General characteristics of the flora. Features of the flora of mounds of the desert-steppe zone of Ukraine. Flora and fauna

Huge areas of German lands are classified as reserved. In total, about 14 national parks are spread here, in which the most unique ecological systems, endangered and rare species of plants and animals are under protection. Compared to nature reserves in other countries, German reserves are relatively young - the very first of them received a special status only in 1970.

The German people are a great connoisseur of recreation in the national parks of their country, which are amazingly beautiful places with magnificent natural scenery.

Geography

The nature of Germany is unusually diverse.

The state is located in Central Europe. It borders with France, Switzerland, Denmark, Czech Republic, Poland, Austria, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium. Its north is framed by the Baltic and North Seas.

Between Lake Constance and Berchtesgaden are the Alps, although their territory is not very large. Germany is limited by the Bavarian, Allgäu and Berchtesgaden Alps. Between them you can observe the wonderful blue lake surface - Koenigssee, Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Mittenwald, which are popular areas for tourists.

Nature of Germany

More than 1/3 of the land in Germany is cultivated, and therefore the state does not boast much of its wildlife, but almost all existing forests and other green areas are quite well maintained.

A feature of the nature of Germany - throughout the country, mountain ranges intersect with plateaus, plains, lake landscapes, hills.

In the northern part of Germany, the lowlands extend:

• Westphalian.
• Saxon-Thuringian.
• Lower Rhine.

Typical for these areas are hilly landscapes with an abundance of lakes, peat bogs, wastelands and fertile lands.

Germany off the coast of the North Sea owns the following islands:

• Borkum.
• Sylt.
• Helgoland.
• Norderney.

Islands of Germany in the Baltic Sea:

• Fehmarn.
• Rügen.
• Hiddensee.

The coast here is represented by rocks and sand. Between the North and Baltic Seas, the relief is represented by hills called Holstein Switzerland.

The Harz (mountain range) is located in the very center of Germany. To the east are the Fichtelgebirge and the Ore Mountains. The territory of the state is divided into two parts (southern and northern) by a medium-altitude mountain threshold.

Nature reserves in Germany

1. "Bavarian Forest" is located in the southeast of the country. This is the largest nature reserve in Central Europe. Most of it extends above sea level at an altitude of more than 1 kilometer. Among its inhabitants there are rare and even endangered animals: beaver, lynx, forest cat, black stork and peregrine falcon.
2. "Saxon Switzerland". This unique place is located in the east of Germany. The rocky massif of the area rises above sea level by 200 meters. The observation deck allows you to view the beauty of the entire territory of the reserve. The most popular place among tourists is the unique bridge stretched across the Bastei rocks and built in 1824.
3. "Chalk rocks" of the island "Rügen". This amazing little part of Germany's protected area is located in the northeast of the country. This is the Jasmund National Park, which includes the coast of the Baltic Sea and the forests adjacent to it. There is a unique natural formation here - the "King's Chair", which is a chalk rock rising 118 meters in height. Hundreds of thousands of tourists rise to its observation deck every year.
4. "Stork on the Roof". The protected area includes villages that are home to hundreds of white storks. The national park is a place where you can meet dozens of rare animals and birds: black storks, whooper swans, corncrakes, otters and kingfishers.

Flora and fauna

The flora and fauna of Germany is surprisingly diverse.

The most characteristic inhabitants of the forests of Germany are the fox, the squirrel and the wild boar. Red deer, roe deer and fallow deer can also often be found. Hares, mouse-like rodents and rabbits take root well in clearings. The existence of the otter has recently been threatened by river pollution. Marmots live in alpine meadows. Among the birds, instead of forest species, birds are common, typical of open spaces.

Humid areas off the coast of the North and Baltic Seas are important for European migratory birds. Ducks, geese and wading birds especially liked these places.

Plants of Germany in their natural form are practically not preserved due to the dense population of the territories. Indigenous forests were either practically destroyed or replaced by forest plantations. The original forests of birch and oak in the north of the country were replaced by cultivated land over several centuries. Today, lands with poor soils are set aside for forest plantations. Mostly hardy subspecies of pines are grown here.

Luxurious beech forests grow in the lowlands of Germany, alternating with spruce forests. Pine appears on sandy soils.

In the Alps and mountains of Central Germany, beech forests give way to fir forests with increasing height, and then to spruce forests. Above 2200-2800 meters mosses, grasses and lichens and flowering plants grow.

In conclusion about climatic conditions

The nature of Germany is diverse due to rather favorable climatic conditions. A temperate, maritime and transitional climate prevails here.

The average summer temperature is plus 20-30 degrees, winter is close to 0. The maximum temperature in summer is up to +35 degrees, in winter - up to -20 degrees. Precipitation falls throughout Germany in large volumes.

Due to the location of Germany in the zone of western, moderately cool winds, significant temperature fluctuations are rare.

The concept of flora………………………………………………….3-8
The contribution of flora to the overall biodiversity………………………..9-10
Characteristics of the flora of Bashkortostan……………………….11-39
Conservation of biological diversity and flora

as its component…………………………………………. 39-47

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….….48

Conclusions……………………………………………………………………….49

Introduction.
Preservation of biodiversity is one of the key problems of building a sustainable development society.The most important component of biodiversity is flora as a set of plant species growing in a certain area. Flora serves as the basis for the formation of not only vegetation, but also ecosystems. In accordance with the well-known ecological principle “diversity breeds diversity”, flora predetermines the composition of heterotrophic components of ecosystems. For this reason, the study of flora, its rational use and protection are the most important components of a broad program for the conservation of biodiversity as an exhaustible resource.
There is undeniable progress in the protection of biodiversity in the world. A number of important international documents have been adopted and are being implemented, such as the “Concept for the Protection of Biological Diversity” (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the “Pan-European Strategy for the Protection of Biological Diversity” (1996) and others. activities of international organizations - UNESCO, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). The WWF representative office operates in the Republic of Bashkortostan and makes a significant contribution to the protection of flora.
In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the protection of biodiversity in Russia and Bashkortostan. The need to preserve biodiversity is reflected in such documents as the “Concept of the Russian Federation’s Transition to Sustainable Development” (1996), the federal law “On Environmental Protection (2002), the Ecological Doctrine of Russia” (2002), the law “On Specially Protected Natural Territories of the Republic of Bashkortostan" (1995), Republican Complex Program "Ecology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Bashkortostan for 2004-2010", "Concept for the Development of the System of Protected Natural Areas in the Republic of Bashkortostan" (2003).
The purpose of the work: to tell about the uniqueness of flora as a biodiversity hotspot of global importance, economic value, state of use and protection; to characterize the flora of Bashkortostan.

I. The concept of flora.
Flora (in botany, lat. flora) - a historically established set of plant species distributed in a certain area at the present time or in past geological epochs. Houseplants, plants in greenhouses, etc. are not part of the flora.
The name of the term comes from the name of the Roman goddess of flowers and spring flowering Flora (lat. Flora).
In practice, the expression "Flora of a certain territory" is often understood not as all the plants of a given territory, but only as Vascular plants (Tracheophyta).
Flora must be distinguished from vegetation- sets of various plant communities. For example, in the flora of the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, species of the families of willows, sedges, grasses, buttercups, and Asteraceae are richly represented; from conifers - pine and cypress; and in vegetation - plant communities of the tundra, taiga, steppe, etc.
Historically, the development of flora is directly conditioned by the processes of speciation, displacement of some plant species by others, plant migrations, their extinction, etc.
Each flora has specific properties - the diversity of its constituent species (richness of flora), age, autochthonous degree, endemism. Differences between the floras of certain territories are explained primarily by the geological history of each region, as well as differences in orographic, soil, and especially climatic conditions.

Flora analysis methods:

geographical analysis - division of flora by geographical distribution; identification of the proportion of endemics;
genetic analysis (from the Greek genesis "origin, occurrence") - the division of flora according to the criteria of geographical origin and the history of settlement;
botanical and geographical analysis - establishment of connections of this flora with other floras;
ecological and phytocenological analysis - separation of flora according to growing conditions, according to vegetation types;
age analysis - division of flora into progressive (young in time of appearance), conservative and relict elements;
systematic structure analysis - comparative analysis of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of various systematic groups that make up this flora.

Flora typification

Flora of specialized groups
Sets of plant taxa covering specialized groups of plants have the corresponding specialized names:
Algoflora- flora of algae.
Brioflora- moss flora.
Dendroflora, or arboriflora- Flora of woody plants.
Three more terms appeared before these groups of organisms were no longer classified as plants:
Lichenoflora- lichen flora.
Mycoflora- Mushroom flora.
Mixoflora- flora of myxomycetes (mucus molds)

Territory flora
From the point of view of the nature of the territories under consideration, there are:
The flora of the earth as a whole
Flora of the continents and their parts
Flora of individual natural formations(islands, peninsulas, mountain systems)
Flora of countries, regions, states and other administrative entities

Flora by the criterion of external conditions
According to the criterion of external conditions of the territories under consideration, there are:
Flora of chernozem and other soil types
Flora of swamps and other special areas of the earth's surface
Flora of rivers, lakes and other fresh water bodies
Flora of the seas and oceans

Basic approaches to the study of floras.

Flora as a set of species of a certain territory is formed under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. For this reason, the study of its composition is one of the tasks of environmental monitoring.

Regional floras.
Most often, regional floras are studied within the boundaries of administrative units (republic, administrative region, city or rural settlement). This is the most traditional type of floristic research, the most important task that allows one of the biomonitoring options to be carried out - monitoring the state of the biological diversity of plants in the region.
The result of the study of regional flora is a complete list of plant species with an assessment of their distribution. This allows you to identify rare species and compile the "Red Book". During periodic re-examinations, a tendency to change the flora under the influence of a person is revealed, first of all - adventization, i.e. an increase in the proportion of alien species, and a decrease in floristic diversity.
The study of regional floras is necessary for the geobotanical study of vegetation, the assessment of botanical resources, and the development of a system for the protection of plant biodiversity in the region.

specific flora.
Unlike regional floras, which are distinguished for any territories, regardless of the variety of environmental conditions (they may include different natural zones, plains and mountains, etc.), specific floras are identified for ecologically homogeneous territories (with one type of climate, one type of geomorphological structure of the surface, one type of prevailing vegetation). For example, the flora of the Baimaksky or Abzelilovsky districts, which include flat and mountainous areas, cannot be considered as specific floras. The flora of the steppe part of the Bashkir Trans-Urals, the flora of the southern part of the mountain-forest zone of Bashkortostan, etc. can be considered as specific.
Identification of specific floras is carried out on the territory of a sufficiently large area, within which the influence of the natural complex and human activity on the composition of plant species is fully manifested. This value can vary from 100km? in the Arctic up to 1000 km? in the tropics.

Partial floras.
The concept of "partial flora" was proposed by B.A. Yurtsev within the framework of the method of specific floras, but this concept is also used in the study of regional floras. Partial flora is understood as the flora of a certain type of habitat and, accordingly, a certain type of plant communities associated with it (in this case, the partial flora is called cenoflora). Thus, partial floras of reservoirs and coastal aquatic habitats, lowland, transitional and raised bogs, southern steppe stony slopes, postforest meadows, wastelands, and fields are distinguished. When studying the floras of settlements, partial floras of kitchen gardens, yards, trampled habitats, ditches, dung heaps, etc. are distinguished.

Estimation of gamma diversity.
Gamma Diversity is a form of biological diversity, defined as the number of plant species in a landscape or geographical area. It is synonymous with regional flora.
Gamma diversity depends on the area of ​​the study area and is formed as a result of the interaction of two forms of diversity:
Alpha - diversity - species diversity of communities;
Beta-diversity - diversity of communities.
These two indicators are non-linearly related, since species richness is different in different communities, however, it is obvious that the richer in species of the community and the higher the diversity of these communities, the higher the gamma diversity. Naturally, both components of gamma-diversity depend on the climate and topography. On the flat territory of the desert zone, the values ​​of alpha and beta diversity and, accordingly, gamma diversity will be minimal. In the temperate zone, with a complex relief, which combines rich-species communities of steppes, meadows, forests, and, in addition, there are coastal-aquatic and aquatic communities and ruderal and segetal communities associated with human influence, gamma diversity will be high.

Analysis of the composition of the flora.
Any flora (regional, specific, partial) consists of species that differ in a significant number of parameters: systematic affiliation, life form, geographical characteristics, biological features. For this reason, a qualitative analysis of the composition of the flora (compilation of various spectra) is one of the mandatory sections of any floristic study.
Flora analysis includes the compilation of spectra according to the following parameters.

systematic composition.
The representation of different families is analyzed, special attention is paid to the first 10 families, which are called the leading ones. The degree of their participation in the flora and the complex of soil-climatic factors, and the history, and the current state of the flora, which is under the influence of man. So, for the natural flora of the temperate zone, to which Bashkortostan belongs, the leading families (Table 1) are characterized by the participation of Asteraceae, grasses, roses, sedges, legumes, cruciferous, clove, oxtail, etc. With increasing human influence (synanthropization and adventivization flora) the proportion of species from the families of haze and cruciferous increases.
When analyzing the systematic composition of the flora, such indicators as the average number of species in a genus, the average number of genera in a family, the average number of species in a family that can receive an evolutionary interpretation are also used (the more genera in families, the older they are; the more species in genera , on the contrary, they reflect the later stages of evolution).

spectrum of life forms.
This spectrum also reflects the diversity of ecological conditions in which the studied flora was formed. Thus, phanerophytes predominate in humid tropical forests, while in the forests of the temperate zone, to which Bashkortostan belongs, despite the fact that phanerophytes dominate, hemicryptophytes predominate in the flora. In the steppes and meadows, there are few phanerophytes, and the predominance of hemicryptophytes is more complete. Therophytes predominate in deserts. A significant participation of terophytes indicates synanthropization of the environment.

Synanthropization of flora.
Assessment of flora replenishment by adventitious plants is an informative method of biomonitoring, because the proportion of alien plants is directly related to the intensity of human transformation of vegetation.
This version of the analysis includes the compilation of spectra according to the share of different groups of synanthropic species from among local species that have adapted to intense human influence, as well as adventitious species.

Phytosociological spectrum.
The most promising for comparing floras (especially specific ones) is to evaluate the modern ecological structure of the flora and the degree of its adventivization.
When comparing the share participation of species of different orders or classes of vegetation, one can obtain the most integrated information about the geography, ecology, and anthropogenic disturbance of the studied flora.

Contribution of flora to overall biodiversity.

Characteristics of the flora of Bashkortostan.

According to the latest data, the flora of vascular plants of Bashkortostan includes 1730 species, bryoflora - 405 species, lichenobiota - 400 species. The floristic diversity of different regions of Bashkortostan varies. The areas with a high concentration of species are the Iremel and Yaman-Tau mountains; shikhans (mountains - remnants) Tratau, Yuraktau, Tastuba, Balkantau, Yaryshtau, Susaktau; ridges Mashak, Zigalga, Irendyk, Krykty, Kraka, Shaitan-Tau; the valleys of the rivers Belaya, Inzer, Ural, Sakmara, Zilim, Nugush, Uryuk, B. and M. Ik, Zilair, Fortress Zilair, Tanalyk; lakes Yakty - kul, Urgun, Talkas, Karagaily; swamps Tyulyukskoe, Tygynskoe, Zhuravlinoe, Septinskoe, Arkaulovskoe, Lagerevskoe, etc.
The formation of a high floristic diversity is associated with the influence of a number of natural-historical and anthropogenic factors.

Relief. On the territory of Bashkortostan there is a system of mountains of the Southern Urals. Due to the vertical zonality, the mountainous relief allows different biomes to be combined in a limited area - from mountain tundra and boreal forests to broad-leaved forests and steppes.

Flora history. The complex history of the territory of Bashkortostan, especially its mountainous part, contributed to the enrichment of the flora. It contains many relics reflecting the history of the region over the past 1.5 million years, when cooling and warming alternated in the Pleistocene and Holocene.

Geographical position: the junction of Europe and Asia. The position of Bashkortostan at the crossroads of Europe and Asia has led to the combination of Siberian and European species in communities (the formation of an ecotone effect on a geographical scale). So, in the forests of the Southern Urals, typical European species are combined, such as amazing violet, obscure lungwort, forest chistets, large-flowered foxglove, fragrant bedstraw, and species of the Siberian range - Siberian adonis, northern aconite, Gmelin's rank, spear-shaped underripe, etc.

Latitude explanation. The position at the junction of the forest and steppe zones caused widespread hemiboreal forests with dominance in the tree layer of pine (with the participation of birch, larch and aspen). These are the most species-rich forests of the Southern Urals, which is also due to the ecotone effect. With the indisputable dominance of boreal species in the herbage (reed reed grass, northern aconite, lily-leaved bell), nemoral and subnemoral species are common in these forests: male thyroid gland, spreading pine forest, hard-leaved chickweed, common sleepweed, amazing violet, etc. Meadow, meadow- steppe and steppe species, such as: steppe cherry, chiliga, Russian broom, common oregano, etc.

Human influence. During the period of sustainable nature management, which was typical for the Bashkirs before the reform of 1861, anthropogenic factors did not cause significant damage to BR and other renewable resources. Moreover, some forms of human exposure have been a BR-increasing factor. So, it is thanks to man that species-rich communities of plain and mountain post-forest meadows were formed. After the disappearance of natural large steppe phytophages (saiga, tarpan), it was Bashkirs' horse breeding that was the main factor in the preservation of the steppe biome. Schools of horses were constantly moving across the steppe landscapes, ensuring uniform grazing of phytomass. In addition, horses are the least detrimental to steppe communities: hoof pressure is minimal, and a broad diet promotes uniform grazing.

The systematic composition of the flora.

Table 1. Representation of families of higher spores and gymnosperms in the flora of Bashkortostan.

Resource characteristic

Consider the main groups of useful plants of the flora of Bashkortostan: fodder, medicinal, melliferous, food, as well as "anti-useful" plants - poisonous, many of which, however, are used as medicinal plants.

fodder plants
Forage plants form the basis of hayfields and pastures. Their number in Bashkortostan is at least 500 species. Forage plants are divided into agrobotanical groups: cereals, legumes, forbs, sedges, wormwood. In turn, these groups can be subdivided into steppe and meadow.
Cereals
Steppe: Agropyron pectinatum (comb wheatgrass), Festuca pseudovina (false sheep fescue), F. Valesiaca (Welsh Island), Koeleria cristata (thin-legged comb), Poa transbaicalica (steppe bluegrass), Stipa capillata (hairy feather grass), S. Lessingiana ( k. Lessing), S. Pennata (k. cirrus), S. Sareptana (k. Sarepta), S. Tirsa (k. narrow-leaved), S. Zalesskii (k. Zalessky).
Meadow: Agrostis gigantean (giant bent grass), A. Stolonifera (shoot-forming n.), Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail), Bromopsis inermis (awnless rump), Calamagrostis epigeios (ground reed grass), Dactylis glomerata (combination hedgehog), Elytrigia repens (wheatgrass creeping), Festuca pratensis (meadow fescue), Phalaroides arundinacea (reed double spring), Phleum pratensis (meadow timothy grass), Poa angustifolia (narrow-leaved bluegrass), P. pratensis (m. meadow).
Legumes
Steppe: Astragalus danicus (Danish Astragalus), Medicago romanica (Romanian alfalfa), Melilotus albus (white sweet clover), M. Officinalis (d. medicinal), Onobrychis arenaria (sandy sainfoin), Trifolium montanum (mountain clover), Vicia tenuifolia (peas narrow-leaved).
Meadow: Lathyrus pratensis (meadow rank), Medicago lupulina (hop alfalfa), Trifolium hybridum (hybrid clover), T. pratense (meadow), T. repens (creeping), Vicia cracca (mouse peas).
forbs
Steppe: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Centaurea scabiosa (rough cornflower), Filipendula vulgaris (common meadowsweet), Galium verum (real bedstraw), S. stepposa (steppe sage), Serratula coronata (serpuha crowned), Thalictrum minus (small cornflower ).
Meadow: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Carum carvi (common cumin), Filipendula ulmaria (elmweed meadowsweet), Fragaria viridis (green strawberry), Geranium pratensis (meadow geranium), Heracleum sibiricum (Siberian hogweed), Leucanthemum vulgare (common cornflower) , Pimpinella saxifrage (saxifrage femur), Plantago maior (large plantain), P. media (medium n.), Polygonum aviculare (bird mountaineer), P. bistorta (snake), Potentilla anserina (goose cinquefoil), Prunella vulgaris ( common blackhead), Ranunculus polyanthemos (multiflorous buttercup), Rumex confertus (horse sorrel), R. thyrsiflorus (pyramidal sorrel), Sanguisorba officinalis (medicinal burnet), Tanacetum vulgare (common tansy), Taraxacum officinale (medicinal dandelion), Tragopogon orientalis ( oriental goatbeard).
Meadow - marsh: Caltha palustris (marsh marigold), Lythrum salicaria (willow loosestrife), Symphytun officinale (comfrey), Trollius europaeus (European bathing suit).
sedges
The main part of sedge species is associated with wet and swampy meadows. Sedges are poorly eaten on pastures; sedge hay is considered of little value. The feeding value of sedge fodder increases when it is ensiled.
The most common in Bashkortostan on waterlogged soils are Carex acuta (sedge sharp), C. Acutiformis (sharp o.), C. cespitosa (soddy o.), C. juncella (o. sytnichek). C. pediformis (foot-shaped lake), C. Praecox (early lake), C. muricata (prickly lake), etc. are common in steppe meadows and steppes.
Among solonchakous species, C. asparatilis (rough lake) and C. distans (spread lake) are of the greatest food value.
Wormwood
Wormwood (genus Artemisia) form the basis of semi-desert communities, which are absent in Bashkortostan. However, some species of wormwood are found in disturbed meadow and ruderal communities (A. Absinthium - bitter wormwood, sieversiana - Sievers village, A. vulgaris - common wormwood), however, most of the wormwood is associated with steppe grass stands, with Austrian wormwood playing a special role ( A. austriaca), dominant in the steppes with heavy grazing. All wormwoods are poorly eaten in pastures and in hay.
medicinal plants

The great medieval physician Paracelsus said that "the whole world is a pharmacy, and the Almighty is a pharmacist." At present, about 120 species used in scientific medicine and more than 200 species in folk medicine are represented in the flora of Bashkortostan. List of medicinal plants of the flora of Bashkortostan used in scientific medicine:
Achillea millefolium (common yarrow)
Adonis vernalis (spring adonis)
Alnus incana (Alder gray)
Althaea officinalis (Marshmallow)
Angelica archangelica (angelica officinalis)
Artemisia absinthium (wormwood)
Betula pendula (Birch warty)
Bidens tripartita (tripartite string)
Bupleurum aureum (Golden voles)
Capsella bursa - pastoris (Shepherd's purse)
Carum carvi (Common cumin)
Centaurea cyanus (blue cornflower)
Centaurium erythraea (Centaury)
Chamerion angustifolium (Ivan - narrow-leaved tea)
Chamomilla recutita (Chamomile)
Chamomilla suaveolens (Scented Chamomile)
Chelidonium majus (Large celandine)
Convallaria majalis (May lily of the valley)
Crataegus sanguinea (Blood red hawthorn)
Datura stramonium (Datura common)
Delphinium elatum (larkspur high)
Digitalis grandiflora (Foxglove)
Dryopteris filix - mas (male fern)
Echinops sphaerocephalus (Globular Mordovnik)
Elytrigia repens (Wheatgrass)
Erysimum diffusum (Spreading jaundice)
Equisetum arvense (Horsetail)
Fragaria vesca (Wild strawberry)
Frangula alnus (Brittle buckthorn)
Glycyrrhiza korshinskyi (Korzhinsky Licorice; the species is included in the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus)
Gnaphalium rossicum (Russian sushi)
Humulus lupulus (Common hop)
Huperzia selago (Common ram)
Hyoscyamus niger (Black henbane)
Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort)
Inula helenium (Elecampane high)
Juniperus communis (Common juniper)
Leonurus quinquelobatus (Five-lobed motherwort)
Lycopodium clavatum (Clubed club moss)
Melilotus officinalis (Melilotus officinalis)
Menyanthes trifoliate (Three-leaf watch)
Nuphar lutea (Yellow pod)
Origanum vulgare (Oregano)
Oxycoccus palustris (Marsh Cranberry)
Padus avium (Common bird cherry)
Plantago major (Plantago major)
Pinus sylvestris (Scotch pine)
Polemonium caeruleum (Blue cyanosis)
Polygonum aviculare (Highlander bird)
Polygonum bistorta (Snake knotweed)
Polygonum hydropiper (Water Pepper)
Polygonum persicaria (Highlander)
Potentilla erecta (Potentilla erecta)
Quercus robur (Pedunculate oak)
Rhamnus cathartica (Gesther laxative)
Ribes nigrum (Black currant)
Rosa majalis (May wild rose)
Rubus idaeus (Common raspberry)
Rumex confertus (horse sorrel)
Sanguisorba officinalis (Burnet officinalis)
Sorbus aucuparia (Sorbus ashberry)
Tanacetum vulgare (Common tansy)
Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion officinalis)
Thermopsis lanceolata (Thermopsis lanceolate)
Thymus serpyllum (creeping thyme)
Tilia cordata (little-leaved linden)
Tussilago farfara (mother and stepmother)
Urtica dioica (Dioecious nettle)
Vaccinium vitis - idaea (Cowberry)
Valeriana officinalis (Valeriana officinalis)
Veratrum lobelianum (Lobel hellebore)
Viburnum opulus (Viburnum opulus)

honey plants
Beekeeping is a traditional branch of the economy of the Bashkirs, and the main forage base of bees is plants of wild flora, which determines the high commercial quality of Bashkir honey. Honey plants are plants from which bees collect nectar and pollen. Bees get sugar (carbohydrates) from nectar, and protein and fat from pollen.
All plants, including nectarifers, give pollen, but wind-pollinated plants are especially rich in it. Among them: tree-shrub species from the genera Alnus (alder), Betula (birch), Corylus (hazel), Populus (poplar), Salix (willow), Quercus (oak), Ulmus (elm); herbs - Cannabis ruderalis (weed hemp), Humulus lupulus (hops), species of the genera Amaranthus (amaranth), Artemisia (wormwood), Bidens (succession), Chenopodium (gauze), Rumex (sorrel), Typha (cattail) and others.

E.N. Klobukova-Alisova distinguishes the following groups of honey plants.

poisonous plants
Some part of the flora of Bashkortostan is represented by poisonous plants, and many of the plant poisons are used as medicines in low doses. The most important poisonous plants are: Aconitum septentrionale (high wrestler), Actaea spicata (black cohosh), Adonis vernalis (spring adonis), Anemonoides altaica (Altai anemone), A. ranunculoides (v. ranunculoides), Chelidonium majus (large celandine), Cicuta virosa (poisonous milestone, this is the most poisonous plant), Conium maculatum (spotted hemlock), Convallaria majalis (May lily of the valley), Daphne mezereum (wolf bast), Equisetum palustre (marsh horsetail), E. pratense (meadow x.), E. fluviatile (river x.), E. sylvaticum (forest x.), Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane), Juniperus Sabina (Cossack juniper), Paris quadrifolia (four-leaved crow's eye)
Brief description of the natural regions of the Republic of Bashkortostan

BASHKIR PRE-Urals
1. Kamsko-Tanypsky region of broad-leaved, broad-leaved-dark-coniferous and pine forests
The undulating plain of the interfluve of the river. Kama, Belaya and Fast Tanyp. The climate is moderately warm, well humidified. Gray and light gray forest, soddy-podzolic and floodplain soils predominate.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed and densely populated. Factors of threat to biodiversity and deterioration of the ecological situation: cutting down the last fragments of indigenous forest types with their replacement with artificial plantations; air pollution from industrial emissions and acid rain; pollution (soil, atmosphere, water) during oil production; soil erosion; overgrazing; destruction of natural vegetation during the preparation of the bed of the Nizhnekamsk reservoir; unregulated recreation in coniferous forests (Nikolo-Berezovskoe L-in); anthropogenic swamping of forests, etc.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, broad-leaved-dark-coniferous (linden-fir-spruce, oak-fir-spruce), broad-leaved (linden-birch, linden-oak, etc.) dominated, and, along the sandy terraces of rivers, broad-leaved-pine forests, which, at present, , mostly replaced by secondary forests, meadows, artificial plantations and farmland. The main forest-forming species: spruce, fir, pine, birch, linden, oak, aspen. The vast swampy massifs that took place in the past (Katay, Cherlak-Saz, etc.) in the Pribelskaya lowland have been destroyed or severely disturbed by reclamation. The flora is mixed, boreal-nemoral, relatively poor. Relic and endemic species are almost absent.
Tasks of biodiversity protection. Key areas with rich biodiversity: river valleys and their terraces (the rivers Kama, Belaya, Bystry Tanyp, Piz, Buy, etc.), the Karmanovo reservoir, the green zone of the city of Neftekamsk, forbidden forest belts along river banks, preserved and restored island indigenous types of forests and swamps. Security level is low: 1 reserve and 6 natural monuments.
The main objects of protection: reference and rare types of forests (broad-leaved-dark-coniferous and pine, southern taiga pine forests, green moss and lichen, pine-larch-linden - on sandy soils, white-moss spruce forests, etc.), preserved and potentially recoverable swamps (sphagnum pine forests, sedge-hypnum, etc. .), rare species of plants (Siberian iris, sandy astragalus, perennial blueberry, wild rosemary, marsh cranberry, medicinal avran, etc.). Species requiring reintroduction or restoration of habitats: narrow-cup carnation, anomalous peony, slender cottongrass.
2. Zabelsky region of deciduous forests
General characteristics of the natural complex. Gently undulating and hilly plains of the Pribelye. Karst landforms are widely represented. The climate is moderately warm, well humidified. To some extent, podzolized gray forest soils predominate.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed and densely populated. Factors of threat to biodiversity and deterioration of the ecological situation: felling of primary forest types, overgrazing, soil erosion, pollution of the river. Belaya industrial effluents, air pollution, destruction of swamps, unregulated recreation around cities, poaching, urbanization, etc.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, broad-leaved forests (oak, linden, maple, elm) dominated, now largely giving way to secondary forests (linden, birch, aspen) and farmland. In the north of the region, insignificant fragments of broad-leaved-dark-coniferous forests have been preserved. Steppe meadows and meadow steppes are represented on the slopes in small areas. Small fragments of pine forests have been preserved along the banks of the Belaya and Sim rivers. The flora is mixed, relatively poor.
Security tasks. Key areas with rich biodiversity: valley natural complexes (R. Belaya, Sim, Bir, Bystry Tanyp, etc.), forbidden strips of forests along river banks, numerous sphagnum bogs in karst depressions, old-growth forests, relic island pine forests along the Belaya and Sim. Security is low: 20 small natural monuments and 2 zoological reserves.
The main objects of protection: rare species of plants (salvinia floating, ephedra two-eared, rusty schenus, yellow iris, oblique onion, marsh cranberry, water chestnut, three-lobed blueberry, etc.).
Species that require reintroduction or restoration of habitats: the most beautiful feather grass, the forest apple tree.
3. Area of ​​broad-leaved-dark-coniferous forests of the Ufa plateau
General characteristics of the natural complex. A flat hill deeply dissected by river valleys with absolute heights of 450-500m. Karst landforms are widely represented. The climate is moderately warm, well humidified. Mountain gray forest soils predominate. There are unique permafrost soils under green moss forests.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed (perennial logging) and poorly populated. Factors of threat to biodiversity and deterioration of the ecological situation: felling of the last fragments of primary forests (including in forbidden areas), air pollution from industrial emissions and acid rain, forest fires, unregulated recreation around the Pavlovsk reservoir, poaching.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, linden-dark coniferous and dark coniferous (spruce, fir) forests prevailed. In addition, oak forests were widespread in the western part, and pine and broad-leaved-pine forests were widespread in the northern and eastern parts. At present, primary forests, to some extent disturbed, have survived mainly only along the forbidden strips along the Ufa, Yuryuzan, and Ai rivers. The rest of the territory is dominated by secondary birch, aspen and linden forests. Rarely there are areas of steppe meadows and sphagnum bogs. The flora is mixed boreal-nemoral, enriched with relict Siberian species (Siberian zygadenus, Siberian adonis, disputable bitterweed, etc.). The endemic of the Ufa plateau is described - the Ural sapling.
etc.................

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

The concept of flora

Flora is a collection of plant species that live in a particular area. We can talk about the flora of a particular region, region, country, or some physical-geographical region (for example, the flora of Siberia, the flora of Europe, the flora of the Omsk region, etc.). Often, flora also means a list of plants noted in a given territory.

The floras of different territories differ significantly in the number of their constituent species. This is primarily due to the size of the territory. The larger it is, the larger, as a rule, the number of species. Comparing approximately the same size parts of the land in terms of the number of plant species growing on them, poor floras and rich floras are identified.

The flora of tropical countries is the richest in species; as you move away from the equatorial region, the number of species decreases rapidly. The richest is the flora of Southeast Asia with the archipelago of the Sunda Islands - more than 45 thousand plant species. In second place in terms of wealth is the flora of tropical America (the Amazon basin with Brazil) - about 40 thousand species. The flora of the Arctic is one of the poorest, there are a little over 600 species, the flora of the Sahara Desert is even poorer - about 500 species.

The richness of the flora is also determined by the diversity of natural conditions within the territory. The more diverse the environmental conditions, the more opportunities for the existence of various plants, the richer the flora. Therefore, the floras of mountain systems are, as a rule, richer than the plain floras. Thus, the flora of the Caucasus has more than 6,000 species, and on the vast plain of the middle zone of the European part of Russia, only about 2,300 species are found.

The richness of the flora can also be due to historical reasons. Older floras, which are many millions of years old, tend to be particularly rich in species. Plants that died out in other areas due to climate change, glaciation, etc. could be preserved here. Such ancient floras are found, for example, in the Far East and Western Transcaucasia. Young floras formed relatively recently are much poorer in species.

Significant differences in systematic composition are observed between the floras of different territories. In countries with a temperate climate, as a rule, the families of Asteraceae, legumes, Rosaceae, grasses, sedges and cruciferous plants predominate. In arid regions, various representatives of the haze are very common. Tropical floras are rich in representatives of orchids, euphorbia, madder, legumes, and cereals. In the savannahs and steppes, cereals take the first place.

flora elements

Arctic - a group of species whose ranges are located in the Far North, in the continental tundra zone and on the Arctic islands. It breaks up into a number of more fractional elements, for example, Western Arctic and Eastern Arctic. On the other hand, some arctic species have parts of their ranges (disjunctions) in the Caucasus, Altai, etc., so one can speak of an arctic-caucasian, arctic-alpine, etc. element.

Northern (or boreal) - a group of species with ranges located mainly within the northern parts of the forest region, namely in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bconiferous forests. Here, too, there are further subdivisions: Euroboreal - only in the European part, Sibboreal in Siberia, etc.

Central European - a group of species with ranges in Central Europe, entering the eastern segments of their ranges into the western part of the Union, in some cases even reaching beyond the Urals.

Basically, this group, which is more thermophilic than the previous one, is distributed in the area of ​​broad-leaved forests.

Examples: common oak (reaches the Urals), sharp-leaved maple (as well as field and Tatar maples), ash, hornbeam, beech, winter oak (Quercus petraea), such herbaceous species inherent in broad-leaved forests as hoof, Peter's cross (Lathraea squamaria ), lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis, etc. Lungwort area.

Atlantic - found in the western regions of the European part of the USSR. This element is most strongly represented in the territory of the Atlantic coastal parts of Europe. Some species are more advanced to the east. Among the plants growing on our territory, we can mention lobelia (Lobelia Dortmanna), waxwort (Myrica Gale).

Pontic - a group of species mainly of the southern Russian steppes, but also found in the Romanian and Hungarian steppes (if the species are found mainly in the Hungarian steppes, then this is a Pannonian element). These include numerous species of our steppe spaces: Adonis (Adonis vernalis), Chistets (Stachys recta), purple mullein (Verbascum phoeniceum), yellow scabiosa (Scabiosa ochroleuca), steppe cherry (Cerasus fruticosa), broom (Cytisus ruthenicus), etc. The Pannonian element is very weakly represented in our country. Area of ​​the adonis.

Sarmatian - combines species occupying the territory between the southern steppes and coniferous forests in the north, without going far to the west, beyond the western borders of the Union. These species are less thermophilic compared to Pontic. A few examples: peas (Vicia pisiformis), hill violet (Viola collina), sandy astragalus (Astragalus arenarius) (and partly Southern Siberia); these are generally steppe species. It is better, in order to avoid confusion, to speak here of the North Kazakhstani element).

Mediterranean - a group of species distributed in dry areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, and in the east growing on the coasts of the Black Sea - in the Crimea and the Caucasus (also in the Caspian regions). Trees and shrubs with evergreen leathery leaves and dry-loving herbs. Examples: strawberry tree (Arbutus andrachne), boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), sumac (Rhus coriaria), wild jasmine (Jasminum fruticans), etc. Some authors also include Near East and Central Asian elements in the Mediterranean element. Boxwood area.

Anterior Asian. This includes species that have a range in the countries of Western Asia - from the borders of Iran in the east to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Basically, these are plants of dry mountainous countries. It breaks up into a number of elements of a narrower meaning, of which we note Iranian, which generally coincides with the Iranian Highlands and extends into our borders in Transcaucasia. 9. Central Asian - confined to Central Asia, to its large mountain ranges (Tien Shan, Pamir-Alai, Tarbagatai, Altai). It is very complex and breaks down into a number of more fractional elements.

Turan - unites a group of species whose ranges are mainly associated with the deserts of the Turan lowland of Central Asia. Desert character element. In basic terms, this is the Aral-Caspian element of some authors, which, however, is usually understood somewhat more broadly. A typical Turanian element is a group of Central Asian desert polynyas (Artemisia). Range of white wormwood.

Manchurian - a group of species that has the main area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe range in Manchuria and enters the southern parts of the Far East Territory. A number of broad-leaved trees and shrubs: Manchurian walnut (Juglans manshurica, Fig. 108), Manchurian aralia (Aralia manshurica), velvet tree (Phellodendron amurense, various-leaved hazel (Corylus heterophylla), etc.

Elements of the flora of the Caucasus. Especially for the Caucasus, you can specify some more geographical elements, spatially more limited. Caucasian - consists of species associated with their ranges with the Greater Caucasus; this includes Caucasian endemics (forest and alpine). Colchis - a group of species that have their range in the Colchis province of the Caucasus, that is, in Western Transcaucasia (Adzharia, Abkhazia and more northerly coast). Species forest, limestone, mountain-meadow. Most of the elements are ancient in their genesis (tertiary): pontic oak (Quercus pontica), rhododendron (Rhododendron Smirnowii), birch (Betula Medwedewii) and others. Hyrcanian - species occupying the extreme southeast of the Caucasus, but the main mass of species is concentrated abroad in northern Iran. Ancient tertiary elements (mainly forest species): Parrotia persica, honey locust (Gleditschia caspia), silk locust (Albizzia julibrissin), genus Danae, etc.

floristic saturation phytogenic swamp

The concept of floristic richness and floristic saturation

The floristic composition is the complete set of plant species found within a particular plant community.

The floristic composition is the most important constitutional feature, which largely determines the structure and functions of the community. This is a very informative sign that speaks about the ecological conditions in which the community is located, about its history, the degree and nature of its disturbance, etc.

The floristic composition is characterized by a number of indicators.

The first is species richness, that is, the total number of species characteristic of a phytocenosis. This indicator can vary from 1 (monodominant single-species communities) to 1000 or more species (some tropical forests). According to the witty remark of R. Margalef (Margalef, 1994), in any case, species richness can be placed between two extreme situations: the Noah's Ark model - there are a lot of species, but each is represented by only one pair of individuals, and the "Petri dish" - microbiological culture , which represents a huge number of individuals of the same species. Species richness is the simplest measure of alpha diversity, that is, biotic diversity at the phytocoenosis level.

With all the interest in the indicator of the degree of species richness, it is obvious that its use in comparative analytical constructions is in many cases incorrect. So, for example, in terms of species richness, a small swamp and a patch of tropical forest are incomparable. Therefore, in geobotany, the indicator of species saturation is much more often used - the number of species per unit area. But here it should be noted that in order to determine the species saturation of a phytocenosis, it is necessary in any case to know its species richness.

If species richness is identified using square or round areas inscribed into each other of increasing size, then, as a rule, with an increase in the area of ​​the accounting unit, the number of species identified in the phytocenosis will increase. If we build a curve from the obtained values, then it will quite well reflect the dependence of the increase in the number of species on the size of the accounting area. As a rule, such a curve will initially rise sharply upwards, and then gradually pass to a plateau. The beginning of the transition to the plateau will show that the vast majority of species in the phytocenosis have already been identified on a site of this size. As a rule, the richer in species the phytocenosis, the smaller the size of the area at which the curve goes to the plateau.

In order to characterize the floristic composition of the phytocenosis as fully as possible, all plants are first rewritten, standing at one point on the boundary of the described area. After all plants are marked, including the most inconspicuous ones visible from the observation point, they slowly move along the border, recording new plants that have not yet been included in the list. Bypassing the entire area. make its intersection diagonally, continuing to enter the plants. This recording method ensures the completeness of the list and saves the described area from trampling by the researcher.

With a single account of the species composition, it is usually impossible to obtain a complete list of species characterizing the phytocenosis. Some species have a short growing season, resting the rest of the year as seeds or underground organs; other species begin their development late and do not fall into the lists compiled during the spring description of the phytocenosis. Therefore, in order to obtain more complete information about the floristic composition of the community, it is necessary to compile lists of plants two or three times during the growing season.

Characteristics of the flora of the world

A section of the earth's surface with its inherent relief, the surface layer of the atmosphere, surface and groundwater, soils, communities of flora and fauna, naturally interconnected, is called a natural territorial complex (NTC). The same concept is also called "geosystem". The ecosystem, which is the main concept of environmental science, is a combination of living organisms and their environment in interaction based on metabolism and directed energy flows: These concepts are very similar in content: in all three concepts, we are talking about a certain territory of the earth's surface. Geosystems, or PTC, mean areas of the earth's surface at various levels that are in regular relationships, from the smallest - facies - to the global - geographical shell. Ecosystems refer to spatial units of various sizes inhabited by organisms characterized by species composition, abundance and biomass, patterns of distribution and seasonal dynamics. The ecosystem of the highest rank is the biosphere. The biosphere and the geographic shell are almost identical concepts. In ecology and geography, not only global units coincide, like the biosphere and the geographical shell, but also others - of a lower rank: as concepts that are close in meaning, but different in form. For example, "facies" in landscape science and "zone" in physical geography are very close in meaning to both biological and ecological terms - "biocenosis" and "biome".

In ecology, biological organisms, their relationship with the environment, species composition, biomass and energy exchange are put in the foreground, since living organisms are distinguished by bio-geochemical activity. Especially green plants, which, as a result of the process of photosynthesis, continuously exchanging substances and energy with non-living components of nature, create primary organic products. In nature, only green plants convert solar energy into biochemical energy and accumulate it. Due to such accumulated energy of green plants, life exists and is preserved on Earth. Animals feed on organic substances that are synthesized by plants, thanks to which they continue their kind. Living organisms that provide continuous metabolism and energy flows form the basis of an ecosystem. In it, the most important component is the plant environment, which affects the soil, wildlife and microorganisms. The state of vegetation determines the nature of biogeocenoses, their morphological and functional structure.
In solving environmental problems, an important role is played by the preservation of the natural state of green plants, land areas and species diversity in the process of human economic activity. The reduction in the annual production of green plants has a negative effect on the biochemical cycle of substances and energy flows, on maintaining the ecological balance in the ecosystem. And negative results cannot but affect a person's life. The ecological situation among animal organisms is in direct connection with the ecological state of vegetation.

For mankind, the plant world is the most important component of the habitat, the main source of food, medicinal and technical raw materials, building material. Vegetation is the main basis of animal husbandry. Cultivated plants are also grown in order to improve the human environment, as well as to increase soil fertility, protect them from water and wind erosion, to fix loose sands, etc.

However, vegetation as one of the components of the natural-territorial complex is quite vulnerable and has low resistance to external influences. In the hierarchical system of the natural-territorial complex, vegetation is in a dependent position on a number of components. Of the PTC components, the most stable is the lithological link, i.e. geological structure and relief. Air mass is also one of the stable components of PTC. After them is the water component, then the soil, and then only the vegetation. Altering any of the above components will result in a violation of the botanical component. If the relief is disturbed, the soil is washed away, the water regime is changed, then there can be no question of preserving natural vegetation. But, if other components of nature have not undergone changes, then it is possible to preserve and restore the plant environment.

The animal world is also an important part of the biosphere. Animals are the most vulnerable component of the NTC - the main consumer of primary organic products created by plants, which provide the cycle of chemical elements in the biosphere.

In soil fertility and weathering of rocks, the role of animals is great. Animal organisms in the composition of the soil, such as earthworms, various beetles, spiders, microorganisms, digging rodents, constantly mix the soil, loosening it, increasing pores and voids in it, contribute to the penetration of air into the soil and, together with the remains of dead plants and animals, increase its fertility. . Small insects provide pollination of plants, thus creating the possibility of quantitative reproduction. By transferring the seeds of some plants from place to place, they contribute to their spread. Animals improve pastures to a certain extent, and only their excessive numbers within a limited area can lead to deterioration of the soil cover.

Animals play an important role in people's lives. They provide us with food, serve as a raw material base for industry. Wild animals are the source of the genetic fund for animal husbandry. At the present stage, people are trying to domesticate different types of wild animals in order, for example, to use their valuable fur.
Some species of animals cause serious damage to the economy, and people try to reduce such losses.

The fauna, together with the flora, is the most important component of the ecosystem, a factor that determines its current state. Ecological situations on the ground are determined by the state in which people, animals and plants are.).
The animal world, as one of the components of the natural-territorial complex, is the most vulnerable, especially susceptible to external influences, including those resulting from human economic activity, and has the least stability. This component is dependent on all other PTC components. In the hierarchical series of the geosystem, it occupies the last step, because the influence of human economic activity primarily affects it, leading to a sharp increase in the number of some species, a reduction in others, or the complete disappearance of others. The animal world is the most affected of all components of the NTC from human economic activity.

Floristic division of the Earth

An attempt at floristic zoning of the earth's landmasses was made as early as the first half of the 19th century. Floristic zoning can be based on various principles. In particular, it is possible to single out individual regions depending on the richness of species, the features of the systematic composition, the presence or absence of certain elements of the flora.

However, most often the land area of ​​the globe is divided into a series of mutually subordinate areas, or phytochorios (from the Greek phyton - plant and horos - space), identified on the basis of similarities and differences in the systematic composition of their floras. As new data accumulates, they are repeatedly refined. A significant contribution to the zoning of the Earth according to the composition of floras was made by the Russian botanist A. L. Takhtadzhyan in his book Floristic Regions of the Earth (1978). An analysis of the ranges and the identification of the geographical and genetic elements of a given flora are essential in determining the boundaries of phytochorios.

Where the composition of the main elements of the flora changes, one flora is replaced by another. In works on floristic zoning, the distribution of endemics in the floras is especially important.

Endemics are species (plants) that are not found anywhere except in a given territory. Endemism is a broader concept, since endemic species can, for larger areas, constitute both endemic genera and even endemic families. The degree of endemism is very different for different areas. Flora of isolated oceanic islands is highly endemic. So, for the flora of the Hawaiian Islands, 82% of endemics are indicated, for the flora of the Galapagos Islands - more than 50, in the aboriginal part of the flora of New Zealand - 82%. Of the mainland floras, the flora of Australia, a continent that has long been isolated from other significant land areas, is the most isolated.

Here, out of 12 thousand species, more than 9 thousand are endemic. But the number of endemic families here is still less than in East and Southeast Asia. Among endemics, botanists try to distinguish between paleoendemics and neoendemics. Paleoendemics are of ancient origin. These are, as a rule, systematically isolated taxa. The number of paleoendemics to a greater extent determines the originality and antiquity of the flora. Neoendemics most often include species, less often genera, which have arisen relatively recently and have not yet had time to spread widely. Especially a lot of neoendemics in mountain ranges. A large number of neoendemics indicates active speciation processes and the relative youth of the main core of the flora. The centers of modern diversity of certain taxa are primarily associated with the abundance of neoendemics.

Floristic kingdoms

Floristic kingdoms (regions) of the globe, historically formed on certain parts of the Earth's surface, are the largest associations of related floras. Isolation F. c. substantiated primarily by paleogeographic (beginning mostly from the Cretaceous period), as well as modern soil and climatic factors. In each F. c. there are complexes of endemic families and genera of plants, the origin and distribution of which during a long geological history proceeded within its boundaries. F. c. subdivided into subordinate floristic units of a lower rank (floristic regions, provinces, districts, districts, etc.). Although in the division of the earth's surface into F. c. (or areas) by different authors there are discrepancies, in its fundamental basis it is uniform (see Floristic zoning).

The vast Holarctic floristic kingdom (or the Holarctic region) occupies the entire extratropical space of the North. hemisphere, in the south to the Cape Verde Islands, sowing. parts of the Sahara and Arabia, the coast of the Persian Gulf, south. slopes of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas, the extreme south of China, in the North. America - to sowing. parts of the Mexican Highlands and the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.

Historically, the floras of the Holarctic are associated with the ancient Paleogene-Neogene arcto-tertiary floristic complex, its derivatives, with Amer. Madro-tertiary floras. Relations with the tropical floras proper have long been limited to the vast Tethys basin, whose isolating role opposed the similarity of the climatic conditions of the south of the Holarctic with the tropical ones proper. Flora of the Holarctic F. c. it is strongly differentiated, which makes it subdivide it into a number of floristic regions: Arctic - has poor floras with a predominance of such families as cereals, sedge, cruciferous, clove, Compositae, etc .; Boreal - characterized by the dominance of coniferous trees, cereals, sedge, composite flowers are distinguished by the number of species; the Central European region is characterized by the dominance of deciduous tree species (temperate forests), an abundance of cereals, composites, rosaceae, and other groups common to the Holarctic; Mediterranean - richly represented by Compositae, papilionaceous, cereals, cruciferous, labial, carnation, umbellate (flora is highly differentiated in space, progressive endemism is pronounced); Central Asian - relatively poor flora, similar to the Mediterranean, Boreal and East Asian; East Asian preserved many features of the Arcto-Paleogene-Neogene species in combination with the development of progressive endemism; California (Sonoran) and Appalachian - the basis of the flora are relics of the Paleogene-Neogene and Madro-Paleogene-Neogene complexes with elements of progressive endemism.

The paleotropic floristic kingdom (or the Paleotropical region) occupies the space to the south from the Holarctic floristic kingdom (in the Eastern Hemisphere) to the subtropics of South Africa, together with the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. The flora is rich and highly differentiated. The leading position is occupied by pantropical families, which are characterized by division into territories of the Old and New Worlds (for example, palm trees and orchids); madder, euphorbiaceae, palms, orchids, melastomas, aroids, mulberries, laurels, and a number of tubular groups are widespread. Cosmopolitan families and species are represented by grasses, legumes, Asteraceae, and others. There are few endemic families - dipterocarps, pandanaceae, and some others. The species composition of floras is rich, especially in areas dominated by forest vegetation. The richness and differentiation of floras make it possible to single out regions in the paleotropical realm: Sahara-Sind, Sudano-Zambezian, Guinea-Congo, Kalahari, Cape, Madagascar, Hindustan, Indochinese, Malay, Papuan, Hawaiian, Polynesian.

The Neotropical floristic kingdom (or the Neotropical region) occupies the space of the New World from the South. California and the Bahamas to 41° S. sh. The flora is characterized by the mass presence of cosmopolitan (orchids, Asteraceae, legumes, cereals, etc.) and pantropical (palms, myrtle, euphorbia, madder, etc.) families. The families of cacti, bromeliads, and others are endemic. Changes in the richness of floras mainly depend on climatic conditions (wet and hot forest regions of the equatorial zone, rich in species composition, change when moving to subtropical latitudes and when climbing mountains). The following areas are distinguished: Caribbean, Orinoco, Amazonian, Brazilian, Laplata, Andean.

The southern floristic kingdom occupies mainland Australia and about. Tasmania, New Zealand with adjoining islands, extreme south South. America, the subantarctic islands and Antarctica. The flora of Australia is the most peculiar - myrtle (in particular, eucalyptus), protea, mimosa, epacrid, buzz, restia, casuarina, etc. There are Australian (a number of botanists consider it as a floristic kingdom), New Zealand, New Caledonian and Magellano-Antarctic regions.

Phytogenic factors, their classification and characteristics

In the domestic literature, the most common classification of the forms of relationships between plants according to V. N. Sukachev (Table.

Table The main forms of relationships between plants (according to V. N. Sukachev, N. V. Dylis et al., 1964).

Direct (contact) interactions between plants

An example of mechanical interaction is damage to spruce and pine in mixed forests from the whipping action of birch. Swaying from the wind, the thin branches of the birch injure the needles of the spruce, knocking down the light young needles. This is very noticeable in winter, when the birch branches are leafless.

Mutual pressure and adhesion of trunks often has a negative effect on plants. However, such contacts are more common in the underground sphere, where large masses of roots are closely intertwined in small volumes of soil. The types of contacts can be different - from a simple clutch to a strong fusion. Thus, the overgrowth of vines turns out to be detrimental to the life of many tropical forest trees, often leading to breaking off branches under their weight and drying out of the trunks as a result of the squeezing action of climbing stems or roots. It is no coincidence that some creepers are called "stranglers" (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1 Liana plants: 1 - strangler ficus; 2 - dodder; 3 - curly honeysuckle (according to N. M. Chernova et al., 1995)

According to scientists, about 10% of all plant species lead an epiphytic lifestyle. Tropical forests are richest in epiphytes. These include many species of bromeliads, orchids (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2 Epiphytic orchid with aerial roots: A - general view; B - cross section of the air root with the outer layer of the suction tissue (1) (according to V. L. Komarov, 1949)

The ecological meaning of epiphytism consists in a kind of adaptation to the light regime in dense tropical forests: the ability to get out to the light in the upper tiers of the forest without large expenditures of substances for growth. The very origin of the epiphytic way of life is associated with the struggle of plants for light. The evolution of many epiphytes has gone so far that they have already lost the ability to grow outside the plant substrate, that is, they are obligate epiphytes. However, there are species that can grow in the soil under greenhouse conditions.

A characteristic example of close symbiosis, or mutualism between plants, is the cohabitation of algae and fungus, which form a special integral lichen organism (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cladonia lichen (according to N. M. Chernova et al., 1995)

Another example of symbiosis is the cohabitation of higher plants with bacteria, the so-called bacteriotrophy. Symbiosis with nodule nitrogen-fixing bacteria is widespread among legumes (93% of the studied species) and mimosa (87%). Thus, bacteria from the genus Rhizobium, living in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants, are provided with food (sugar) and habitat, and plants receive from them the available form of nitrogen in return (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5 Nodules on the roots of leguminous plants: A - red clover; B beans; B - soybeans; G - lupine (according to A.P. Shennikov, 1950).

There is a symbiosis of the mycelium of the fungus with the root of a higher plant, or mycorrhiza formation. Such plants are called mycotrophic, or mycotrophs. Settling on the roots of plants, the hyphae of the fungus provide the higher plant with an enormous suction capacity. The surface of contact between root cells and hyphae in ectotrophic mycorrhiza is 10–14 times larger than the surface of contact with the soil of bare root cells, while the suction surface of the root due to root hairs increases the root surface only 2–5 times. Of the 3425 species of vascular plants studied in our country, mycorrhiza was found in 79%.

As an example of the symbiosis of fungi with insects, one can cite the symbiosis of the fungus Septobasidium with the worm insect from Coccidae, which gives a new symbiotic formation - varnishes, which, as a single organism, is introduced into culture by man.

A separate group of plants with heterotrophic nutrition is saprophytes - species that use organic matter of dead organisms as a carbon source. In the biological cycle, this important link, which decomposes organic residues and converts complex compounds into simpler ones, is mainly represented by fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria. They are found among flowering plants in representatives of the wintergreen, orchid, and other families. Examples of flowering plants that have completely lost chlorophyll and switched to food with ready-made organic substances are saprophytes of coniferous forests - common podelnik (Monotropahypopitis), leafless chin (Epipogonaphylluon). Among mosses and ferns, saprophytes are rare.

The fusion of roots of closely growing trees (of the same species or related species) also refers to direct physiological contacts between plants. The phenomenon is not so rare in nature. In dense plantations of Piceaflies spruce, about 30% of all trees grow together with their roots. It has been established that between intergrown trees there is an exchange through the roots in the form of the transfer of nutrients and water. Depending on the degree of difference or similarity in the needs of the fused partners, relations between them are not excluded, both of a competitive nature in the form of the interception of substances by a more developed and stronger tree, and symbiotic.

The form of connections in the form of predation has a certain meaning. Predation is widespread not only between animals, but also between plants and animals. Thus, a number of insectivorous plants (dew, nepenthes) are classified as predators (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6 Predatory sundew plant (according to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)

Indirect transbiotic relationships between plants (through animals and microorganisms). An important ecological role of animals in the life of plants is their participation in the processes of pollination, seed and fruit dispersal. Pollination of plants by insects, called entomophily, contributed to the development of a number of adaptations in both plants and insects. Let us name here such interesting adaptations of entomophilous flowers - patterns that form "travel threads" to nectaries and stamens, often visible only in ultraviolet rays accessible to insects; difference in color of flowers before and after pollination; synchronization of the diurnal rhythms of opening of the corolla and stamens, ensuring the unmistakable hit of the stigma on the body of the insect, and from it on the stigma of another flower, etc. (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7 Insect on a flower (according to N.M. Chernova et al., 1995)

The diverse and complex structure of flowers (different shapes of petals, their symmetrical or asymmetrical arrangement, the presence of certain inflorescences), called heterostyly, are all adaptations to the body structure and behavior of strictly specific insects. For example, flowers of wild carrot (Daucuscarota), cumin (Carumcarvi), pollinated by ants, flowers of Asarumeuropaeum, pollinated by ants and, accordingly, do not rise from under the forest floor.

Birds also take part in the pollination of plants. Pollination of plants with the help of birds, or ornithophily, is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions of the southern hemisphere. About 2,000 species of birds are known here, which pollinate flowers when looking for nectar or catching insects hiding in their corollas. Among them, the most famous pollinators are nectaries (Africa, Australia, South Asia) and hummingbirds (South America). The flowers of ornithophilous plants are large, brightly colored. The dominant color is bright red, which is most attractive to hummingbirds and other birds. In some ornithophilous flowers, there are special protective devices that prevent nectar from spilling out when the flower moves.

Pollination of plants by mammals, or zoogamy, is less common. For the most part, zoogamy is noted in Australia, in the forests of Africa and South America. For example, Australian shrubs of the genus Driandra are pollinated by kangaroos, who willingly drink their abundant nectar, passing from flower to flower.

The distribution of seeds, fruits, spores of plants with the help of animals is called zoochory. Among plants whose seeds and fruits are carried by animals, in turn, there are epizoochoric, endozoochoric and synzoochoric. Epizoochoric plants in most open habitats have seeds and fruits with all kinds of devices for fixing and holding animals on the surface of the body (outgrowths, hooks, trailers, etc.), for example, large and cobwebbed burdock, common Velcro, etc.

In the shrub layer of forests, where many birds live, endozoochoric plant species predominate. Their fruits are edible or attractive to birds with bright coloring or juicy pericarp. It should be noted that the seeds of many endozoochoric plants increase their germination capacity, and sometimes the ability to germinate only after passing through the food tract of the animal - many Araliaceae, Sievers' apple tree (Malussieversu), etc.

Animals do not eat edible fruits and seeds of oak, Siberian pine immediately, but take them away and put them in stock. At the same time, a significant part of them is lost and, under favorable conditions, gives rise to new plants. This distribution of seeds and fruits is called synzoochory.

Microorganisms often act as plants in indirect transbiotic relationships. The rhizosphere of the roots of many trees, for example, oak, greatly changes the soil environment, especially its composition, acidity, and thus creates favorable conditions for the settlement of various microorganisms there, primarily bacteria, such as Azotobacterchroocoteum, Tricholomelegnorum, Pseudomonassp. These bacteria, having settled here, feed on the secretions of oak roots and organic residues created by the hyphae of mycorrhiza-forming fungi. Bacteria, living next to oak roots, serve as a kind of "defensive line" from the penetration of pathogenic fungi into the roots. This biological barrier is created with the help of antibiotics secreted by bacteria. The colonization of bacteria in the oak rhizosphere immediately has a positive effect on the condition of plants, especially young ones.

Indirect transabiotic relationships between plants (environment-forming influences, competition, allelopathy). Changing the environment by plants is the most universal and widespread type of relationships between plants during their coexistence. When one or another plant species or group of plant species in C, as a result of its life activity, greatly changes the main environmental factors in quantitative and qualitative terms in such a way that other species of the community have to live in conditions that differ significantly from the zonal complex of physical environmental factors, this indicates environment-forming role, environment-forming influence of the first type in relation to the others. One of them is mutual influences through changes in microclimate factors (for example, the weakening of solar radiation inside the vegetation cover, its depletion in photosynthetically active rays, changes in the seasonal rhythm of illumination, etc.). Some plants also affect others through a change in the temperature regime of the air, its humidity, wind speed, carbon dioxide content, etc.

Another way for plants to interact in communities is through the ground layer of dead plant residues, which in the meadows and steppes are called rags, grassy decay or "steppe felt", and in the forest - litter. This layer (sometimes several centimeters thick) makes it difficult for seeds and spores to penetrate the soil. Seeds germinating in (or on) a layer of rags often die from drying out before the roots of the seedlings reach the soil. For seeds that have fallen into the soil and germinate, ground residues can be a serious mechanical obstacle on the way of sprouts to light. Interactions between plants are also possible through the decay products of plant residues contained in the litter, which inhibit or, conversely, stimulate plant growth. Thus, fresh spruce or beech litter contains substances that inhibit the germination of spruce and pine, and in places with poor rainfall and weak washing of the litter, the natural renewal of tree species can be inhibited. Water extracts from forest litter also have a negative effect on the growth of many steppe grasses.

An essential way of mutual influence of plants is the interaction through chemical secretions. Plants release various chemicals into the environment (air, water, soil) in the process of guttation, secretion of nectar, essential oils, resins, etc.; when mineral salts are washed out by rainwater, leaves, for example, of trees, lose potassium, sodium, magnesium and other ions; in the course of metabolism (root secretions) gaseous substances emitted by aboveground organs - unsaturated hydrocarbons, ethylene, hydrogen, etc .; when the integrity of tissues and organs is violated, plants emit volatile substances, the so-called phytoncides, and substances from dead parts of plants (Fig. 8).

Released compounds are necessary for plants, but with the development of a large plant body surface, their loss is just as inevitable as transpiration.

The chemical secretions of plants can serve as one way of interaction between plants in a community, exerting either a toxic or stimulating effect on organisms.

Rice. 8 The influence of one plant on another (according to A. M. Grodzinsky, 1965): 1 - miasmins; 2 - volatile substances; 3 - phytogenic substances; 4 - active intravital discharge; 5 - passive intravital discharge; 6 - post-mortem discharge; 7 - processing by heterotrophic organisms

Such chemical interactions are called allelopathy. As an example, we can mention the secretions of beet seedlings, which inhibit the germination of cockle (Agrostemmagithago) seeds. Chickpea (Cicerarietinum) has an overwhelming effect on potatoes, corn, sunflower, tomatoes and other crops, beans - on the growth of spring wheat; root secretions of couch grass (Agropyronrepens) and brome (Bromusinermis) - on other herbaceous plants growing near them and even trees. As an extreme form of allelopathy or the impossibility of the existence of one or another species in the presence of another as a result of environmental intoxication, it is called amensalism. Amensalism corresponds to direct competition, antibiosis and antagonism. Thus, due to the release of toxic substances by the roots, the hawkweed (Hieraciumpilosella) from the Compositae family displaces other annual plants and often forms pure thickets over fairly large areas. Many fungi and bacteria synthesize antibiotics that inhibit the growth of other bacteria. Amensalism is widespread in the aquatic environment.

In different plant species, the degree of impact on the environment and thus on the life of the inhabitants is not the same in accordance with the characteristics of their morphology, biology, seasonal development, etc. Plants that most actively and deeply transform the environment and determine the conditions of existence for other cohabitants are called edificators. There are strong and weak edifiers. Strong edificators include spruce (strong shading, depletion of soils in nutrients, etc.), sphagnum mosses (moisture retention and the creation of excess moisture, an increase in acidity, a special temperature regime, etc.). Weak edificators are deciduous species with an openwork crown (birch, ash), plants of the herbaceous cover of forests.

Competition is distinguished as a special form of transbiotic relationships between plants. These are those mutual or unilateral negative influences that arise on the basis of the use of energy and food resources of the habitat. Plant life is strongly influenced by competition for soil moisture (especially pronounced in areas with insufficient moisture) and competition for soil nutrients, more noticeable on poor soils. An example of competition is the relationship between meadow foxtail (Alopecuruspratensis) and fescue (Festucasulcata). Fescue can grow in moist soil, but does not grow in the foxtail meadow community due to suppression by the shade-tolerant and fast growing foxtail. In the formation of fescue or foxtail phytocenosis, it is not soil moisture that is decisive, but the competitive relationship between fescue and foxtail. In drier habitats, the fescue drowns out the foxtail, and in wet meadows, the foxtail emerges victorious.

Interspecific competition manifests itself in plants in the same way as intraspecific competition (morphological changes, reduced fertility, abundance, etc.). The dominant species gradually crowds out or greatly reduces its viability.

The fiercest competition, often with unforeseen consequences, occurs when new plant species are introduced into communities without taking into account already established relationships.

The concept of the swamp

A swamp is a section of the earth's surface characterized by abundant stagnant or weakly flowing moistening of the upper horizons of soil and soil, on which specific marsh vegetation grows, adapted to conditions of abundant moisture and lack of oxygen in the soil.

If the thickness of the deposited peat is such that the roots of the main mass of plants reach the underlying mineral soil, then in this case the excessively moistened land areas are referred to as wetlands or swamps in the initial stage of their development.

The task of hydrology includes the study of the hydrological (and especially water) regime of swamps both in the initial stages of their formation (wetlands and swampy water bodies) and in subsequent phases of development (bog massifs).

The division of wetlands into wetlands and marshes is largely a reflection of differences in vegetation composition. Purely marsh forms of plant groups do not appear simultaneously with the beginning of the swamping process. As long as the thickness of the peat is small and the root systems of the main plant species do not break away from the mineral soil underlying the peat, the vegetation cover includes plants characteristic of both bog and non-bog habitats.

Due to the fact that the condition that determines the existence of certain plant associations in overmoistened territories is primarily the water regime, the indicated difference between wetlands and swamps in the subsequent stage of their development also has a hydrological significance. In addition to defining a swamp as a hydrological object, there are definitions in which a swamp is considered as an object of peat extraction, that is, from the point of view of the presence or absence of fuel reserves in it.

Ways of swamp formation

There are three main stages in the development of swamps.

First stage.

Lakes are natural reservoirs in land depressions (hollows), filled within the lake bowl (lake bed) with heterogeneous water masses and not having a one-sided slope. The basins of lakes are divided by origin into tectonic, glacial, river (oxbow lakes), seaside (lagoons, estuaries), sinkholes (karst, thermokarst), volcanic (in the craters of extinct volcanoes), dammed, artificial (reservoirs, ponds). According to the water balance, lakes are divided into waste and non-drainage; according to the chemical composition of water - into fresh and mineral.

This is not unimportant, since a huge amount of minerals is delivered to the lakes by groundwater or aboveground waters, and organic matter (plus minerals) is brought with coastal washout waters and springs (ground type of nutrition).

Mineralization of water, saturation of water with inorganic (mineral) substances, which are in the form of both ions and colloids.

In the process of vital activity of plants and animals, a substance called sapropel, organic silts, consisting mainly of organic substances and the remains of aquatic organisms, is formed at the bottom of lakes. Sapropel is used as fertilizer. Plants along the shore of the reservoir (trees, shrubs) correspond to the types found in the area. But aquatic and wetland plants (reeds, reeds, water lilies, pondweeds) are already starting to do their job.

At this stage, representatives of fish, fish-like, mollusks, etc. are still noticeable. You can also see plankton, which reproduces especially abundantly during the spring mixing of water, when its temperature promotes reproduction processes, and the amount of oxygen reaches its highest mark (oxygen dissolved in water).

Dokturovsky V.S. wrote: “From the edges of the shores of the lake, wetland vegetation gradually moves towards the middle of the reservoirs ... leaving in their center only a small lake, which, instead of shores with mineral soil, is surrounded by peat bog ...”

Second stage of development.

A layer of lowland peat is formed here (it unites 24 species), the predominance of marsh plants. The boundaries of peat and sapropel coincide. Atmospheric feeding maintains a weak runoff from the banks and contributes to waterlogging by replenishing the upper layer with water. Evaporation processes are negligible compared to the process of water inflow from the soil and the atmosphere.

The flow of water from the ground can be partially disturbed, but more often the constant prevails. This process contributes to the growth of the swamp, which gradually increases its volume. But the volume is due to the growth of peat, which in turn is the main reason for the increase in the volume of the swamp.

Peat formation occurs within the peat layer. This layer is located at the top (0.2 -0.7 m) of the peat deposit.

With a high standing of water, anaerobic conditions arise and decomposition processes slow down.

Third stage.

At this stage of development, the type of swamp is fully formed, that is, we can already determine what kind of swamp it is: lowland, transitional or upland. Let's take a swamp as an example. So, before us is a formed lowland swamp. The layer of low-lying peat accumulated during the growth of the marsh landscape is quite high. Vegetation cover is widely represented by marsh plants described above. Representatives of trees - spruce and birch, spread over the surface of the swamp. The layer of sapropel is significantly increased. There is a boundary between peat and sapropel with interpenetration. Atmospheric nutrition brings oxygen and contributes to the waterlogging of territories. The flow of water from the soil in some cases supports, while in others it contributes to an increase in the volume of the swamp. Evaporation processes are slowed down. A continuous vegetation cover retains moisture. Growth processes prevail over decomposition processes. And in this sense, the swamps in terms of productivity (its relation to decomposition processes) are in one of the first places.

Similar Documents

The concept of flora, landscape, plant community and vegetation. The main stages in the development of the animal world on earth. Types and major breeds of domestic animals. Pollution of the natural environment and the role of plants in its protection. Vegetation protection.

abstract, added 07/03/2010


Ecological groups of plants. Adaptation to stressful living conditions. Types of habitats and factors that determine their boundaries. Botanical and ecological characteristics of wild-growing plant species (River Gravilat Geum rivale) family (Rosaceae).

test, added 04/09/2019


The history of the flora of the village of Markovichi. The concept of flora, methods of its study. The use of collected medicinal plants in scientific and folk medicine. Analysis of the studied habitats. Systematic composition of discovered plants, ecological and biomorphological composition.

term paper, added 06/23/2016


Physical and geographical characteristics of the region. The concept of the steppe flora and vegetation. Steppes of the Ulyanovsk region. Characteristics of the class of monocots and its main families in the Middle lane. Analysis of the flora of communities in the vicinity of the villages of Yasashnaya Tashla and Tushna.

test, added 01/17/2011


Characteristics of tectonic life on the planet during the Jurassic period. Features of the development and existence of flora and fauna on Earth: the dominance of gymnosperms of plants, the reproduction of giant reptiles, the appearance of the first birds, the life of marine animals.

presentation, added 11/10/2012


The influence of animals and insects on the change in the composition of the forest stand. Biotic factors and the forest. Ecological system. Rational use and protection of animals. Direct and indirect human impact on animals. Protection of rare and endangered animal species.

abstract, added 05/31/2012


Soil as a habitat and the main edaphic factors, assessment of its role and importance in the life of living organisms. The distribution of animals in the soil, the ratio of plants to it. The role of microorganisms, plants and animals in soil-forming processes.

term paper, added 02/04/2014


Terrestrial and cosmic factors of plant life. Solar radiation as the main source of light for plants. Photosynthetically and physiologically active radiation and its significance. Influence of illumination intensity. The importance of heat and air in plant life.

presentation, added 02/01/2014


Types and role of plastids in plant life. The value of bast, wood fibers. Methods of nutrition and reproduction of mushrooms. Life cycle of Scotch pine. Characteristics of the aster family. Influence of climatic factors on the distribution of vegetation by zones.

control work, added 11/03/2009


The concept and distinctive features of the formation of oligotrophic swamps. Common characteristic features in the structure of plants common in their territories. Methodology for the study of the main phytocenoses of the oligotrophic type, their properties and ecological significance.

Although flora, by definition, is understood full the species composition of plants growing in a certain territory, in reality, only a part of the species that have been identified in a given territory always appears in the floristic lists. A rare researcher dares to include in the list all plant species, among which, in this case, both avascular (bryophyte) and vascular plants should be represented. Due to the objectively limited possibilities of the researcher, he has to focus primarily on taxa (systematic groups) in which he considers himself a specialist. Another kind of restrictions arise when the researcher is especially interested in some ecological groups, for example, a group of coastal aquatic plants, which, of course, does not limit the flora of the entire territory of a district or region. A more rigorous and correct name for the lists of species that are limited in various circumstances occurring in the study area - partial floras.

It is not customary to include plant species cultivated by humans in the flora, just as it is not customary to include in it species that ended up in a given territory as a result of accidental unintentional introduction. Such species, as a rule, are poorly adapted to unusual local conditions and do not form stable populations. A special attitude to "naturalizants" - species that, being accidentally introduced ( adventitious) or specially introduced, naturalized, renewed in the place where they appeared, regardless of the person. Such species with appropriate marks are included in the flora along with naturally occurring, aboriginal types.

Inventory of flora always involves identifying it ecological and taxonomic structure.

The ecological structure of the flora is characterized by the spectrum of life forms - the percentage ratio of the number of species representing different life forms. Although quite a lot of classifications of plant life forms have been developed in science, not all of them are used to the same extent to establish the ecological structure of the flora. In this regard, the classification of K. Raunkjer turned out to be the most successful and therefore popular. Based on it, a global ecological spectrum was built for the entire flora of vascular plants of the globe. This is what is usually used as a standard for comparison with the spectra of specific floras. It was found that the floras of vascular plants from different regions of the Earth and different biomes naturally differ in the spectrum of life forms. If in humid tropical forests (hylaea) phanerophyte trees, woody lianas and epiphytes predominate, then in dry subtropics, with a significant participation of phanerophyte shrubs, herbs still prevail, but in some regions cryptophytes, and in others (in the area of ​​ephemeral deserts) - terophytes. In the floras of a temperate and moderately warm humid climate, a sharp predominance of perennial grasses (hemicryptophytes and cryptophytes) was noted.

The characteristic of the ecological structure of the flora can also include the ratio in it relic and progressive elements.

To relic elements include species for which the conditions of existence on the territory of the flora seem to be unfavorable, due to which the number of their populations decreases and the range is reduced. A sign of relictness, even with a more or less stable existence of a species in the territory of the flora, can be considered its narrow local distribution in its territory with a low number of populations. As opposed to relic progressive elements and with a narrow local distribution are found massively, and the number of their populations increases. Both the relict and progressive components of the flora are represented in it by a small number of species. The equilibrium with environmental conditions, in which most species of flora exist, does not imply either a steady decrease or a steady increase in abundance, and the occurrence of such species in the flora area remains stable. They can be distinguished in a special conservative flora element. The most widespread species that have populated a variety of habitats that are stably found in certain phytocenoses and usually play a significant role in their composition can be attributed to active types. The group of active species corresponds to some of the progressive and some of the conservative species.

The main indicator that reflects taxonomic structure flora, we can consider the distribution of its constituent species according to higher taxa and, first of all, families.

The result of a comparison of the richest in species, the so-called leading, families allows you to rank these families in descending order of the number of species. The number of families taken for comparing floras can be different, but, as a rule, biogeographers are limited to ten, the composition and relative position of which give out the specifics of floras of different climatic zones (see Table 1).

Leading Families are distinguished only by the number of flora species included in them, but neither the number of populations or individuals of these species, nor their occurrence, nor their role in the composition of the vegetation cover are taken into account.

The taxonomic structure of the floras provides good material for their comparison, if the difficulties mentioned above with a number of taxa that are problematic for science are overcome. For example, the family Compositae or Asteraceae, which appears in the characteristics of three of the four climatic zones given in the table, is known for a number of apomictic genera. If, again, we assign the rank of species to microspecies and recognize the existence of 15–20 species instead of one variable species of dandelion, which is not indisputable, then this will certainly affect the position of the family among the leading ones and move it up. One could use the number of genera in them to identify and rank the leading families, but this technique has not yet become generally accepted.

Table 1. Leading families of flowering plants, arranged in descending order of the number of species, as an indicator of differences in the taxonomic structure of floras in different climatic zones

FEATURES OF THE FLORA OF MOUNDS OF THE DESERT-STEPPE ZONE OF UKRAINE

Burial mounds are ancient burials, covered from above by a dome-shaped earth embankment. The culture of burial mounds was very widespread in the past. In Ukraine, the construction of mounds lasted over 4 thousand years (from the end of the 3rd millennium BC to the 13th century AD), over several epochs: the Eneolithic, the Bronze Age, the Early Iron Age, antiquity and the Middle Ages. This type of burial is characteristic of many peoples, and among the peoples who inhabited the Black Sea region at different times - for the Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Turks, Polovtsy, Nogais, etc. In general, more than 50 thousand burial mounds are known in Ukraine.
Before the mass plowing of the south of Ukraine, the mounds were surrounded by virgin steppe vegetation for centuries, which contributed to the formation of a steppe vegetation cover close to natural. During the development of the steppes on most mounds (especially not large ones), the steppe vegetation was destroyed (mainly by plowing), or the mounds themselves were completely destroyed. However, some mounds, especially large ones, have never been plowed up and a steppe vegetation cover has been preserved on them, which differs sharply from the segetal vegetation surrounding them, in most cases.
As part of the study of the flora of the barrows of the steppe and forest-steppe of Ukraine, in 2004-2006, we studied the features of the flora of the barrows located in the zone of desert steppes, on the territory of the Golopristansky and Skadovsky districts of the Kherson region of Ukraine. For study, 26 well-preserved rather large mounds with a slightly disturbed surface were selected, which had a height of 3–10 m, a diameter of 25–90 m. The mounds are located on chestnut solonetsous soils, in combination with solonetzes and solonchaks. Most of the mounds are located on the territory occupied by desert-steppe and halophyte vegetation (salt marshes, solonetzes, saline meadows), which is now not suitable for crop production (due to salinization) and is used as pasture. Some mounds are located among agricultural fields, as well as one each in a park, a reed swamp and in a forest belt near the road. On the kurgans, we identified 5 ecotopes (top, southern and northern slopes, southern and northern foot), for each of which a separate floristic list was compiled using a 3-point abundance scale. Theoretically, the maximum abundance of the species on all mounds and in all ecotopes can reach 390 points (26 x 5 x 3). Data on abundance were used by us to determine the activity of species on mounds and to calculate floristic indices. In this publication, given the limited volume, only the most general results of the study of burial mounds in the desert-steppe zone of southern Ukraine are presented. In the future, we plan to publish our data in more detail (Chernomorsky botanical journal, 2006).
In general, 303 species of vascular plants were identified on 26 mounds, which belong to 191 genera and 48 families. On one mound, 48 species were recorded at a minimum, 103 species at a maximum (84 on average). The most represented in the flora are the families Asteraceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae, Boraginaceae (Latin names are given according to Mosyakin & Fedoronchuk, 1999). Among the identified species, 234 species turned out to be native, and among the last 117 species, they were classified as non-communal. Including a number of rare species subject to protection, as they are included in the World Red List (Allium regelianum A. Becker ex Iljin, Dianthus lanceolatus Steven ex Rchb., Linaria biebersteinii Besser), were noted on the mounds; European Red List (Senecio borysthenicus (DC.) Andrz. ex Czern.); Red Data Book of Ukraine (Anacamptis picta (Loisel.) R.M. Bateman [= Orchis picta Loisel.], Stipa capillata L., Tulipa schrenkii Regel.) and Red List of Kherson region (Cerastium ucrainicum Pacz. ex Klokov, Muscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten. , Quercus robur L. - the latter, not in a natural setting, but only as planted or wild on a mound in an old abandoned park).
The identified species are presented in different ways on the barrows. The most abundantly represented on mounds (they have a total abundance score of more than 200): Agropyron pectinatum (M.Bieb.) P.Beauv. (242), Artemisia austriaca Jacq. (240), Holosteum umbellatum L. (236), Festuca valesiaca Gaudin s.l. (230), Poa bulbosa L. (214). Most of the identified species (219, which is 72.3%) have an abundance score of less than 26. Another 33 species (10.9%) have a sum of abundance scores in the range of 26-50, 29 (9.6%) - 51- 100, 17 (5.6%) - 101-200. Sod grasses Agropyron pectinatum, Festuca valesiaca, Stipa capillata (107), Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers. (61). In accordance with zonal features, xerophilic salt-tolerant chamephytes Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad take a significant part in the vegetation cover. (173), Artemisia santonica L. (154), Halimione verrucifera (M.Bieb.) Aellen (70), Camphorosma monspeliaca L. (63) . Among the steppe forbs, the most common (they have more than 100 points): Artemisia austriaca, Poa bulbosa, Taraxacum erythrospermum Andrz., Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit., Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. Short-lived plants (annuals and juveniles) are widely spread on mounds: Cerastium ucrainicum, Consolida paniculata (Host) Schur, Erophila verna (L.) Besser, Holosteum umbellatum, Lamium amplexicaule L., Myosotis micrantha Pall. ex Lehm., Trifolium arvense L., Valerianella carinata Loisel., Vicia lathyroides L. This group of plants in the flora of barrows of desert steppes dominates in the spectrum of life forms (46.5%), hemicryptophytes prevailing in real steppes occupy only the second place (31, 4%). The significant predominance of short-lived plants is partly due to the synanthropization of the flora, but is also an expression of the zonal features of the desert steppes, in comparison with the present ones. In this regard, it is significant that short-lived plants are more common on the driest and warmest "desert" ecotopes - the southern slope (56.0% in the spectrum of life forms of the flora of this ecotope) and the top (54.6%) of mounds, gradually decreasing on their northern and lower parts to 43.0% in the lower foot. Ephemeroids are poorly represented in the studied flora. Only one species, Ficaria stepporum P.Smirn., has an abundance score of over 100; Gagea bohemica (Zauschn.) Schult. & Schult.f., G. pusilla (F.W. Schmidt) Schult. & Schult.f., G. ucrainica Klokov, Muscari neglecta, Ornithogalum kochii Parl. , Tulipa schrenkii. Quite often, halophytes Halimione verrucifera, Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Fourr., Limonium meyeri (Boiss.) O.Kuntze, L. bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort penetrate into mounds located in the coastal strip. (=L. caspium (Willd.) Gams), Petrosimonia oppositifolia (Pall.) Litv., Puccinellia bilykiana Klokov, Salsola soda L., Suaeda prostrata Pall. and others, which is a characteristic feature of mounds located in the desert-steppe zone. Halophytic plants grow mainly at the foot of the mound, while the slopes and the top of the mound are occupied mainly by steppe plants, in which they differ sharply from the halophytized flora of the environment and the foot of the mounds. In our opinion, the steppe "islands" on the barrows among the coastal halophyte vegetation arose in connection with the ongoing marine transgression, and also, in part, in connection with the abundant spread of irrigated crop production, which led to the halophytization of coastal depressions, as a result, initially built in the steppe territories, the mounds were among the halophyte vegetation cover.
The flora of the mounds is characterized by a wide phytocenotic spectrum. The largest number of species is represented by the class Festuco-Brometea Br.-Bl. et R.Tx. 1943 (Latin names of syntaxa are given according to: Mirkin, Naumova, 1998 and Matuszkiewicz, 2001). Species of this class, as well as Festucetalia vaginatae Soo 1957 and Polygono-Artemisietea Mirkin, Sakhapov et Solomeshch in Mirkin et al. 1986 are confined mainly to the slopes of the mound. At the base of the mound, depending on its environment, species of halophytic communities are mainly concentrated (Asteretea tripolium Westhoff et Beeftink in Beeftink 1962, Thero-Salicornietea R.Tx. in R.Tx. et Oberd. 1958, Salicornietea fruticosae (Br.-Bl et R.Tx. 1943) Tx. et Oberd. 1985 em. V. Golub et V. Solomakha 1988 and meadow (Molinio-Arrhenatheretea R. Tx. 1937 em R. Tx. 1970, Althaea officinalis V. Golub et Mirkin in V.Golub 1995, Galietalia veri Mirkin et Naumova !986, Festuco-Puccinellietea Soo 1968) of vegetation. Among the synanthropic vegetation, the largest number of species are Stellarietea mediae R.Tx., Lohm. et Prsg 1950 and Artemisietea vulgaris Lohm., Prsg et R. Tx in R.Tx 1950.
Despite the fact that we selected the best-preserved mounds for research, their vegetation cover turned out to be more or less synanthropized. In general, 69 species of adventitious plants (anthropophytes) were found on the mounds, which belong to 57 genera and 22 families. On one mound, from 4 to 29 species of adventitious plants were noted (16 on average). Among the adventitious species, archeophytes predominate (41 species, or 60.0%), which, by their origin, are mainly associated with the Mediterranean-Iranian-Turanian region. Cenophytes are represented less significantly, there are 28 species (40.0%). Among them, a large proportion of American (32.1%) and Asian (35.7%) species. The level of adventization of the mound flora depends on the use of the territory that surrounds it. Among the studied burial mounds, the greatest proportion of anthropophytes is on mounds located among agricultural fields. The main factor in the adventization of the mound flora, which are under weak anthropogenic impact, is burrowing wild animals, which in the course of their life activity disturb the surface of the mound and create ecotopes suitable for the growth of anthropophytes.
Thus, today many mounds are a refugium of steppe vegetation in the agrolandscapes of southern Ukraine, and, obviously, in the steppe part of Eurasia as a whole. In addition, in the conditions of the coastal desert steppes of southern Ukraine, mounds often act as a refugium of the steppe flora, but already in the situation of the advancing marine transgression of the last millennia, since some of them, originally built in the steppe territories, ended up among the seaside halophytic vegetation. In recent decades, the salinization of coastal areas has also been promoted by intensive agricultural activity in the region. On the mounds, differentiation of ecotopic factors can be traced, which makes their flora quite rich. Part of the mound - the top and bottom are usually more anthropogenically altered, which contributes to the concentration of synanthropes there. More favorable conditions for the steppe vegetation cover on the slopes, where mainly steppe species and communities are preserved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Archeology of the Ukrainian RSR. - Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1985. - 430 p.
2. Boyko M.F., Podgainy M.M. Chervony list of Kherson region. - Kherson: Ailant, 1998. - 33 p.
3. Lavrenko E.M., Karamysheva Z.V., Nikulina R.I. Steppes of Eurasia. - L .: Nauka, 1991. - 146 p.
4. Mirkin B.M., Naumova L.G. Vegetation science: (History and current state of basic concepts). - Ufa: Gilem Publishing House, 1998. - 412 p.
5. Moysienko I., Sudnik-Voytsikovska B. Adventive growths on mounds in the desert steppes of Ukrainian pivdnya // Synanthropization of the dewy slope of Ukraine (m. Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky 27-28 April 2006): Theses of scientific dopovidey. - Kiev, Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky, 2006. - S. 42-144.
6. Mosyakin S.L. Roslini of Ukraine on the light Chervony list // Ukr. nerd. magazine - 1999. - 56, No. 1. - P. 79–88.
7. Nature of the Kherson region. Physico-geographic drawing. - Kiev: Phytosociocenter, 19. - 132 p.
8. Chervona book of Ukraine. - Kiev: View of Ukr. Encycl., 1996. - 608 p.
9. Mosyakin S.L., Fedoronchuk M.M. Vascular plants of Ukraine. A nomenclatural checklist. - Kiev, 1999. - 346 p.
10. Karte der nat?rlichen Vegetation Europas. Mastab 1:2500000. Legende und 9 Blatten. - Bonn: Bundesamt f?r Naturschutz, 2000. - 153 p.
11. Matuszkiewicz W. Przewodnik do oznaczania zbiorowisk ro?linnych Polski. - Warczawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2001. - 540 p.

I. Moysienko, B. Sudnik-Wojcikowska