warned of the dangers lurking in the unbridled growth of knowledge and the development of technology, which could cause great human misfortune if the fruits of scientific activity are found. in limited use of individual structures, and are also used with malicious intent. More than 30 years later, it would become clear that Russell's worst fears had come true with the invention and use of nuclear weapons against people.

Summing up his life in his autobiography, Russell writes that he devoted his whole life to reconciling people with each other. Russell always strived, if possible, to unite and harmonize the desires of human beings, to save humanity from extinction and the death that threatens it. During this period, he wrote the books: “Prospects for Industrial Civilization” (1923), “Education and Welfare” (1926), “The Conquest of Happiness” (1930).

During the development of totalitarian regimes in the 1930s, Russell struggled to prevent the impending military catastrophe. Among the many books written during this period were Liberty and Organization, 1814-1914 (1934), The Origin of Fascism (1935), Which Way Leads to Peace? (1936), "Power: a new social analysis" (1938). Russell actively fought against fascism and Bolshevism (“The Origin of Fascism” (1935), “Scylla and Charybdis, or Communism and Fascism” (1939)).

In the late 1930s, Russell traveled to the USA, teaching at the University of Chicago and the University of California.

In 1931, after the death of his elder brother, he inherited the peerage and became the 3rd Earl of Russell.

In 1935, Russell divorced for the second time and married his secretary Patricia Helen Spence. From this marriage he has a second son.

Based on his pacifist beliefs, Russell welcomed the Munich Agreement of 1938.

The Second World War. Refusal of pacifism

The approach of World War II gives rise to strong doubts in Russell about the advisability of pacifism. After Hitler's capture of Poland, Russell abandoned pacifism. Now Russell advocates joint military efforts between England and the United States, which causes the disapproval of American isolationists who hoped to keep the country from entering into a military conflict. In his autobiography, recalling this time, Russell writes:

Although reluctantly, I accepted the possibility of the rule of the Kaiser's Germany; It seemed to me that this, of course, was evil, but still less than the world war and its consequences, while Hitler’s Germany was a completely different matter. The Nazis were disgusting to me both from a moral and rational point of view - cruel, fanatical and stupid. Although I adhered to pacifist convictions, this was increasingly difficult for me. When the danger of occupation began to threaten England in 1940, I realized that throughout the First World War I had never seriously entertained the thought of defeat. The thought of him was unbearable, and after serious reflection I decided that I must come out in support of everything that is done for the sake of victory, no matter how difficult this victory may be and no matter what its consequences.
This was the last stage in the long process of abandoning the convictions that matured in me in 1901

From 1938 to 1944, Russell lectured at the University of Chicago, the University of California, and Harvard University in the USA, the Barnes Foundation, and published two fundamental works: “A Study of Meaning and Truth” (1940) and “The History of Western Philosophy” (1945), the latter of which was published several times in the USA on the bestseller lists and still enjoys the attention of both specialists and ordinary readers.

In 1940, Russell became a professor of philosophy at City College, which attracted strong attacks from the clergy, whom Russell actively fought against, spreading anti-clericalism and atheism.

1945-1954

In 1944, Russell returned from the USA to England and began teaching at the same Trinity College, Cambridge University, from where he was fired for anti-militarist speeches during the First World War. Despite his advanced age (he turned 70 in 1942), Russell, thanks to his social activities, became one of the most famous Englishmen. Among the great many books he published: “Philosophy and Politics” (1947), “Springs of Human Activity” (1952) and “Human Cognition. Its sphere and boundaries" (1948). Russell gives a series of radio lectures, later collected in the book Power and Personality (1949).

Until 1954, Russell supported the Cold War policy, convinced that it could prevent World War III. Russell very sharply criticizes the USSR, advocates world domination of the United States of America, and even considers it necessary to force the USSR, under the threat of atomic strikes, to submit to the dictates of the United States.

In 1948, Russell said in a speech that if the USSR continued its aggression in Eastern Europe, then from a moral point of view it would be worse to start a war when the USSR acquired an atomic bomb than before, because in a war against the USSR, which does not yet have an atomic bomb , the victory of the West will be faster and bloodless. This has led to different interpretations and debate as to whether Russell was endorsing a first strike against the USSR or merely indicating the need to use the US nuclear arsenal to intimidate the Soviet Union. However, immediately after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki from 1945 to 1948, Russell wrote letters and published articles in newspapers, unequivocally arguing that it was morally justified and right to go to war against the USSR with the use of atomic weapons while the USSR did not have an atomic bomb and the United States did.

It was only when the USSR tested the atomic bomb that Russell changed his position and began advocating a complete ban on nuclear weapons.

In a short article “Why Am I Not a Communist?”, directed against countries that declare their commitment to communism, Russell wrote:

In Russia in 1917, however, the proletariat constituted a small percentage of the population, the vast majority of which were peasants. The decree established that the Bolshevik Party was a class-conscious part of the proletariat, and that a small committee of its leaders had the class consciousness of the Bolshevik Party. The dictatorship of the proletariat thus came to be the dictatorship of a small committee, and, ultimately, of one man - Stalin. As the only class-conscious proletarian, Stalin condemned millions of peasants to starvation and millions more to forced labor in concentration camps. He even went so far as to establish by decree that the laws of heredity should henceforth differ from what they used to be, and that the embryonic plasma should now obey Soviet decrees, and not that reactionary priest Mendel. I am completely at a loss how it happened that some people, being humane and intellectual, could find something delightful in the vast slave camp created by Stalin.

Original text(English)
In the Russia of 1917, however, the proletariat was a small percentage of the population, the great majority being peasants. it was decreed that the Bolshevik party was the class-conscious part of the proletariat, and that a small committee of its leaders was the class-conscious part of the Bolshevik party. The dictatorship of the proletariat thus came to be the dictatorship of a small committee, and ultimately of one man - Stalin. As the sole class-conscious proletarian, Stalin condemned millions of peasants to death by starvation and millions of others to forced labor in concentration camps. He even went so far as to decree that the laws of heredity are henceforth to be different from what they used to be, and that the germ-plasm is to obey Soviet decrees but that that reactionary priest Mendel. I am completely at a loss to understand how it came about that some people who are both humane and intelligent could find something to admire in the vast slave camp produced by Stalin.

At the same time, Bertrand Russell considered himself a supporter of social democracy. The criticism of communism carried out by him at this time boils down to a criticism of Marxism. In fact, for promoting the official regime and promoting British views regarding the Cold War, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit on June 9, 1949. In 1950, 78-year-old Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his book Marriage and Morality (1929) and his journalistic work:

In recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought.
Original text(English)
In recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought.

In one of the books in which he criticizes the optimistic view of the development of civilization: The Influence of Science on Society (1953), Russell warns that not only good can be created through the means of science. In particular, he writes that “those in power” could theoretically try to create a nation of slaves using eugenic methods, after which criticism of power “will become psychologically simply impossible” and, Russell concludes, the revolt of the “slave race” will be as improbable as “the revolt of sheep against the producer lamb."

In 1952, 80-year-old Russell married for the fourth time to Edith Finn, his longtime friend, a writer from the United States. They move to north Wales.

1954-1970. Peace offensive

After testing the hydrogen bomb and corresponding with Frederic Joliot-Curie, Russell, using his journalistic talent and enormous authority, begins to decisively oppose nuclear weapons, addresses on the radio (December 24, 1954) to all residents of England and the globe with a “Manifesto for the struggle for peace” against nuclear war,” in which he argued that there could be no winner in a future war. The question of the path to lasting peace was also raised with great urgency in the famous statement prepared by Russell and signed by Einstein two days before the death of the latter, and then by other leading figures in science. This document was announced in London at a press conference of scientists around the world against the threat of atomic war (1955) as the “Russell-Einstein Declaration.” Among other things, it says:

We want this to be understood both in the East and in the West. We demand that governments around the world acknowledge and publicly declare that they will not seek to achieve their goals through war. And we urge them, accordingly, to seek peaceful means of resolving the differences that exist between them...

In 1957, after discussion at the first conference of scientists in the Canadian village, Pugwash was adopted as a “Manifesto for the struggle for peace” by all scientists on the planet, which marked the beginning of the Pugwash movement.

Russell announces the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. London, 9 July 1955

In the 1950s and 1960s, when more than ever the world faced the prospect of a third world war involving nuclear weapons, Russell's work as one of the most influential peace activists can hardly be overestimated. Russell was a member of the nuclear disarmament movement (1958) and the Committee of One Hundred (1960). Russell corresponded, communicated, met and discussed with the leaders of the largest countries in the world, his international authority is enormous.

Since 1961, Russell has advocated the concept of an international authoritative forum similar to the UN.

In 1961, for participating in one of the anti-war actions, the 89-year-old Nobel laureate was sentenced to seven days in prison. The magistrate offered to replace it with a "promise of good behavior", but Russell refused.

In 1962, during the escalation of the Cuban missile crisis, Russell directly appealed to Kennedy and Khrushchev with a call to immediately enter into negotiations.

In the summer of 1963, work began on the creation of a fund that was supposed to take on the entire range of issues that until that time had constituted the activities of Russell and his associates. Ralf Schonmann played a special role in the creation of the organization.

The founders of the foundation decided that it should bear Bertrand Russell's name, despite his own objections. UN Secretary General U Thant wrote on this matter:

It is gratifying to learn that it is proposed to establish a foundation bearing the name of Lord Russell... Lord Russell was one of the first to recognize the folly and danger of unlimited accumulation of nuclear weapons.

Foundation co-founder Christopher Farley wrote about Russell:

In many countries that lacked civil liberties or were under the patronage of powerful neighbors, Russell was revered as a national hero.

Russell welcomed democratic reforms in Czechoslovakia and condemned the introduction of troops into Czechoslovakia.

Since 1963, Russell began to protest against American involvement in the Vietnam War. Together with Jean Paul Sartre, he created the International Tribunal for the Investigation of War Crimes in Vietnam.

From that time on, the West, trying to reduce the respect of the common people for the famous anti-militarist, sanctioned harsh attacks against Russell. Until the end of his days, Russell endured all sorts of hints and direct statements that “the old man was out of his mind.” The reputable New York Times even published an offensive article, “A Corpse on a Horse.” Although the level of his social activity in the last years of his life was no less, if not more, high than in his youth, completely refutes these rumors. For example, having celebrated his 80th birthday (1952), he managed to publish more than two dozen books, including “Portraits from Memory” (1956), “Fact and Fiction” (1962). A year before his death, Russell managed to publish the last, third volume of “Autobiography” (1967-1969), which is still considered one of his most famous works, since in addition to biographical data about life, it contains elements of the entire complex evolution of views. Having lived for almost a century, at first due to his origin, Russell from his early youth lived at the epicenter of all world events, thanks to which the Autobiography became a truly great work.

Philosophical component of worldview

Philosophy, according to Russell, occupies a “no-man’s land” between science and theology, trying to provide scientific answers to questions in which theology is powerless. And although philosophy is not a science, it still represents a certain spiritual force that has a significant impact on the life of society and its history. Russell recognizes the mutual connection of philosophy with the political and social conditions of the development of society. The history of philosophy, according to Russell, is the history of the original concepts of outstanding creative individuals who, with their systems, have a significant impact on public life. Russell considers anti-clericalism and the desire to place epistemological research on the basis of logic to be the most fruitful traditions in the history of philosophy. Russell's books Problems of Philosophy (1912) and History of Western Philosophy (1945) are still considered the best introduction to philosophy in Anglo-Saxon countries.

Early views

Russell went through a complex evolution of views, which he himself defined as a transition from the Platonic interpretation of Pythagoreanism to Humeanism. After a brief fascination with Hegelianism in its English version, Russell moved on to the Platonic version of absolute idealism, and then, under the influence of Moore, Meinong, and Whitehead, to neorealism. Russell was one of the creators of the concept of logical atomism, which explains the need to transfer the logical structure of language to reality and to create an ontological doctrine corresponding to this structure. As Russell himself pointed out: "I shall endeavor to formulate... a certain kind of logical doctrine, and on the basis of this... a certain kind of metaphysics." Logical atomism was formulated in the works “Our Knowledge of the External World” (1914), “Philosophy of Logical Atomism” (1918), “Mysticism and Logic” (1918). This concept was later developed by Wittgenstein

During this period, Russell made a huge contribution to the creation of mathematical logic, writing (together with Whitehead) the fundamental three-volume work “Principia Mathematica” (1910-1913), where Russell proves the correspondence of the principles of mathematics to the principles of logic and the possibility of defining the basic concepts of mathematics in terms of logic.

Russell solved the problem of existence with the help of the doctrine of descriptive definitions he developed (close to nominalism). At the same time, Russell tried to remove the opposition between objective and subjective existence in the concept of “existence in general”: “There is only one “real” world, Shakespeare’s imagination is part of it; the thoughts he had when he wrote Hamlet are similarly real. The thoughts we have when reading this tragedy are just as real.” In the 1910-1920s, Russell formulated the concept of logical atomism, but did not accept conventionalism and physicalism, in their extreme form leading to solipsism.

The further evolution of Russell's views consisted in an increasing limitation of the areas of reality to which ontologically independent existence is attributed: if at first Russell taught about the special being (subsisting) of seemingly “a priori” logical relations, then in the 1920-1930s, moving closer to neopositivism, Russell After hesitation, he recognized reality only behind sense-data, particulars, which are part of the so-called “neutral” facts (events). The closeness of Russell's philosophy to neopositivism was expressed in the fact that for him the most important philosophical problem was the substantiation of scientific knowledge in the sensory experience of the subject. This was manifested in close attention to the study of the content and structure of experience. At an early stage, Russell believed that universals were present in the structure of experience along with sense data. Subsequently, the main subject of attention for him became the problem of the transition from direct experience, which has an individual, “personal” character, to generally valid natural scientific knowledge. Therefore, in the late period, Russell put forward and defended views according to which such hidden elements as “principles of non-demonstrative inference” or “postulates of scientific inference” are important for understanding natural scientific knowledge.

In general, Russell played a significant role in the formation of the British version of neopositivism (logical positivism), on the one hand, interpreting the results of his logical-mathematical research in a positivistic manner, on the other hand, correcting the “overly” subjectivist conclusions of the Vienna Circle with his criticism. In particular, he opposed the sweeping characterization of problems of traditional philosophy as pseudo-problems.

The concept of neutral monism that emerged in his books “The analysis of mind” (N.Y. - L., 1924), “The analysis of matter” (N.Y. - L., 1927), “An outline of philosophy” (L., 1927) in the concepts of “spirit” and “matter” there were only logical constructions from sensory data and was close to the pragmatism of James and Machism. It differed from the latter mainly in its original terminology: “I believe,” Russell wrote, “that matter is less material, and spirit less spiritual, than is believed...”. At the same time, Russell called for abandoning materialism, which he considered incompatible with the scientific discoveries made in relativistic and quantum physics. He also rejected idealism, but from the position of another science - psychology. Russell became one of the most famous naturalists of the 20th century, and his version of naturalism was non-materialistic in nature.

Development of views

In the 1940s and 1950s, Russell turned to the ideas of Hume. Russell admits the existence of “facts,” which, unlike “experience,” are objective, but their objectivity is based only on “faith” in the existence of the external world.

In the work “Human cognition. Its sphere and boundaries" (L., 1948; Russian translation: M., 1957) Russell formulates five postulates of the scientific method of cognition of the “physical world”, which, in his opinion, form the preconditions for the plausibility of inductive generalizations, in the form of which cognition carried out ( Russell B. Human cognition. - M., 1957. - P. 453-540.). Russell's philosophical evolution corresponded to changes in the content of his persistently pursued broad program of applying the means of mathematical logic to epistemological research. At the neorealist and positivist stages of its evolution, this program led to the dissolution of the theory of knowledge in logical analysis (along with Moore, Russell was the founder of the logical analysis of philosophy). The philosophy of the mature Russell is basically taking shape.

Russell's theory of knowledge is largely an attempt to combine two different principles - the principle of empiricism, according to which all our knowledge comes from experience, and the belief, traditionally considered rationalistic, that logic is the essence of philosophy. One of the first results of the application of the logical apparatus to solving philosophical problems was the theory of descriptions.

The most important element of Russell's theory of knowledge was the concept of knowledge-acquaintance - the doctrine of direct knowledge in experience of certain objects: sensory data and universals. Objects directly cognizable in experience were first considered by Russell also as ontological units. Simple elements of experience were thought of by Russell as unique building blocks from which the entire body of natural scientific knowledge consists. In his later works, he partially abandoned the doctrine of direct cognition in experience of such objects as universals, considering only “complete complexes of coexistence”, which were considered as certain sets of qualities, to be true objects of cognition.

Russell defined his later philosophical position as realism and logical atomism (partly under the influence of Wittgenstein), since the “picture of the world” is a set of logical statements. Russell accepts the theory of external relations, the consequence of which was the assertion of the existence of substance-neutral elements of the world, in which there is a functional distinction between the subjective and the objective. The theory itself was interconnected with the division of being into “existing” (physical things and the content of consciousness) and “ideally existing” (mathematical and logical objects, relationships, past and future events, delusions, illusions, centaurs, round squares).

Ethics

In the field of ethics, Russell took the position of emotivism. In the later period of his socio-political activity, he gained fame as a critic of Western civilization; he saw its main flaw in the hypertrophied development of the science of production in the absence of truly humanistic values and ideals. He opposed the opposition between the spheres of reason and feelings, facts and values, as well as for a closer connection between ethics and politics. He called for the abandonment of the principle of force as a means of solving international political problems.

Russell was convinced that sentences which assert the desirability of something as an ethical end or an intrinsically valid or ultimate good are expressions of emotion and therefore cannot be true or false. However, this does not mean that one should strive to overcome ethical feelings. Russell believed that the motive for his own activities was the desire to, if possible, unite and harmonize the desires of human beings.

Anti-clericalism. Atheism

A large place in Russell's work was occupied by criticism of religion and the Christian church, in which he saw a means of suppressing the human personality. In atheist circles, Russell is revered as one of the most influential atheists. Russell is the author of many books devoted to the defense of atheism. One of his most famous works is “Why I am not a Christian.” Also known for the humorous anti-religious story "The Theologian's Nightmare" (1961).

Mass psychology and the engineering of consent

In his lectures given from 1938 to 1944, Bertrand Russell emphasized the importance of mass psychology in a political context, and "education" attributed to one of the modern methods of propaganda. In his forecasts for the future, he accurately noted the growing role of the press, cinema and radio:

I think that mass psychology will become extremely important politically... Its importance has increased enormously with the development of modern methods of propaganda. Among them, the most important is what is called “education.” Religion still plays a certain role, but less and less, but the role of the press, cinema and radio is increasing...

Russell noted that in the future the social system will be completely controlled and managed, and the institution of the family will create interference in this regard. He allocated a special role to music in the engineering of consent:

Social psychologists of the future will teach various classes of schoolchildren in which they will practice various methods of developing the belief that snow is black. Different results will be obtained very quickly. First, it will be proven that the family is in the way. Second, treatment will not produce significant results if it begins after the age of ten. Third, poems set to music with repetitions are very effective. Fourth, the opinion that snow is white should be considered a manifestation of a morbid tendency towards eccentricity. But I got ahead of myself...

Scientists of the future will have to hone these maxims and calculate exactly how much it will cost to convince one schoolchild that snow is black, and how much cheaper it will be to convince him that snow is dark gray...

Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born on May 18, 1872 in England, the son of John Russell, Viscount Amberley, and Catherine Russell (Stanley).

The boy was orphaned early; he and his brother were raised by their grandmother. In 1894 he received the degree of Bachelor of Arts. In 1895 Russell became a member of the scientific society of Trinity College, and in 1897 he wrote a dissertation.

In 1894, Russell became honorary attaché at the British Embassy. That same year he married his daughter Quaker, American Alice Whitall Pearsall Smith.

In 1900, Russell participated in the International Philosophical Congress in Paris. In 1903 he wrote the book “Principles of Mathematics”. The book brought him international recognition. Russell came to the conclusion that mathematics and formal logic are identical, and that mathematics is built on just a few principles.

In subsequent years, Russell continued his philosophical studies. In addition, Russell was actively involved in social and political life. He and his wife were members of the Fabian Society, which promoted moderate socialist ideas. Russell also campaigned for equal voting rights for women.

Great philosophers. Bertrand Russell

In 1914, he joined the pacifist organization Anti-Conscription and spoke out in his books against First World War. Russell was fined heavily and also imprisoned for writing a pamphlet denouncing imprisonment for refusing to serve in the army. In 1918, Russell was again imprisoned (for four months) for criticizing the US entry into the war.

In the 1920s Russell authored many popular books on various scientific disciplines. In 1920, he spent five weeks in the Soviet Union, meeting with Lenin, Trotsky, and Gorky. Russell remained a supporter of the ideas of socialism, although in the book “The Theory and Practice of Bolshevism” (1920) he criticized the “excesses” of the Soviet system.

After divorcing his first wife, Russell married Dora Winifred Black in 1921, and they had a son and a daughter. Russell became interested in pedagogy and opened an experimental school. In 1935 – 1936 a divorce from his second wife followed, after which Russell married his secretary Patricia Helen Spence, with whom he later had a son.

In 1939, Russell temporarily abandoned pacifism and supported England's preparations for war with Germany.

In 1950 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. When presenting it, a representative of the Swedish Academy called Russell “one of the most brilliant representatives of rationalism and humanism, a fearless fighter for freedom of speech and freedom of thought in the West.” However, a number of prominent thinkers saw Russell as an unprincipled and one-sided champion of the leftist ideas that were fashionable in his time. Alexander Solzhenitsyn makes a rather disdainful remark about him in The Gulag Archipelago.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell - English mathematician, logician, philosopher; became famous for his active social activities, writings, and public speeches on a wide variety of social, political, and ethical topics. Member of the Royal Society of London, member of the council of Trinity College (Cambridge), Nobel Prize laureate in literature, staunch pacifist. Born on May 18, 1872 in Ravenscroft (Monmouthshire), he was a descendant of one of the oldest famous families. In particular, his paternal grandfather was prime minister. The boy was left an orphan at the age of 4, so he was raised by Countess Russell, his grandmother, who raised the boy in strictness.