2. Nuclear weapons: damaging factors and protection against them.

3. Chemical weapons and their characteristics.

4. Specific features of bacteriological weapons.

1. General characteristics of weapons of mass destruction.

According to the scale and nature of the damaging effect, modern weapons are divided into conventional and weapons of mass destruction.

Weapons of mass destruction - weapons of great lethality, designed to inflict mass casualties or destruction, are distinguished by a large area of ​​action.

Currently to weapons of mass lesions include:

nuclear

chemical

bacteriological (biological)

Weapons of mass destruction have a strong psycho-traumatic effect, demoralizing both the troops and the civilian population.

The use of weapons of mass destruction has dangerous environmental consequences, capable of causing irreparable damage to the environment.

2. Nuclear weapons: damaging factors and protection against them.

Nuclear weapon- ammunition, the damaging effect of which is based on the use of intranuclear energy. Missiles, aircraft and other means are used to deliver these weapons to the target. Nuclear weapons are the most powerful means of mass destruction. The damaging effect of a nuclear explosion depends mainly on the power of the ammunition and type of explosion: ground, underground, underwater, surface, air, high-rise.

To damaging factors nuclear explosion include:

Shock wave (SW). Similar to the blast wave of a normal explosion, but more powerful for a long time(about 15 sec.) and has a disproportionately greater destructive power. In most cases is main damaging factor. It can cause severe traumatic injuries to people at a considerable distance from the center of the explosion, destroy buildings and structures. It is also capable of inflicting damage in enclosed spaces, penetrating there through cracks and holes.

The most reliable means protection are refuge.

Light emission (SI) - a stream of light emanating from the region of the center of a nuclear explosion, heated to several thousand degrees, resembling an incandescent fireball. The brightness of light radiation in the first seconds is several times greater than the brightness of the Sun. The duration of the action is up to 20 seconds. With direct exposure, it causes burns of the retina of the eyes and exposed parts of the body. Secondary burns from the flame of burning buildings, objects, vegetation are possible.

Protection any opaque barrier that can give a shadow can serve: a wall, a building, a tarpaulin, trees. Light radiation is significantly weakened in dusty, smoky air, fog, rain, snowfall.

Penetrating radiation (PR) – the flow of gamma rays and neutrons released during a chain reaction at the time of a nuclear explosion and

15-20 sec. after him. The action spreads over a distance

up to 1.5 km. Neutrons and gamma rays have a very high

penetrating ability. As a result of human impact

may develop acute radiation sickness (OLB).

Protection are various materials that delay gamma

radiation and neutron flux - metals, concrete, brick, soil

(protective structures). To increase the body's resistance

to radiation exposure are intended prophylactic

anti-radiation drugs - "radioprotectors".

Radioactive contamination of the area (REM) – occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion. The damaging effect persists for a long time - weeks, months. It is caused by: external influence of gamma radiation, contact action of beta-particles upon contact with the skin, mucous membranes or inside the body. Possible damage to people: acute or chronic radiation sickness, radiation damage to the skin ("burns"). In case of inhalation intake of RV, radiation damage to the lungs occurs; when swallowed - along with irradiation of the gastrointestinal tract, they are absorbed with accumulation ("incorporation") in various organs and tissues.

Protection methods: limiting exposure to open areas,

d additional sealing of premises; use of artificial intelligence organs

breathing and skin when leaving the premises; removal of radioactive

dust from the surface of the body and clothing (“decontamination”.

Electromagnetic impulse - powerful electrical and

electromagnetic field arising at the moment of explosion (less than 1 sec.).

It does not have a pronounced damaging effect on people.

Disables communications, digital and electronic equipment.

War with the use of weapons of mass destruction, if it occurs, cannot be a means of achieving political, economic, ideological and other goals. There will be no winners or losers in it. This conclusion follows from the presence of military-strategic parity between the USSR and the USHA, the Warsaw Treaty Organization and NATO, and its recognition by the opposing sides.

However, despite the fact that the new political thinking and the positive processes associated with it are gradually gaining ground on the world stage, the situation remains complex and unpredictable. The threat of unleashing a new war remains. It still comes from the most reactionary, aggressive militaristic circles of imperialism, who have not abandoned the idea of ​​solving the historical dispute with socialism by military means in their favor.

In the military doctrines of the United States and its NATO allies, an important role is assigned to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) - weapons of great lethality, designed to inflict massive losses and destruction.

The United States has stockpiles of chemical weapons amounting to hundreds of thousands of tons. These are millions of aviation clusters, bombs, shells, mines, high-explosives and other chemical munitions stockpiled both on the territory of the United States and on the territories of other European countries - NATO members within the expected theaters of military operations.

The United States attaches great importance to the development of a long-term chemical rearmament program and the creation of a new type of chemical weapon - binary chemical munitions intended for massive combat use in various theaters of military operations, and primarily in Europe.

The US military has gained extensive experience in the use of chemical weapons in the aggressive war in Southeast Asia. Various types of chemical weapons were used by US forces in many operations in South Vietnam. This led to huge loss of life and caused irreparable damage to the ecology of Vietnam.

After the Second World War, the US military department took advantage of the experience of the Japanese imperialists, who were engaged in the development of biological weapons and tested them on people - prisoners of war in the territory of Manchuria, which they then occupied, and began to consider biological weapons as one of the effective means of waging war, comparable in their capabilities to nuclear and chemical weapons.

In the 1950s and 1960s, in search of the greatest effectiveness of the damaging effects of biological weapons, the United States repeatedly conducted large-scale field tests using both biological agents themselves and their imitators.

In violation of the US President's official statement in 1969 to halt the development of biological weapons and destroy their stockpiles and the obligations assumed under the 1972 Biological Convention, the United States continues to develop biological and toxin weapons and maintain production facilities for their manufacture. The Pentagon moved its biological and toxin weapons center from Fort Detrick to the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground in the Utah desert region and deployed research there at the Baker Biological Laboratory. However, work on biological weapons at Fort Detrick was not stopped.

Research is being carried out on a broad front in the United States in order to create new types of weapons of mass destruction, the destructive effect of which is based on other physical principles. The implementation of the results of these studies can lead to the creation of beam, radio frequency, infrasonic, radiological and geophysical weapons.

The detailed program of elimination of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction by the end of this century, put forward in the Statement of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU MS Gorbachev of January 15, 1986, became a concrete expression of the principled line of the Soviet state on the issue of war and peace. For the coming years, the struggle for the implementation of this program will be the central direction of the foreign policy of the USSR. This foreign policy platform of the USSR's sincere striving for peace was approved by the 27th CPSU Congress.

Since military force and violence in the countries of imperialism have always played a dominant role, and, according to American data, in the post-war period, the question of the use of nuclear weapons was put on the agenda in Washington 19 times, including in four cases the threat was addressed to the USSR, the responsibility for maintaining constant vigilance and high combat readiness of the Armed Forces of the USSR to defend against aggression.

The development of nuclear energy in many countries of the world and in recent years has made the threat of radioactive contamination of vast territories real not only in the event of the use of nuclear weapons, but also in the event of the destruction of nuclear fuel cycle facilities located in the area of ​​combat operations by conventional weapons or in the event of their accident in during industrial operation. Therefore, the troops must be trained to operate in conditions of radioactive contamination, both as a result of ground-based nuclear explosions, and in conditions of radioactive contamination during the destruction of nuclear fuel cycle facilities and the elimination of the consequences of this destruction.

In the local wars unleashed by the imperialists after the Second World War, incendiary weapons were widely used, which caused massive losses in personnel and military equipment. Consequently, along with measures to protect against weapons of mass destruction, it is necessary to provide for measures to protect troops from incendiary weapons.

Soviet soldiers must deeply study the combat properties and capabilities of various types of weapons of destruction by the Maas and incendiary weapons of foreign armies, be able to act under the conditions of the use of these types of weapons, and have a firm knowledge of the means and methods of protecting them. This publication can provide some assistance in this regard.

Section I is supplemented with information on the scale and characteristics of radioactive contamination and other consequences during the destruction (major accident) of nuclear fuel cycle facilities, as well as information on the development in the United States of weapons of mass destruction based on new "physical principles.

Section II includes a new chapter that sets out ways to protect units from WMD in the main types of combat, when moving and deploying on the spot, as well as the specifics of eliminating the consequences of radioactive contamination during the destruction (major accident) of nuclear fuel cycle facilities.

The second edition is supplemented by a clear section I1, s - which gives the characteristics of incendiary weapons of foreign armies, as well as means and methods of protecting against them.

This publication does not exhaust all the questions, the knowledge of which is necessary for [solution. of a complex of protection measures in the unit. Therefore, subunit commanders in their work should use additional literature on the combat properties of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, as well as intriguing and new types of weapons of foreign armies, on the means and methods of protecting against it.

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Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

Types of weapons capable of causing massive losses and destruction up to irreversible changes in the environment. The main distinguishing features of WMD are: multifactorial destructive action; the presence of damaging long-acting factors and their spread beyond the target; prolonged psychotraumatic effect in humans; severe genetic and environmental consequences; the complexity of protecting troops, the population, critical facilities and eliminating the consequences of its use. WMD includes nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. The development of science and technology can contribute to the emergence of new types of weapons that are not inferior in their effectiveness and even surpass the already known types of WMD (see Weapons based on new physical principles).

Nuclear weapons (NW), is in service with many armies and navies of the world, almost all types of the Armed Forces and branches of service. The main means of its destruction is nuclear weapons. In addition to various types of ammunition, nuclear weapons include the means of delivering them to the target (see Nuclear weapon carriers), as well as means of combat control and support. Strategic nuclear weapons can have high-yield nuclear weapons - up to several Mt (100 kt = 1 Mt) in TNT equivalent and reach to any point on the globe. It is capable of destroying administrative centers, industrial and military facilities in a short time, causing mass disasters - fires, floods and radioactive contamination of the environment, destroying a significant number of troops and the population. The main delivery vehicles for strategic nuclear weapons are strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles. Non-strategic nuclear weapons have nuclear charges ranging from several units to several hundred kilotons and are designed to destroy various targets at operational-tactical depths. This type of nuclear weapons includes ground-based medium-range missile systems, air-to-ground missiles, aerial bombs, anti-ship and anti-submarine missile systems, mines and torpedoes with nuclear charges, atomic artillery, etc.

The main damaging factors of nuclear weapons (see. The destructive effect of a nuclear explosion) include a shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination (contamination) and an electromagnetic pulse. The damaging factors of nuclear weapons depend on the power and type of nuclear charge, on the type of nuclear explosion (ground, underground, air, high-altitude, surface, underwater). The simultaneous action of damaging factors of nuclear weapons leads to a combined defeat of people, equipment and structures. Injuries and contusions from a shock wave can be combined with burns from light radiation and radiation sickness from penetrating radiation and radioactive contamination (contamination). Equipment and structures are damaged by a shock wave with simultaneous ignition from light radiation, and radio-electronic equipment is exposed to an electromagnetic pulse and ionizing radiation. In settlements, industrial centers, environmental objects (forests, mountains, etc.), explosions of nuclear weapons (munitions) lead to massive fires, blockages, floods, and other emergency phenomena, which, along with radioactive contamination (contamination), will become insurmountable obstacles in the elimination of the consequences of the enemy's use of weapons of mass destruction.

Chemical weapons (CW), is based on the action of combat toxic chemicals (BTCS) - poisonous substances (OS), toxins and phytotoxicants. CW includes single-use chemical munitions (artillery shells, air bombs, checkers, etc.) or reusable chemical warfare devices (pouring and spraying aviation devices, thermomechanical and mechanical generators). In international law, CW includes: toxic chemicals and chemical reagents involved in any stage of the production of these weapons; ammunition and devices designed to be destroyed by toxic chemicals; any equipment specially designed for the use of chemical munitions and other similar devices.

CW based on chemical agents and toxins is intended for mass destruction of manpower, hampering the activities of troops, disorganization of the control system, disabling rear and transport facilities, and based on phytotoxicants - for the destruction of agricultural crops. crops in order to deprive the food base, poisoning water, air, etc. Aircraft, missiles, artillery, engineering, chemical and other troops are used as means of delivering chemical weapons to targets.

Among the combat properties and specific features of CW are: high toxicity of BTXV, which allows in small doses to cause severe and lethal doses of human injury; the biochemical mechanism of the damaging effect of BTXV on living organisms and the high moral and psychological effect of exposure to people; the ability of agents and toxins to penetrate into open engineering, industrial structures and facilities, residential buildings and infect people in them; the difficulty of timely detection of the fact of the use of chemical weapons and the establishment of the type of agents or toxins used; duration of action due to the ability of BTXV to maintain damaging properties over time.

The listed properties and features of chemical weapons, the large scale and severe consequences of its use cause significant difficulties in protecting troops and the population, require a set of organizational and technical protective measures, as well as the use of various means of detection, warning, direct individual and collective protection, elimination of the consequences of infection, and also carrying out preventive and therapeutic measures (see Elimination of the Consequences of the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction by the Enemy).

Biological weapons (BW), is based on the action of biological (bacterial) (BS). Pathogenic (pathogenic) microorganisms (viruses, rickettsia, bacteria, fungi, etc.) and highly toxic products of their vital activity (toxins) that are capable of causing mass diseases of people and animals (typhoid fever, cholera, smallpox, plague, glanders, etc.), as well as plants (grain rust, rice blast, potato late blight, etc.).

BO includes ammunition equipped with BS (missile warheads, cassettes and containers, pouring and spraying devices, aerial bombs, cannon and rocket artillery shells, etc.) and ammunition carriers (delivery vehicles) (missiles of various ranges, aircraft of strategic, tactical and transport aviation, remotely piloted and autonomously controlled unmanned aerial vehicles, radio and remotely controlled balloons, submarines and surface ships, artillery pieces, etc.).

The use of BW can lead to the spread of infectious diseases to a large number of people and cause epidemics. There are various methods of mass destruction of people by BS: contamination of the surface layer of air with aerosol particles; dispersion in the target area of ​​artificially infected with BS blood-sucking insect carriers of infectious diseases; contamination of air, water and food, etc. The aerosol method of using BS is considered the main one, because. allows you to suddenly and covertly infect air, terrain and people on it, equipment, vehicles, buildings and other objects over large areas. At the same time, people are exposed to infection not only openly located on the ground, but also those inside objects and engineering structures. With this method, it is possible to infect the air with a combination of different types of BS, which makes it difficult to carry out their indication, protective and therapeutic measures. The conversion of biological formulations into an aerosol can be carried out in two main ways: due to the energy of an ammunition explosion and using spraying devices.

The effectiveness of BO is determined by its following properties: high damaging ability of BS; the ability of a number of contagious BS to create large foci of the epidemic; the presence of an incubation (hidden) period of action; complexity of indication; strong psychological effect and a number of other properties. The effectiveness of the BO action also depends on: the degree of protection of the troops and the population, the availability and timely use of individual and collective protective equipment, as well as preventive and therapeutic drugs; meteorological, climatic and topographic conditions (wind speed and direction, degree of atmospheric stability, solar radiation, precipitation and air humidity, terrain, etc.), time of year and day, etc.

Achievements in biology and related sciences (biochemistry, genetics and genetic engineering, microbiology and experimental aerobiology) can lead to the development of new pathogens or an increase in the efficiency of known BSs. Therefore, the problem of developing and using BW for sabotage and terrorist purposes is of particular danger, when places of large concentrations of people, protective structures, water sources, water supply networks, food warehouses and shops, public catering establishments, etc. can become objects of its use.

The possibility of using BO requires the development of effective measures for the antibiological protection of the population and territories, as well as the elimination of the consequences of the action of the BS (see Eliminating the Consequences of the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction by the Enemy).

The use of any type of WMD can lead to unpredictable results for all of humanity. Therefore, a number of states, political parties, public organizations and movements launched a struggle to ban the production, distribution and use of WMD. In this regard, a number of international treaties, conventions and agreements have been adopted. The main ones are: "Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963", "Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968", "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction 1972", "Convention on prohibition of the development, production, accumulation and use of chemical weapons and their destruction 1997”, etc.

In the Russian Federation there are special troops designed to perform specific tasks of radiation, chemical and biological protection, to eliminate the consequences of the use of weapons of mass destruction - the Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection Troops, the Civil Defense Troops. The Strategic Missile Forces have a special Radiation Chemical and Biological Protection Service of the Strategic Missile Forces and a unit of radiation, chemical and biological protection of the Strategic Missile Forces.

weapons of mass destruction(WMD) called a weapon capable of causing massive losses of personnel, weapons, equipment in a relatively short time. It includes nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. Such types of weapons as laser, geophysical, ozone, climatic, and ethnic weapons are also under development, which can later be classified as weapons of mass destruction. Already in the First World War, two types of WMD were used - chemical and biological.

chemical weapons(HO) called such means of combat destruction, the damaging properties of which are based on the toxic effect of toxic substances on humans.

According to the views of the command of foreign armies, chemical weapons are intended to defeat and exhaust the enemy's manpower, in order to hinder the activities of his troops and rear facilities. It is used with the help of aviation, missile troops, artillery, engineering and RKhBZ troops.

Among the variety of means of armed struggle, a special place is occupied by biological weapons(BO). The idea of ​​using pathogenic microbes as a means of defeating people arose a very long time ago due to the fact that the mass infectious diseases (epidemics) caused by them brought incalculable losses to humanity, which most often arose as a result of wars.

Advances in the field of nuclear physics, achieved by the 40s of the twentieth century, allowed scientists to penetrate the secrets of the atomic nucleus, resulting in the creation and adoption of the most powerful of the types of weapons of mass destruction - nuclear weapons(YAO).

In 1945, for the first time in the history of mankind, these weapons were used against the population of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and 9, respectively). Thus, the United States wanted to show the world its superiority, although there was no need to use nuclear weapons to defeat militaristic Japan. Losses of the civilian population amounted to: killed - more than 31 thousand people, and wounded - about 140 thousand people.

In the post-war years, nuclear weapons were improved, new nuclear chargers and means of delivering them to the target were created. New fissile-type nuclear chargers and munitions with the predominant action of one of the destruction factors, for example, neutron munitions, were created and put into service. Large reserves and a variety of means of using weapons of mass destruction allow the enemy to use them suddenly, massively, to great depths and in almost any weather.

Nuclear weapons, methods of use, their damaging factors and protection against them

A nuclear explosion is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy, therefore, in terms of destructive and damaging effect, it can exceed the explosions of the largest aerial bombs filled with conventional explosives by hundreds and thousands of times.

The defeat of troops by nuclear weapons occurs over large areas and is massive. Nuclear weapons make it possible to inflict heavy losses on the enemy in manpower and combat equipment in a short time, and to destroy structures and other objects.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

1. shock wave;
2. Light emission;
3. penetrating radiation;
4. Electromagnetic pulse (EMP);
5. radioactive contamination.

Shock wave of a nuclear explosion- one of its main damaging factors. Depending on the medium in which a shock wave arises and propagates - in air, water or soil, it is called, respectively: air, underwater, seismic explosive.

air shock wave called the area of ​​sharp compression of air, propagating in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed. Possessing a large supply of energy, the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is capable of inflicting injuries on people, destroying various structures, weapons and military equipment and other objects at considerable distances from the explosion site.

The defeat of people by an air shock wave can occur as a result of direct and indirect impact (flying fragments of structures, falling trees, glass fragments, stones and soil).

The radii of the zones of destruction of personnel in the prone position are much smaller than in the standing position. When people are located in trenches, crevices, the radii of the affected zones decrease by about 1.5 - 2 times.

Closed rooms of underground and excavated type (dugouts, shelters) have the best protective properties, reducing the radius of damage by a shock wave by at least 3-5 times.

Thus, engineering structures are reliable protection of personnel from a shock wave.

light emission nuclear explosion is an electromagnetic radiation of the optical range, including ultraviolet (0.01 - 0.38 microns), visible (0.38 - 0.77 microns) and infrared (0.77-340 microns) regions of the spectrum.

The source of light radiation is the luminous region of a nuclear explosion, the temperature of which first reaches several tens of millions of degrees, and then cools down and passes through three phases in its development: initial, first and second.

Depending on the power of the explosion, the duration of the initial phase of the luminous region is fractions of a millisecond, the first - from several milliseconds to tens and hundreds of milliseconds, and the second - from tenths of a second to tens of seconds. During the existence of a luminous region, the temperature inside it changes from millions to several thousand degrees. The main share of the energy of light radiation (up to 90%) falls on the second phase. The time of existence of the luminous region increases with the increase in the power of the explosion. During explosions of ultra-small caliber ammunition (up to 1 kt), the glow continues for tenths of a second; small (from 1 to 10 kt) - 1 ... 2 s; medium (from 10 to 100 kt) - 2 ... 5 s; large (from 100 kt to 1 Mt) - 5 ... 10 s; super-large (over 1 Mt) - a few tens of seconds. The size of the luminous area also increases with the increase in the power of the explosion. During explosions of ultra-small caliber ammunition, the maximum diameter of the luminous area is 20 ... 200 m, small - 200 ... 500, medium - 500 ... 1000 m, large - 1000 ... 2000 m and super-large - several kilometers.

The main parameter that determines the damaging ability of the light radiation of a nuclear explosion is the light pulse.

light pulse- the amount of energy of light radiation falling for the entire time of radiation per unit area of ​​a fixed unshielded surface located perpendicular to the direction of direct radiation, excluding reflected radiation. A light pulse is measured in joules per square meter (J / m 2) or in calories per square centimeter (cal / cm 2); 1 cal / cm 2 4.2 * 10 4 J / m 2.

The light pulse decreases with increasing distance to the epicenter of the explosion and depends on the type of explosion and the state of the atmosphere.

The defeat of people by light radiation is expressed in the appearance of burns of various degrees of open and protected areas of the skin, as well as damage to the eyes. For example, in an explosion with a power of 1 Mt ( U= 9 cal / cm 2) exposed areas of human skin are affected, causing a burn of the 2nd degree.

Under the influence of light radiation, various materials can ignite and fires can occur. Light radiation is largely weakened by clouds, buildings of settlements, forests. However, in the latter cases, the damage to personnel can be caused by the formation of extensive fire zones.

Reliable protection against light radiation of personnel and military equipment are underground engineering structures (dugouts, shelters, blocked cracks, pits, caponiers).

Thus, the shock wave and light radiation of a nuclear explosion are its main damaging factors. Timely and skillful use of the simplest shelters, terrain, engineering fortifications, personal protective equipment, preventive measures will weaken, and in some cases eliminate the impact of the shock wave and light radiation on personnel, weapons and military equipment.

penetrating radiation nuclear explosion is a flux of γ-radiation and neutrons. Neutron and γ-radiation are different in their physical properties, and what they have in common is that they can propagate in the air in all directions at distances up to 2.5 - 3 km. Passing through biological tissue, γ-quanta and neutrons ionize the atoms and molecules that make up living cells, as a result of which normal metabolism is disturbed and the nature of the vital activity of cells, individual organs and body systems changes, which leads to the onset of a disease - radiation sickness. The distribution scheme of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion is shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Scheme of propagation of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion

The source of penetrating radiation is the nuclear fission and fusion reactions occurring in ammunition at the time of the explosion, as well as the radioactive decay of fission fragments.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation is characterized by the dose of radiation, i.e. the amount of ionizing radiation energy absorbed by a unit mass of the irradiated medium, measured in radah (glad ).

Neutrons and γ-radiation of a nuclear explosion act on any object almost simultaneously. Therefore, the total damaging effect of penetrating radiation is determined by summing the doses of γ-radiation and neutrons, where:

• total radiation dose, rad;
• dose of γ-radiation, rad;
• dose of neutrons, rad (zero at the dose symbols indicates that they are determined in front of the protective barrier).

The dose of radiation depends on the type of nuclear charge, the power and type of explosion, as well as on the distance to the center of the explosion.

Penetrating radiation is one of the main damaging factors in the explosions of ultra-low and low-yield neutron and fission munitions. For high-power explosions, the radius of damage by penetrating radiation is much less than the radius of damage by a shock wave and light radiation. Penetrating radiation is of particular importance in the case of explosions of neutron munitions, when the bulk of the radiation dose is produced by fast neutrons.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation on personnel and on the state of their combat readiness depends on the dose of radiation received and the time elapsed after the explosion, which causes radiation sickness. Depending on the received dose of radiation, there are four degree of radiation sickness.

Radiation sickness I degree (mild) occurs at a total radiation dose of 150 - 250 rad. The latent period lasts 2-3 weeks, after which malaise, general weakness, nausea, dizziness, periodic fever appear. In the blood, the content of leukocytes and platelets decreases. Radiation sickness of the 1st degree is cured within 1.5 - 2 months in a hospital.

Radiation sickness II degree (medium) occurs at a total radiation dose of 250 - 400 rad. The latent period lasts about 2 - 3 weeks, then the signs of the disease are more pronounced: hair loss is observed, the composition of the blood changes. With active treatment, recovery occurs in 2-2.5 months.

Radiation sickness III degree (severe) occurs at a radiation dose of 400 - 700 rad. The latent period ranges from a few hours to 3 weeks.

The disease is intense and difficult. In the case of a favorable outcome, recovery may occur in 6 to 8 months, but residual effects are observed much longer.

Radiation sickness IV degree (extremely severe) occurs at a radiation dose of more than 700 rad, which is the most dangerous. Death occurs in 5-12 days, and at doses exceeding 5000 rad, the personnel lose their combat capability in a few minutes.

The severity of the lesion to a certain extent depends on the state of the organism before irradiation and its individual characteristics. Severe overwork, starvation, illness, injuries, burns increase the sensitivity of the body to the effects of penetrating radiation. First, a person loses physical performance, and then - mental.

At high doses of radiation and fluxes of fast neutrons, the components of radio electronics systems lose their efficiency. At doses of more than 2000 rad, the glasses of optical instruments darken, turning purple-brown, which reduces or completely eliminates the possibility of their use for observation. Radiation doses of 2 - 3 rad render photographic materials in opaque packaging unusable.

Various materials that attenuate γ-radiation and neutrons serve as protection against penetrating radiation. When solving protection issues, one should take into account the difference in the mechanisms of interaction of γ-radiation and neutrons with the medium, which determines the choice of protective materials. Radiation is most strongly attenuated by heavy materials with high electron density (lead, steel, concrete). The neutron flux is better attenuated by light materials containing nuclei of light elements, such as hydrogen (water, polyethylene).

In mobile objects, to protect against penetrating radiation, combined protection is required, consisting of light hydrogen-containing substances and materials with a high density. A medium tank, for example, without special anti-radiation screens, has an attenuation ratio of penetrating radiation equal to about 4, which is not enough to provide reliable protection for the crew.

Fortifications have the highest attenuation ratio from penetrating radiation (covered trenches - up to 100, shelters - up to 1500).

Various anti-radiation drugs (radioprotectors) can be used as agents that weaken the effect of ionizing radiation on the human body.

Nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and in higher layers lead to the emergence of powerful electromagnetic fields with wavelengths from 1 to 1000 m or more. These fields, due to their short-term existence, are usually called electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

The damaging effect of electromagnetic radiation is due to the occurrence of voltages and currents in conductors of various lengths located in the air, the ground, in weapons and military equipment and other objects.

The main reason for the generation of EMP with a duration of less than 1 s is considered to be the interaction of γ-quanta and neutrons with gas in the front of the shock wave and around it. Of great importance is also the occurrence of asymmetry in the distribution of spatial electric charges associated with the features of the propagation of radiation and the formation of electrons.

In a ground or low air explosion, γ-quanta emitted from the zone of nuclear reactions knock out fast electrons from air atoms, which fly in the direction of the quanta at a speed close to the speed of light, and positive ions (remnants of atoms) remain in place. As a result of such separation of electric charges in space, elementary and resulting electric and magnetic fields are formed, which are EMR.

During ground and low air explosions, the damaging effect of EMP is observed at a distance of several kilometers from the center of the explosion.

In a high-altitude nuclear explosion (H > 10 km), EMP fields can appear in the explosion zone and at altitudes of 20–40 km from the earth's surface. EMP in the zone of such an explosion arises due to fast electrons, which are formed as a result of the interaction of nuclear explosion quanta with the ammunition shell material and X-ray radiation with atoms of the surrounding rarefied airspace.

The radiation emitted from the explosion zone in the direction of the earth's surface begins to be absorbed in denser layers of the atmosphere at altitudes of 20–40 km, knocking out fast electrons from air atoms. As a result of the separation and movement of positive and negative charges in this area and in the explosion zone, as well as the interaction of charges with the geomagnetic field of the earth, electromagnetic radiation arises that reaches the earth's surface in a zone with a radius of up to several hundred kilometers. The duration of the EMP is a few tenths of a second.

The damaging effect of EMR is manifested primarily in relation to radio-electronic and electrical equipment that is in service and military equipment and other objects. Under the influence of EMR, electric currents and voltages are induced in the specified equipment, which can cause insulation breakdown, damage to transformers, combustion of arresters, damage to semiconductor devices, burnout of fuses and other elements of radio engineering devices.

Communication, signaling and control lines are the most exposed to EMI. When the EMR amplitude is not too large, protection means (fuses, lightning arresters) may trip and the lines may malfunction.

In addition, a high-altitude explosion can interfere with the operation of communications over very large areas.

EMP protection is achieved by shielding both power supply and control lines, and the equipment itself, as well as by creating such an element base of radio equipment that is resistant to EMP. All external lines, for example, must be two-wire, well insulated from earth, with fast-acting arresters and fusible links. To protect sensitive electronic equipment, it is advisable to use arresters with a low ignition threshold. Proper operation of the lines, control of the serviceability of protective equipment, as well as the organization of maintenance of the lines during operation are important.

radioactive contamination terrain, the surface layer of the atmosphere, airspace, water and other objects occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion when it moves under the influence of wind.

The significance of radioactive contamination as a damaging factor is determined by the fact that high levels of radiation can be observed not only in the area adjacent to the explosion site, but also at a distance of tens and even hundreds of kilometers from it. Unlike other damaging factors, the action of which manifests itself within a relatively short time after a nuclear explosion, radioactive contamination of the area can be dangerous for several years and decades after the explosion.

The most severe contamination of the area occurs from ground-based nuclear explosions, when the areas of contamination with dangerous levels of radiation are many times greater than the size of the zones affected by the shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation. The radioactive substances themselves and the ionizing radiation they emit are colorless, odorless, and the rate of their decay cannot be measured by any physical or chemical methods.

The contaminated area along the path of the cloud, where radioactive particles with a diameter of more than 30 - 50 microns fall out, is commonly called the near trace of infection. At long distances - a distant trace - a small contamination of the area, which for a long time does not affect the combat effectiveness of personnel. The scheme of the formation of a trace of a radioactive cloud of a ground-based nuclear explosion is shown in Figure 2.

Rice. 2. Scheme of the formation of a trace of a radioactive cloud of a ground-based nuclear explosion

Sources of radioactive contamination in a nuclear explosion are:

• fission products (fission fragments) of nuclear explosives;
• radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) formed in soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity;
• undivided part of the nuclear charge.

In a ground-based nuclear explosion, the luminous area touches the earth's surface and an ejection funnel is formed. A significant amount of soil that has fallen into the luminous area melts, evaporates and mixes with radioactive substances.

As the glowing region cools and rises, the vapors condense, forming radioactive particles of various sizes. Strong heating of the soil and the surface air layer contributes to the formation of ascending air currents in the explosion area, which form a dust column (“leg” of the cloud). When the density of the air in the explosion cloud becomes equal to the density of the surrounding air, the rise of the cloud stops. At the same time, on average for 7 - 10 minutes. the cloud reaches its maximum rise height, sometimes referred to as the cloud stabilization height.

The boundaries of radioactive contamination zones with varying degrees of danger to personnel can be characterized both by the radiation dose rate (radiation level) for a certain time after the explosion, and by the dose until the complete decay of radioactive substances.

According to the degree of danger, the contaminated area along the trail of the explosion cloud is usually divided into 4 zones.

Zone A (moderate infection), the area of ​​​​which is 70 - 80% of the area of ​​​​the entire track.

Zone B (heavy infection). Radiation doses at the outer boundary of this zone D ext = 400 rad, and at the inner - D ext. = 1200 rad. This zone accounts for approximately 10% of the area of ​​the radioactive trace.

Zone B (dangerous infection). Radiation doses on its outer boundary D external = 1200 rad, and on the internal - D internal = 4000 rad. This zone occupies approximately 8–10% of the area of ​​the explosion cloud trace.

Zone G (extremely dangerous infection). Radiation doses at its outer boundary are over 4000 rad.

Figure 3 shows a diagram of the plotting of predicted contamination zones in a single ground-based nuclear explosion. Zone D is applied in blue, zone B in green, C in brown, and D in black.

Rice. 3. Scheme of drawing predicted zones of contamination in a single nuclear explosion

The loss of people caused by the action of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion is usually divided into irrevocable and sanitary.

The irretrievable losses include the dead before the provision of medical care, and the sanitary losses include the injured who were admitted for treatment to medical units and institutions.

Features of the damaging effect of neutron munitions and methods of protection against them

neutron weapons- a type of nuclear weapon in which the share of explosion energy is artificially increased, released in the form of neutron radiation to destroy manpower and weapons of the enemy, while limiting the damaging effects of the shock wave and light radiation.

The neutron charge is structurally a conventional low-power nuclear charge, to which is added a block containing a small amount of thermonuclear fuel (a mixture of deuterium and tritium). When detonated, the main nuclear charge explodes, the energy of which is used to start a thermonuclear reaction. Most of the energy of the explosion during the use of neutron weapons is released as a result of a triggered fusion reaction. The design of the charge is such that up to 80% of the explosion energy is the energy of the fast neutron flux, and only 20% is accounted for by the remaining damaging factors (shock wave, EMP, light radiation).

A powerful stream of neutrons is not delayed by ordinary steel armor and penetrates through obstacles much more strongly than X-rays or gamma radiation, not to mention alpha and beta particles. Due to this, neutron weapons are capable of hitting enemy manpower at a considerable distance from the epicenter of the explosion and in shelters, even where reliable protection against a conventional nuclear explosion is provided. In biological objects, under the action of radiation, ionization of living tissue occurs, leading to disruption of the vital activity of individual systems and the organism as a whole, and the development of radiation sickness. People are affected by both neutron radiation itself and induced radiation.

The damaging effect of neutron weapons on equipment is due to the interaction of neutrons with structural materials and radio-electronic equipment, which leads to the appearance of induced radioactivity and, as a result, to a malfunction. Powerful and long-acting sources of radioactivity can be formed in equipment and objects under the action of a neutron flux, leading to the defeat of people for a long time after the explosion.

So, for example, the crew of a T-72 tank located 700 meters from the epicenter of a neutron explosion with a power of 1 kt will instantly receive 50% of the lethal dose of radiation and die within a few minutes. Physically, this tank will not suffer, however, the induced radioactivity will lead to the new crew operating this tank receiving a lethal dose of radiation within a day.

Due to the strong absorption and scattering of neutrons in the atmosphere, the range of destruction by neutron radiation, compared with the range of destruction of unprotected targets by a shock wave from an explosion of a conventional nuclear charge of the same power, is small. Therefore, the manufacture of high-power neutron charges is impractical - the radiation has a small radius, and other damaging factors will be reduced. Really produced neutron munitions have a yield of no more than 1 kt. Undermining such a munition gives a zone of destruction by neutron radiation with a radius of about 1.5 km (an unprotected person will receive a life-threatening dose of radiation at a distance of 1350 m). Contrary to popular belief, a neutron explosion does not at all leave material values ​​unscathed: the zone of strong destruction by a shock wave for the same kiloton charge has a radius of about 1 km.

Neutron munitions were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, mainly to increase the effectiveness of hitting armored targets and manpower protected by armor and simple shelters. Armored vehicles of the 1960s, designed with the possibility of using nuclear weapons on the battlefield, are extremely resistant to all its damaging factors.

Another motive for the development of neutron charges was their use in missile defense systems. To protect against a massive missile strike in these years, missile systems with a nuclear warhead were put into service, but the use of conventional nuclear weapons against high-altitude targets was considered insufficiently effective, since the main damaging factor - a shock wave - in rarefied air at high altitude and, especially , does not form in space, light radiation affects warheads only in the immediate vicinity of the center of the explosion, and gamma radiation is absorbed by warhead shells and cannot seriously harm them. Under such conditions, the conversion of the maximum part of the explosion energy into neutron radiation contributed to an increase in the probability of hitting enemy missiles.

Naturally, after the appearance of reports on the development of neutron weapons, methods of protection against it began to be developed. New types of armor have been developed that can protect equipment and its crew from neutron radiation. For this purpose, sheets with a high content of boron, which is a good neutron absorber, are added to the armor, and depleted uranium (uranium with a reduced proportion of U-234 and U-235 isotopes) is added to the armor steel. In addition, the composition of the armor is chosen so that it does not contain elements that give strong induced radioactivity under the action of neutron irradiation.

Chemical weapons, their combat properties, methods of use and protection against them

Chemical weapons are called military means, the damaging effect of which is based on the use of the toxic properties of toxic substances (S).

Chemical agents include toxic chemical compounds intended for inflicting massive damage to manpower during their combat use. Some agents are designed to destroy vegetation.

WAs are able to strike manpower with high efficiency over large areas without destroying material assets, penetrate cabins, shelters and structures that do not have special equipment, retain their damaging effect for a certain time after their use, infect the area and various objects, have a negative psychological impact on personnel. In the shells of chemical munitions, toxic substances are in a liquid or solid state. At the moment of application, they, being released from the shell, turn into a combat state: vaporous (gaseous), aerosol (smoke, fog, drizzle) or liquid drop. In the state of vapor or gas, OM is fragmented into individual molecules, in the state of fog - into the smallest drops, in the state of smoke - into the smallest solid particles.

The most common tactical and physiological classifications of OS (Fig. 4).

In tactical classification, toxic substances are divided into:

1. According to saturated vapor pressure (volatility) on:

• unstable (phosgene, hydrocyanic acid);
• persistent (mustard gas, lewisite, VX);
• poisonous smoke (adamsite, chloroacetophenone).

1. By the nature of the impact on manpower on:

• lethal (sarin, mustard gas);
• temporarily incapacitating personnel (chloroacetophenone, quinuclidyl-3-benzilate);
• irritant: (adamsite, chloroacetophenone);
• educational: (chloropicrin)

1. By the speed of the onset of the damaging effect on:

• fast-acting - do not have a latent period (sarin, soman, VX, AC, Ch, Cs, CR);
• slow-acting - have a period of latent action (mustard gas, Phosgene, BZ, Louisite, Adamsite).

Rice. 4. Classification of poisonous substances

In the physiological classification (according to the nature of the effect on the human body), toxic substances are divided into six groups:

1. Nerve.
2. Skin blister.
3. General poisonous.
4. Suffocating.
5. Annoying.
6. Psychochemical.

To nerve agents (NOV) include: VX, Sarin, Soman. These substances are colorless or slightly yellowish liquids that are easily absorbed into the skin, into various paints, rubber products and other materials, and are easily collected on fabrics. The lightest of the NOVs is sarin, so its main combat state when used is steam. In the vapor state, sarin causes damage mainly through the respiratory system.

Sarin vapors can also penetrate the human body through the skin, and the lethal toxodose is 200 times higher than when the vapors are inhaled. In this regard, the defeat of manpower protected by gas masks by sarin vapors in the field is unlikely.

OV VX has low volatility, and its main combat state is a coarse aerosol (drizzle). OV is designed to defeat manpower through the respiratory organs and unprotected skin, as well as for long-term contamination of the area and objects on it. VX is several times more toxic than sarin when exposed through the respiratory organs and hundreds of times when exposed through the skin in drop form. A drop of VX in a few mg on open skin is enough to inflict a fatal defeat on a person. Due to the low volatility of VX, contamination of the air with its vapors by evaporation of droplets that have settled on the soil will be insignificant. In this regard, the defeat of VX pairs of manpower protected by gas masks in the field is practically impossible.

HOVs are quite resistant to water, so they can infect stagnant water bodies for a long time: sarin for up to 2 months, and VX for up to six or more.

Soman in its properties is intermediate between sarin and VX.

When a person is exposed to small toxodoses of NOV, visual impairment is observed due to constriction of the pupils of the eyes (miosis), difficulty in breathing, and a feeling of heaviness in the chest. These phenomena are accompanied by severe headaches and can last for several days. When exposed to the body of lethal toxodosis, there is a strong miosis, suffocation, profuse salivation and sweating, a feeling of fear, vomiting, attacks of severe convulsions, loss of consciousness. Often death occurs from respiratory and cardiac paralysis.

To blister skin agents primarily refers to distilled (purified) mustard gas, which is a colorless or slightly yellowish liquid. Mustard gas is easily absorbed into various paints, rubber and porous materials. The main combat state of mustard gas is drop-liquid or aerosol. Possessing great resistance, mustard gas is capable of creating dangerous concentrations over contaminated areas, especially in summer, it is capable of infecting water bodies, but is poorly soluble in water.

Mustard gas has a multilateral damaging effect. When acting in drop-liquid, aerosol and vapor states, it causes not only damage to the skin, but also general poisoning of the nervous and cardiovascular systems when absorbed into the blood. A feature of the toxic effect of mustard gas is that it has a period of latent action. Skin lesions begin with redness, which appears 2-6 hours after exposure. A day later, at the site of redness, small blisters are formed, filled with a yellow transparent liquid. After 2-3 days, the blisters burst, and ulcers are formed that do not heal for 20-30 days. When inhaled vapors or aerosols of mustard gas, the first signs of damage appear after a few hours in the form of dryness and burning in the nasopharynx. In severe cases, pneumonia develops. Death occurs in 3-4 days. Eyes are especially sensitive to mustard gas vapors. When exposed to vapors, there is a feeling of clogging of the eyes with sand, lacrimation and photophobia, then eyelid edema occurs. Eye contact with mustard gas almost always results in blindness.

General toxic agents disrupt the activity of many organs and tissues, primarily the circulatory and nervous systems. A typical representative of general toxic agents is cyanogen chloride, which is a colorless gas (at a temperature< 13°С - жидкость) с резким запахом. Хлорциан является быстродействующим ОВ. Он устойчив к действию воды, хорошо сорбируется пористыми материалами. Основное боевое состояние – газ.

In view of the good sorbability of the uniform, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of the introduction of cyanogen chloride into the shelter. Cyanogen chloride affects a person through the respiratory system and causes an unpleasant metallic taste in the mouth, eye irritation, a feeling of bitterness, scratching in the throat, weakness, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, and difficulty speaking. After this, a feeling of fear appears, the pulse becomes rare, and breathing becomes intermittent. The affected person loses consciousness, an attack of convulsions begins and paralysis occurs. Death comes from respiratory arrest. With the defeat of cyanogen chloride, a pink color of the face and mucous membranes is observed.

To suffocating include agents that affect human lung tissue. This is, first of all, phosgene, which is a colorless gas (at temperatures below 80C - liquid) with an unpleasant smell of rotten hay. Phosgene has low resistance, but since it is heavier than air, at high concentrations it is able to "flow" into the cracks of various objects. Phosgene affects the body only through the respiratory organs and causes pulmonary edema, which leads to a disruption in the supply of air oxygen to the body, causing suffocation. There is a period of latent action (2-12 hours) and cumulative. When phosgene is inhaled, there is a slight irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, lacrimation, dizziness, cough, chest tightness, nausea. After leaving the infected area, these phenomena disappear within a few hours. Then suddenly there is a sharp deterioration in the condition, there is a strong cough with copious sputum, headache and shortness of breath, blue lips, eyelids, cheeks, nose, increased heart rate, pain in the heart, weakness, suffocation, fever up to 38-390C. Pulmonary edema lasts for several days and is usually fatal.

To annoying agents include CS-type agents, chloroacetophenone, and adamsite. All of them are solid state agents. Their main combat state is aerosol (smoke or fog). OS cause irritation of the eyes, respiratory organs, and differ from each other only in terms of effects on the body. At low concentrations, CS is both a strong irritant to the eyes and upper respiratory tract, and at high concentrations it causes burns to exposed skin. In some cases, paralysis of the respiratory system, heart and death occurs. Chloracetophenone, acting on the eyes, causes severe lacrimation, photophobia, pain in the eyes, convulsive compression of the eyelids. If it comes into contact with the skin, it can cause irritation, burning. Adamsite when inhaled after a short period of latent action (20-30 s) causes burning in the mouth and nasopharynx, chest pain, dry cough, sneezing, vomiting. After leaving the contaminated atmosphere or putting on a gas mask, the signs of damage increase within 15-20 minutes, and then slowly subside within 1-3 hours.

All of these irritating agents were widely used by the US Army during the Vietnam War.

To psychochemical OS include substances that act on the nervous system and cause mental (hallucination, fear, depression, depression) or physical (blindness, deafness, paralysis) disorders.

These include, first of all, BZ - a non-volatile substance, the main combat state of which is an aerosol (smoke). OB BZ infects the body through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract. When contaminated air is inhaled, the action of the agent begins to appear after 0.5–3 hours (depending on the dose). Then within a few hours there is a rapid heartbeat, dry skin, dry mouth, dilated pupils and blurred vision, staggering gait, confusion and vomiting. Small doses cause drowsiness and reduced combat capability. In the next 8 hours, numbness and inhibition of speech occurs. The person is in a frozen pose and is not able to respond to a change in the situation. Then comes the period of excitation up to 4 days. It is characterized by increased activity in the affected person, fussiness, disorderly actions, verbosity, difficulty in perceiving events, contact with him is impossible .. This lasts up to 2-4 days, then there is a gradual return to normal.

All chemical munitions have approximately the same device and consist of a body, an explosive agent, an explosive device and an explosive charge. For the use of HE, the enemy can use aerial bombs, artillery shells, pouring aircraft devices (VAP), as well as ballistic, cruise missiles (UAVs). It is believed that with their help it is possible to transfer a significant amount of toxic substances to the target and at the same time maintain the surprise of the attack.

Modern aviation has exceptionally great potential for the use of RW. An important advantage of aviation lies in the possibility of transferring a large amount of explosives to targets located in the rear. Aviation means of chemical attack include chemical aerial bombs and pouring aviation devices - special tanks of various capacities (up to 150 kg).

Artillery weapons (cannon, howitzer and rocket-propelled chemical munitions) are usually loaded with sarin and VX gases. Multi-barreled rocket launchers, which compare favorably with conventional artillery, can also be used to deliver OM.

In addition, chemical bombs and aerosol generators are used. Chemical bombs burrow into the ground and camouflage themselves. They are intended to infect the terrain - roads, engineering structures, passages after the withdrawal of their troops. Aerosol generators are used to infect large volumes of air.

Biological weapons, their combat properties, methods of use and protection against them

Biological weapons (BW) called military means, the damaging effect of which is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms (pathogens) or microbes that cause diseases in humans, animals and plants. The purpose of the use of biological weapons is to reduce the combat capability of the enemy. This can be achieved by direct destruction of people, as well as the destruction of animals and agricultural plants, as a result of which a person is deprived of his means of subsistence (food), and in some cases damage to weapons materials, military equipment and equipment.

Biological weapons have a number of features, the main of which is the ability to cause mass diseases of people (epidemics), animals (epizootics) and plants (epiphytoties). A small number of microbes is sufficient for infection. Once in the body, microbes multiply rapidly, cause its disease, and then, due to the contact of people with each other, through the excretions of patients, air, water, food, and also through various vectors, usually insects, the disease under favorable conditions can become very widespread. .

In this case, microbes (viruses, bacteria, fungi) can be used - the causative agents of brucellosis, tularemia, anthrax, plague, cholera, glanders, diphtheria, typhoid fever, fever, encephalitis, smallpox, influenza and many other diseases.
The damaging effect of BO does not appear immediately, but after a certain time (incubation period), which depends both on the type and number of pathogenic microbes or their toxins that have entered the body, and on the physical state of the body. The most common incubation period lasts from 2 to 5 days. During almost the entire period of this period, the personnel remain combat-ready, sometimes not even suspecting that the infection has taken place. Some of the diseases resulting from infection, called contagious (plague, smallpox, etc.), can then be transmitted from the affected to surrounding healthy people through the air, bites of blood-sucking insects and other ways. Diseases called non-contagious (anthrax, tularemia, etc.) are practically not transmitted from sick people to healthy ones. The classification of diseases is shown in Fig.5.

Rice. 5. Classification of diseases

Special emphasis should be placed on the strong psychological impact that BW has on humans. The presence of a real threat of sudden use of BW by the enemy, as well as the appearance in the troops and among the civilian population of large outbreaks and epidemics of dangerous infectious diseases, can everywhere cause fear, panic, reduce the combat capability of troops, and disorganize the work of the rear.

The basis of the damaging effect of biological weapons is biological agents (BS) - biological agents specially selected for combat use, capable of causing serious infectious diseases if they enter the body of people, animals (plants). These include: certain types of pathogenic microbes and viruses - the causative agents of the most dangerous infectious diseases, as well as toxic products of their vital activity; genetic material - molecules of infectious nucleic acids obtained from microbes (viruses). In addition to the use of microbes that cause diseases of cultivated plants, the deliberate use of insects, the most dangerous pests of agricultural crops, can be expected to destroy crops of grain, industrial and other crops.

Pathogenic microorganisms - the causative agents of infectious diseases are extremely small in size, have no color, smell, taste, and therefore are not detected by the human senses. Depending on the size, structure and biological properties, they are divided into classes (Fig. 6), of which, in addition to viruses, bacteria, rickettsia and fungi are of the greatest importance.

Fig.6. Classification of biological agents

bacteria are unicellular microorganisms of various shapes and sizes. Their sizes vary from 0.5 to 8-10 microns. They reproduce by simple transverse division, forming two independent cells every 28-30 minutes. Under the influence of direct sunlight, disinfectants, high temperature (over 600C), bacteria quickly die. They are insensitive to low temperatures and freely tolerate freezing down to minus 250C or more. To survive in adverse conditions, some types of bacteria are able to become covered with a protective capsule or turn into a spore that is highly resistant to the external environment. Pathogenic bacteria are the cause of many serious infectious diseases of humans (farm animals), such as plague, anthrax, legionellosis, glanders, etc. Some bacteria, being in the external environment in conditions favorable for their development, actively form waste products that have against the human body (animals) with extremely high toxicity and causing severe, often fatal, lesions. These poisonous waste products are called microbial toxins.

Rickettsia are small (from 0.4 to 1 µm in size) rod cells. They reproduce by transverse binary fission only inside the cells of living tissues. They do not form spores, but are sufficiently resistant to drying, freezing and relatively high temperatures (up to 5600C). Rickettsia are the cause of such serious human diseases as typhus, spotted fever of the Rocky Mountains, etc.

Fungi- unicellular or multicellular microorganisms of plant origin, differing from bacteria in a more complex structure and method of reproduction. Fungal spores are highly resistant to drying, exposure to sunlight and disinfectants. Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi are characterized by damage to internal organs with a severe and prolonged course.

Viruses- an extensive group of biological agents that do not have a cellular structure, capable of developing and multiplying only in living cells, using their biosynthetic apparatus for this. The sizes of extracellular forms of viruses range from 0.02 to 0.4 microns. Most of them are not sufficiently resistant to various environmental factors: they do not tolerate drying, sunlight, especially ultraviolet rays, as well as temperatures of 6000C and the action of disinfectants. Pathogenic viruses are the cause of many serious human diseases, such as smallpox, tropical hemorrhagic fevers, foot and mouth disease, etc.

The effectiveness of the BO action depends not only on the damaging abilities of biological agents, but to a large extent on the correct choice of methods and means of their application.

Methods of combat use of BS are based on the ability of pathogenic microbes to penetrate into the human body in natural conditions in the following ways:

• with air through the respiratory organs (aerogenic, airborne way);
• with food and water through the digestive tract (alimentary route);
• through intact skin as a result of bites of infected blood-sucking arthropods (transmissible route);
• through the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes, as well as through damaged skin (contact route).

Methods of combat use of BS:

• spraying of biological formulations for contamination of the surface layer of air with aerosol particles - aerosol method;
• dispersion in the target area of ​​artificially infected with biological means of blood-sucking carriers - a transmission method;
• contamination by biological means of air and water in confined spaces (volume) with the help of sabotage equipment - a sabotage method.

Aerosol method is the main method of combat use of BS. It allows you to suddenly and covertly infect surface air masses, the terrain and the manpower, weapons and military equipment located on it with biological means over large areas. At the same time, manpower, not only openly located on the ground, but also located in non-pressurized weapons, military equipment and structures, is simultaneously exposed to biological aerosol infection.

The conversion of biological formulations into an aerosol is carried out by two main methods: the explosive force of a biological munition and using spray devices.
The advantages of the first method (explosion) include simplicity, reliability, and high efficiency. However, as a result of the formation of a high temperature and a shock wave at the time of the explosion, a significant loss of biological agents is observed.

In spray devices, the conversion of the formulation into an aerosol is carried out either under the influence of a compressed inert gas (in mechanical aerosol generators) or by an oncoming air flow (in pouring aircraft devices). Spray devices installed on manned and unmanned aerial vehicles make it possible to create a cloud of contaminated atmosphere at certain heights, which, drifting and gradually settling, is capable of infecting surface air masses over a large area.

The transmission method consists in the deliberate dispersal of artificially biologically infected blood-sucking carriers in a given area with the help of entomological munitions (aircraft bombs and containers of a special design).

The transmission method is based on the fact that many of the blood-sucking arthropods that exist in nature easily perceive, retain for a long time, and then transmit pathogens of a number of diseases dangerous to humans and animals through bites. So, certain types of mosquitoes are capable of transmitting yellow fever, dengue fever, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, fleas - plague, lice - typhus, mosquitoes - pappatachi fever.
The use of artificially infected vectors is most likely in the warm season and natural conditions close to the natural habitat of the vectors.

The sabotage method of using BS consists in deliberate covert contamination with biological means of closed spaces (objects) of air and water, as well as food (forage) used directly, without additional purification (processing).

With the help of small-sized sabotage equipment (portable aerosol generators, spray canisters, etc.), it is possible at a certain moment to carry out air contamination in crowded places. It is also possible to contaminate water in urban water systems, for which the pathogens of plague, cholera, typhoid fever, and especially botulinum toxin, can be used. By sabotage, in addition, artificially infected blood-sucking vectors and insects can be spread.

The main method of applying biological formulations is to spray them in the air and thus create a cloud of biological aerosol. In this case, diseases of personnel will arise as a result of inhalation of aerosol particles containing pathogens.

BW is capable of inflicting damage over larger areas than other means of destruction. This is due to the high infectivity of biological aerosols. Direct protection of personnel during the period of a biological attack by the enemy is ensured by the use of individual and collective protective equipment, as well as the use of emergency prophylaxis equipment available in individual first-aid kits.

General information about weapons based on new physical principles

Along with the development of traditional types of weapons in many countries, much attention is paid to the creation of non-traditional weapons or, as it is more common to say, weapons based on new physical principles.

Weapons based on new physical principles (ONFP) - this is a type of weapon based on qualitatively new or previously unused physical, biological and other principles of operation and technical solutions based on achievements in new fields of knowledge and new technologies. ONFP includes beam (laser and accelerator), infrasound, radio frequency, geophysical.

Beam (laser and accelerator) weapon - a type of directed energy weapon based on the use of electromagnetic radiation from high-energy lasers. The striking effect of LO is determined mainly by the thermomechanical and shock-pulse effect of the laser beam on the target. One of its types is a combat laser gun (BLP). At the end of the last century, Russian designers managed to burn through a thick (about 8 cm) layer of armor, first in a static position, and then in flight, using a high-energy "gun" with the help of a high-energy "gun". After that, the BLP began to be tested for the ability to hit fast-flying targets. After some time, she managed to undermine the flying rockets. The development of a promising BLP is designed to be able to burn small-sized artillery shells, small-sized bombs and missiles (not to mention airplanes, helicopters and other aircraft).

infrasonic weapons- a type of weapon, the damaging effect of which is the radiation on a person of elastic waves of low frequency - less than 16 Hz. Sound generator - combat sound gun. It is installed on armored heavy vehicles (such as tracked armored personnel carriers). "Shoots" sound waves, usually imperceptible to the ear. The most dangerous, according to experts, is the interval from 6 to 10 Hz. Low intensity sound causes nausea and ringing in the ears. A person's eyesight deteriorates, body temperature rises, wild fear appears. Sound of medium intensity upsets the digestive organs, affects the brain, causes paralysis, general weakness, and sometimes blindness. The most powerful infrasound can stop the heart. With a certain setting, the combat sound gun breaks the internal organs of a person.

Geophysical weapons- is a weapon, the damaging effect of which is based on the use of natural phenomena and processes caused by artificial means for military purposes. Depending on the environment in which these processes occur, it is divided into atmospheric, lithospheric, hydrospheric, biospheric and ozone.

Atmospheric (weather) weapons- the most studied type of geophysical weapon today. In relation to atmospheric weapons, its damaging factors are various kinds of atmospheric processes and the weather and climatic conditions associated with them, on which life can depend, both in individual regions and on the entire planet. To date, it has been established that many active reagents, for example, silver iodide, solid carbon dioxide and other substances, being dispersed in clouds, are capable of causing heavy rains over large areas. On the other hand, reagents such as propane, carbon dioxide, lead iodide provide fog dispersal. Spraying of these substances can be carried out using ground-based generators and on-board devices installed on aircraft and missiles.

Lithospheric weapons is based on the use of the energy of the lithosphere, that is, the outer sphere of the "solid" earth, including the earth's crust and the upper layer of the mantle. In this case, the damaging effect manifests itself in the form of such catastrophic phenomena as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, and the movement of geological formations. The source of energy released in this case is tension in tectonically dangerous zones.

Hydrosphere weapons based on the military use of the energy of the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, located between the atmosphere and the solid earth's crust (lithosphere). It is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters.
The use of the energy of the hydrosphere for military purposes is possible when hydro resources (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes) and hydraulic structures are affected not only by nuclear explosions, but also by large charges of conventional explosives. The damaging factors of hydrospheric weapons will be strong waves and flooding.

biospheric weapons(ecological) is based on a catastrophic change in the biosphere. The biosphere covers part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere, which are interconnected by complex biochemical cycles of matter and energy migration. Currently, there are chemical and biological agents, the use of which over vast areas can destroy the vegetation cover, the surface fertile soil layer, food supplies, etc.

Ozone weapon is based on the destruction of the shielding ozone layer, which extends from 10 to 50 km with a maximum concentration at an altitude of 20–25 km and a sharp decrease up and down.
Ozone(atomic oxygen) - one of the most powerful oxidizers, kills microorganisms, poisonous. Its destruction is accelerated in the presence of a number of gaseous impurities, especially bromine, chlorine, fluorine and their compounds, which can be delivered to the ozone layer by rockets, aircraft and other means. Partial destruction of the ozone layer over the territory of the enemy, the artificial creation of temporary "windows" in the protective ozone layer can lead to damage to the population, flora and fauna in the planned area of ​​the globe due to exposure to large doses of hard ultraviolet and other radiation of cosmic origin.

RF weapons- a type of weapon, the damaging effect of which is electromagnetic radiation on a person. For this, a microwave device similar to a short-barreled gun has been created. Studies have shown that even with very low intensity irradiation, various disorders and changes occur in the body. For example, a negative effect of radiofrequency radiation on the rhythm of the heart has been established - up to and including its stop. But the greatest effect from the use of microwave devices is expected to be achieved by influencing the enemy's electronic networks. By turning on a powerful magnetron, the operator, even at a distance of 150 km, can easily disrupt the operation of any electronic systems. This will paralyze airfields, missile launch sites, command and control centers and posts, navigation systems, and disable command and control systems for troops and weapons.

The concept of radiation, chemically and biologically hazardous objects

Radiation hazardous facility (ROO)- this is an object where radioactive substances are stored, processed, used or transported and in case of an accident, where ionizing radiation exposure or radioactive contamination of people, farm animals and plants, as well as environmental pollution can occur.
Radiation hazardous facilities include nuclear power plants and reactors, enterprises of the radiochemical industry, facilities for the processing and disposal of radioactive waste, etc.

There are 430 power units at nuclear power plants in 2 countries of the world. They generate electricity: in France - 75%, in Sweden - 51%, in Japan - 40%, in the USA - 24%, in Russia - 12%.

In case of accidents or catastrophes at nuclear power facilities, a focus of radioactive contamination is formed (a territory where radioactive contamination of the environment has occurred, resulting in damage to people, animals, and flora for a long time).

The lesion is divided into zones (Table 1).

Table 1

Radioactive contamination (contamination) of the area occurs in two cases: during explosions of nuclear weapons or during an accident at nuclear power facilities.

In a nuclear explosion, radionuclides with a short half-life predominate, so there is a rapid decline in radiation levels. A feature of accidents at nuclear power plants is: firstly, radioactive contamination of the atmosphere and terrain with volatile radionuclides (iodine, cesium, strontium), and secondly, cesium and strontium have a long half-life. Therefore, there is no sharp drop in radiation levels. In a nuclear explosion, the main danger is external exposure (90-95% of the total dose). During accidents at nuclear power plants, a significant part of the fission products of nuclear fuel is in a vaporous and aerosol state. The dose of external radiation is 15%, and internal - 85%.

When determining the permissible doses of exposure, it is taken into account that it can be single or multiple. A single exposure is considered to be exposure received in the first four days. Irradiation can be impulsive (when exposed to penetrating radiation) or uniform (when exposed to radioactively contaminated areas). Irradiation received for a time exceeding four days is considered multiple.

The effect of electromagnetic radiation on the human body is mainly determined by the energy absorbed in it. It is known that the radiation falling on the human body is partially reflected and partially absorbed in it. The absorbed part of the energy of the electromagnetic field is converted into thermal energy. This part of the radiation passes through the skin and propagates in the human body, depending on the electrical properties of the tissues (absolute permittivity, absolute magnetic permeability, specific conductivity) and the frequency of the electromagnetic field.

Significant differences in the electrical properties of the skin, subcutaneous fat layer, muscle and other tissues cause a complex picture of the distribution of radiation energy in the human body. An accurate calculation of the distribution of thermal energy released in the human body during irradiation is practically impossible. Nevertheless, the following conclusion can be drawn: millimeter waves are absorbed by the surface layers of the skin, centimeter waves are absorbed by the skin and subcutaneous tissue, and decimeter waves are absorbed by internal organs.

In addition to the thermal effect, electromagnetic radiation causes the polarization of human tissue molecules, the movement of ions, the resonance of macromolecules and biological structures, nervous reactions and other effects.

It follows from the foregoing that when a person is irradiated with electromagnetic waves, the most complex physical and biological processes occur in the tissues of his body, which can cause disruption of the normal functioning of both individual organs and the body as a whole.

People exposed to excessive electromagnetic radiation usually get tired quickly, complain of headaches, general weakness, and pain in the heart area. They have increased sweating, increased irritability, sleep becomes disturbing. In some individuals, with prolonged exposure, convulsions appear, memory loss is observed, trophic phenomena (hair loss, brittle nails, etc.) are noted.

If the exposure of people exceeds the specified maximum permissible levels, then it is necessary to use protective equipment.

Protecting a person from the dangerous effects of electromagnetic radiation is carried out in a number of ways, the main of which are: reducing radiation directly from the source itself, shielding the radiation source, shielding the workplace, absorbing electromagnetic energy, using personal protective equipment, organizational protection measures.

To implement these methods, screens, absorbing materials, attenuators, equivalent loads and personal protective equipment are used.

Chemically hazardous facility- a facility where hazardous chemicals are stored, processed, used or transported, in the event of an accident or destruction of which, death or chemical contamination of people, farm animals and plants, as well as chemical contamination of the natural environment can occur.

The largest consumers of emergency chemically hazardous substances (AHOV) are: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy; pulp and paper industry; engineering and defense industries; public utilities; medical industry; Agriculture.

Dozens of tons of hazardous chemicals are transported daily by various modes of transport. All of these objects of the economy are chemically dangerous. Unfortunately, accidents occur frequently, and their scale is comparable to natural disasters.

chemical accident- an accident at a chemically hazardous facility, accompanied by a spill or release of hazardous chemicals that can lead to death or infection of people, food, food raw materials and feed, farm animals and plants, or the environment.

Harmful substances can enter the human body through the respiratory system, the gastrointestinal tract, as well as the skin and mucous membranes.

According to the degree of impact on the human body, all harmful substances are divided into four classes:

• extremely dangerous substances (mercury, lead, ozone, phosgene);
• highly hazardous substances (nitrogen oxides, benzene, iodine, manganese, copper, hydrogen sulfide, caustic alkalis, chlorine);
• moderately hazardous substances (acetone, xylene, sulfur dioxide, methyl alcohol);
• low-hazard substances (ammonia, gasoline, turpentine, ethyl alcohol, carbon monoxide).

It should be borne in mind that even low-hazard substances with prolonged exposure can cause severe poisoning at high concentrations.

As a result of accidents, environmental contamination and mass destruction of people, animals and plants are possible. In this regard, in order to protect personnel and the public in case of accidents, it is recommended:

• use personal protective equipment and shelters with a regime of complete isolation;
• evacuate people from the contaminated zone that occurred during the accident;
• apply antidotes and skin treatments;
• observe the regimes of behavior (protection) in the contaminated territory;
• carry out sanitization of people, decontamination of clothing, territory of buildings, transport, equipment and property.

Biologically dangerous objects- these are enterprises of the pharmaceutical, medical and microbiological industries with the presence of the so-called biological factor, the main components of which are microorganisms, metabolic products of microorganisms and microbiological synthesis.

Biological accidents accompanied by the release (export, release) of preparations with pathogenic biological agents (bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, fungi, toxins and poisons) into the environment pose a significant danger to the population.

biological accident- this is an accident accompanied by the spread of hazardous biological substances in quantities that pose a threat to the life and health of people, animals and plants, causing damage to the natural environment.
Characteristic of biological accidents is: a long time of development, the presence of a latent period in the manifestation of lesions, a persistent nature and the absence of clear boundaries of lesions that have arisen, the difficulty in detecting and identifying the pathogen (toxin). To eliminate the consequences of biological accidents, it is necessary to take urgent measures with the involvement of institutions and formations of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Defense, the CoES of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Kazakhstan and other departments, as well as specialized formations created on their basis.

General management, organization and control over the implementation of measures to localize and eliminate the source of biological contamination is carried out by sanitary and anti-epidemic commissions under the executive authorities of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

In order to identify and assess the sanitary-epidemiological and biological situation in the zone of a biological accident, sanitary-epidemiological and biological reconnaissance is organized. Sanitary and epidemiological reconnaissance is carried out in order to identify conditions affecting the sanitary and epidemiological state of the population, and to establish ways of possible infection of the population and the spread of infectious diseases.

Biological reconnaissance is carried out in order to timely detect the fact of a release (leakage) of a biological agent, incl. indication and determination of the type of pathogen. Biological reconnaissance is divided into general and special. General biological reconnaissance is carried out by the forces of radiation and chemical observation posts, reconnaissance patrols, units and management bodies of the CoES and the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan through observation and non-specific indication of biological agents.

In order to localize and eliminate the source of biological contamination, a complex of regime, isolation-restrictive and medical measures is being carried out, which can be carried out as part of the quarantine and observation regime.

Quarantine should be understood as a system of state measures, including regime, administrative, economic, anti-epidemic, sanitary and treatment-and-prophylactic measures aimed at localizing and eliminating the source of biological damage.

Observation is a complex of isolation-restrictive, anti-epidemic and therapeutic and preventive measures aimed at localizing the source of biological contamination and eliminating infectious diseases in it. The main task of observation is the timely detection of infectious diseases in order to take measures to localize them.

Incendiary weapons, their combat properties, methods of use and protection against them

Incendiary weapons are called military means, the action of which is based on the use of the damaging properties of incendiary substances. Incendiary weapons are designed to destroy enemy manpower, destroy his weapons, military equipment, stocks of materiel, and to create fires in combat areas. The main damaging factors of ZZhO are the thermal energy released during its use and combustion products toxic to humans.

Incendiary weapons have damaging factors that operate in time and space. They are divided into primary and secondary. Primary damaging factors (thermal energy, smoke and toxic combustion products) manifest themselves on the target from several seconds to several minutes during the use of incendiary weapons. Secondary damaging factors, as a result of emerging fires, manifest themselves from several minutes and hours to days and weeks.

The damaging effect of incendiary weapons on people is manifested:

• in the form of primary and secondary burns of the skin and mucous tissues with direct contact of burning incendiary substances with the skin of the body or uniforms;
• in the form of lesions (burns) of the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract, followed by the development of edema and suffocation when inhaling strongly heated air, smoke and other combustion products;
• in the form of heat stroke, as a result of overheating of the body;
• exposure to toxic products of incomplete combustion of incendiary substances and combustible materials;
• the inability to continue the respiratory function due to the partial burnout of oxygen from the air, especially in enclosed structures, basements, dugouts and other shelters;
• in the mechanical impact on a person of fire storms and whirlwinds during massive fires.

Often, these factors appear simultaneously, and their severity depends on the type of incendiary substance used and its quantity, the nature of the target and the conditions of use. In addition, incendiary weapons have a strong moral and psychological impact on a person, lowering his ability to actively resist fire.

An incendiary substance or an incendiary mixture of substances capable of igniting, burning steadily with the release of a large amount of thermal energy.

Figure 7 shows the main groups of incendiary substances and mixtures.

Rice. 7. Main groups of incendiary substances and mixtures

According to the combustion conditions, incendiary substances and mixtures can be divided into two main groups:

• burning in the presence of atmospheric oxygen (napalm, white phosphorus);
• burning without access to atmospheric oxygen (termite and thermite compositions).

Incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products can be unthickened and thickened (viscous). This is the most common type of mixture, capable of hitting manpower and setting fire to combustible materials.

Unthickened mixtures are prepared from gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricating oils. They are highly flammable and are used in knapsack flamethrowers for a short flame throwing range.

Thickened mixtures (napalms) are viscous, gelatinous, sticky masses consisting of gasoline or other liquid hydrocarbon fuel mixed in a certain ratio with various thickeners. Thickeners are substances that, when dissolved in a combustible base, give a certain viscosity to mixtures. Aluminum salts of organic acids, synthetic rubber, polystyrene and other polymeric substances are used as thickeners.

A self-igniting incendiary mixture is triethylaluminum thickened with polyisobutylene. The appearance of the mixture resembles napalm. The mixture has the ability to spontaneously ignite in air. The mixture is also able to spontaneously ignite on wet surfaces and on snow due to the addition of sodium, potassium, magnesium or phosphorus.

Metallized incendiary mixtures (pyrogels) consist of petroleum products with additives in powdered form or in the form of shavings of magnesium or aluminum, oxidizing agents, liquid asphalt and heavy oils. The introduction of combustible materials into the composition of pyrogels provides an increase in the combustion temperature and gives these mixtures a burning ability. Unlike conventional napalm, pyrogels are heavier than water and burn for 1-3 minutes.

Napalms, self-igniting incendiary mixtures and pyrogels adhere well to various surfaces of weapons, military equipment, and human uniforms. They are highly flammable and difficult to remove and extinguish. When burning, napalm develops a temperature of the order of 1000-120000C, pyrogels - up to 1600-200000C. Self-igniting incendiary mixtures are difficult to extinguish with water. When burning, they develop a temperature of 1100-130000C. Napalm is used for flamethrowing from tank and knapsack flamethrowers, for equipping aviation bombs and tanks, and various types of fire bombs.

Self-igniting incendiary mixtures and pyrogels are capable of inflicting severe burns on personnel, setting fire to weapons and military equipment, and also creating fires on the ground, in buildings and structures. Pyrogels are also capable of burning through thin sheets of metal.

Termite- a compressed mixture of powdered iron oxides with granulated aluminum. Thermite compositions, in addition to the listed components, contain oxidizing agents and binders (magnesium, sulfur, lead peroxide, barium nitrate). During the combustion of thermites and thermite compositions, thermal energy is released as a result of the interaction of the oxide of one metal with another metal, forming a liquid molten slag with a temperature of about 300,000C. Burning thermite compounds can burn through iron and steel. Thermite and thermite compositions are used to equip incendiary mines, shells, small-caliber aviation bombs, hand-held incendiary grenades and checkers.

White phosphorus- solid waxy toxic substance. It dissolves well in liquid organic solvents and is stored under a layer of water. In air, phosphorus spontaneously ignites and burns with the release of a large amount of acrid white smoke, developing a temperature of 100,000C.

Plasticized white phosphorus is a plastic mass of synthetic rubber and white phosphorus particles, it is more stable during storage; when applied, it breaks into large slow-burning pieces, is able to stick to vertical surfaces and burn through them. Burning phosphorus causes severe, painful, long-lasting burns. It is used in incendiary-smoke-producing artillery shells, mines, aerial bombs and hand grenades, as well as an igniter for napalm and pyrogel.

Electron- an alloy of magnesium (96%), aluminum (3%) and other elements (1%). It ignites at a temperature of 60,000C and burns with a dazzling white or bluish flame, developing a temperature up to 280,000C. It is used for the manufacture of cases of small-sized aviation incendiary bombs.

alkali metals, especially potassium and sodium, have the property of entering into a bar reaction with water and ignite. They are dangerous to handle, therefore they are not used on their own, but are used as a rule, to ignite napalm or as part of self-igniting mixtures.

For the effective use of incendiary substances and mixtures, special tools are used. Means of combat use - a specific design of a combat device or ammunition that ensures the delivery to the target and the effective transfer of an incendiary substance or mixture to a combat state.

The means of combat use include: aviation and artillery incendiary ammunition, grenade launchers, flamethrowers, land mines, grenades, cartridges, checkers.

For weapons of mass destructioncharacterized by a large damaging ability to destroy all life on a vast territory. The objects of impact can be not only people and structures, but all natural habitats. Solving environmental problems associated with the useweapons of mass destructionare one of the main problems of our time.

The development of mankind has always been accompanied by wars and the destruction of the environment. Changes in the ecosystem will lead to the emergence of new, more threatening cataclysms, so environmental problems are of global importance.

The use of weapons of mass destruction will entail pollution of the earth's surface. Huge areas will become unsuitable for livestock and crop production. Products grown on contaminated land will become unfit for food, as they will be able to cause organ damage in the human body and have a mutagenic and teratogenic effect on it. The number of oncological diseases will increase, as well as the mutation of offspring.

The tragedy of Hiroshima and Nagasaki prompted scientists of all countries to study in more depth the problems associated with the environmental consequences of the use of weapons of mass destruction. It is radiation and the manifestation of radiation sickness that poses a huge threat to our planet.

If more than 10,000 megatons of nuclear charges are detonated on a territory equal in area to the United States, the radiation level will exceed 10,000 rads and the whole living world will perish. Organisms living in water will not be affected by radioactive rays for some time, but radioactive fallout will be washed into water bodies, and this will lead to more serious environmental consequences.

Some insects, bacteria are resistant to radiation. These organisms are able to survive and even reproduce, but in the end, the most insatiable, for example, phytophages, will survive, and the death of birds will contribute to their reproduction.

Among plants, evergreen trees are more sensitive to radiation. They will die first. Large plants will suffer first, and then small ones. Soon the turn will reach the grass. Various lichens will take the place of trees. Vegetation restoration will occur due to grasses, and this can lead to a decrease in biomass, and therefore, the productivity of the ecosystem by 80%.

About what consequences the use of weapons of mass destruction leads to, consider the example of the desert in the state of Nevada. Over the course of eight years, 89 tests of weapons of mass destruction were carried out here. The first explosions destroyed the biosphere up to 204 hectares. The first signs of vegetation appeared only after 4 years of cessation of testing. Several decades must pass before the complete restoration of the ecology of the area.

Everything in nature is interconnected. If the vegetation dies, the soil also degrades. Increasing rainfall will accelerate the leaching of minerals. Their excessive amount will lead to the rapid reproduction of bacteria and algae, thereby reducing the oxygen content in the water.

The use of weapons of mass destruction will result in fires. As a result, the level of oxygen will decrease and the content of nitrogen and carbon oxides will sharply increase. Ozone holes form in the protective layer of the atmosphere. All living things will be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Mushroom clouds from nuclear explosions and smoke from fires shield solar radiation and cause a cooling of the earth's surface and the onset of "nuclear winter". The released heat will raise a huge mass of air, thereby creating destructive hurricanes. They will raise soot, dust, smoke to the stratosphere and create a huge cloud that will block the sunlight.

The temperature will drop by 15-20°C, and in some areas far from the ocean - by 35°C. The earth's surface will freeze for several meters, thereby depriving all living things of fresh water. The amount of rain will decrease significantly.

Environmental consequences of application weapons of mass destruction would be especially detrimental in summer, when temperatures over land in the Northern Hemisphere would drop to the freezing point of water.

Since the ocean has a large thermal inertia, as a result of temperature contrasts between it and the land, air cooling over the ocean is slower. The processes taking place in the atmosphere will suppress convection and drought will begin over the continents. If an ecological catastrophe had occurred in the summer, then in a couple of weeks, the temperature over the land of the Northern Hemisphere would drop below zero. Plants will die due to the fact that they will not have time to adapt to low temperatures. Plants in the tropics and subtropics will die instantly, as they can only exist in a narrow range of light and temperature. Animals will not survive due to the lack of food and the difficulty in finding it, due to the onset of "nuclear night".

If the "nuclear winter" came during the calendar winter, when the plants of the northern and middle belts are in a "sleeping" state, then their continued existence would be determined by frost. The resulting "dead" forests will become material for fires, and decomposition processes will lead to the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The carbon cycle will be disrupted, and the death of plants will cause soil erosion. Acid rain will fall on the earth.

So the use weapons of mass destruction, especially nuclear, will turn a fertile, prosperous planet into a lifeless desert. To preserve the natural ecosystem, it is necessary to carry out a number of measures aimed at prohibiting the use and accumulation of weapons of mass destruction. It is necessary to explain the scale of the negative environmental impacts and form opinions in favor of the policy of disarmament. The first step had already been taken with the entry into force of the treaty on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles.

In addition to nuclear weapons of mass destruction, bacteriological and chemical weapons pose a global threat to the ecosystem and all of humanity.

When chemical weapons are used, living organisms that come into contact with them are endangered. Environmental consequences are determined by the biological characteristics of the poisonous substance, its toxic effects.

Organophosphorus poisonous substances can cause the greatest environmental consequences. They are highly toxic and fatal to humans. Application of this weapons of mass destruction it is possible to cause the death of some populations of vertebrates and invertebrates, in particular arthropods. Effects on plants are minor, but infected plants pose a threat to herbivores.

During the Vietnam War, dangerous chemicals were used by the US military: herbicides and defoliants. With the help of these toxic substances, the leaves of the forest cover were destroyed and the crops of food crops were affected.

The danger of herbicides is that they have selective biospecificity. Due to selective action, they have a stronger detrimental effect on the ecosystem compared to organophosphorus substances. The use of these toxic substances on various plant species leads to the destruction of microflora and soil degradation.

The ecological consequences of the use of bacteriological weapons are expressed in the destruction of living organisms.

The damaging effect of bacteriological weapons consists in the use of pathogenic microorganisms and infectious materials that are capable of multiplying and causing mass diseases in the human, animal and plant organisms.

Bacteriological weapons are one of the most brutal in their consequences. It was first used by Germany during World War I by infecting enemy horses with glanders.

Contrary to the 1972 Convention prohibiting the development, testing and production of bacteriological and chemical weapons of mass destruction, many countries, especially those of the Third World, continue to proliferation them. First of all, the 1972 Convention did not provide for international control, so it is rather difficult to identify new developments in this area.

In 1994, Russian experts visited non-military biological sites in the United States. During the visit, it was found out that the plant retains and modernizes technological equipment and industrial technological lines intended for the manufacture of biological formulations.

Developments in the production of weapons of mass destruction are observed in Egypt, Iran, Syria, Libya, North Korea, Pakistan, Taiwan and China. Terrorist groups concentrated in the Middle East are constantly threatening to use weapons of mass destruction. The danger of creating a new bacteriological weapon also comes from the growing interest in the achievements of genetic engineering.

The environmental consequences of the use of weapons of mass destruction, in particular bacteriological ones, range from minor to catastrophic. The spread of viruses and harmful microorganisms will lead to the emergence of new epidemic diseases. The scale of mortality will be equivalent to that of a plague that claimed millions of lives.

Viruses and harmful organisms will penetrate local ecosystems and create a threatening hotbed of disease. For example, anthrax bacilli are able to live in the soil for 50-60 years. Microorganisms and viruses are most dangerous in hot and humid areas. For example, the yellow fever virus in the rainforest is capable of destroying many species of forest primates. Application weapons of mass destruction in Vietnam led to the migration of forest rats to settlements. Being a carrier of the plague, they infected domestic rats, which in turn infected the local population. In 1965, 4,000 people were identified, including American soldiers.

Damage to the economy and population will be caused by the use of bacteriological weapons of mass destruction against crops, livestock and poultry. An example of this is the "bird flu" and "swine flu" viruses.

For example, on the island of Gruinard off the coast of Scotland, during the Second World War, the British explored the possibility of using anthrax bacilli for military purposes. As a result of such a study, the entire island turned out to be infected and uninhabitable.

Leaks of toxins from laboratories led to environmental disasters and deaths. In 1979, 69 people died as a result of the release of the anthrax virus into the atmosphere in Sverdlovsk. Death came within 24 hours. Infection of personnel with the anthrax virus was recorded in the 50s in the main division for the development of bacteriological weapons of mass destruction Pentagon. A toxin leak in 1968 at the Dugway test site killed 64,000 sheep. A leak in the Turgai steppe in May 1988 caused a mass death of about 500,000 saigas. The ecosystem of the Turgai steppe suffered enormous damage.

To date, bacteriological weapons have been created that are unprecedented in their destructive power. 1 gram of botulinum toxin contains 8 million lethal doses for humans. When spraying 1 gram of polytoxin, 100,000 people can instantly die.

The ecological consequences of the use of bacteriological weapons of mass destruction are comparable to the use of potent synthetic poisonous substances. The actions of bacteriological weapons are more selective than those of chemical weapons. At the same time, it is quite obvious that bacteriological and chemical weapons are very dangerous for the ecosystem. This danger is growing due to the fact that there are new more threatening substances.

Earth's history has seen natural disasters, such as the Ice Age, which led to the disappearance of large ecosystems. It is difficult to predict which path mankind will choose. Perhaps this will be a refusal to test nuclear weapons or curtailment of research programs for the development of bacteriological and chemical weapons. Only one thing is clear, that the use of weapons of mass destruction could be the last catastrophe for the entire planet.