Liturgical and semi-liturgical drama. The main genres of medieval church performance Liturgical drama procession of virtues
Liturgical drama originated in Catholic churches from the 9th century. The process of theatricalization of the mass was caused by the desire of the church to make religious ideas and images as clear, understandable and impressive as possible. In Catholic churches, already reading texts about the burial of Jesus Christ was accompanied by a kind of ritual. A cross was placed in the middle of the temple, it was wrapped in black cloth, which meant the burial of the body of the Lord. On Christmas Day, the icon of the Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus Christ was exhibited - priests approached her, imitating the gospel shepherds, going to bow to the newborn Lord. The priest during the liturgy asked them who they were looking for, and the shepherds answered that they were looking for Christ.
It was a church trope - a dialogized transcription of the gospel text, which usually ended with the singing of the choir, after which the liturgy continued to go on as usual. From the above episode, the first liturgical drama was born - the scene of the three Marys who came to the tomb of Christ. This drama was played out on Easter days, from the 9th to the 13th century. Three priests, wearing amicts on their heads - shoulder scarves that denoted Mary's women's clothes - approached the coffin, at which sat a young priest dressed in all white, depicting an angel. The angel asked: "Who are you looking for in the tomb, Christians?" Mary answered in chorus: "Jesus of the Nazarene, crucified, O heavenly being!" And the angel said to them: "He is not here, he has risen, as he foretold before. Go, proclaim that he has risen from the tomb." The choir then sang a prayer praising the Resurrection of Christ. Here, in this scene, there were already dialogues and individual responses, combined with antiphonal, that is, performed alternately, singing by two choirs. From the 10th century, a kind of "director's instruction" addressed to the performers of the liturgical drama has been preserved. Its author, Bishop Æthelwald of Winchester, pointed out: “During the third reading, let four of the brothers put on their clothes, and one, putting on an alba, as if for another service, let him go unnoticed to the shroud and quietly sit down with a palm branch in his hand. During singing the third antiphon, let the three remaining put on their robes and, with censers in their hands, go to the place of the coffin, pretending that they are looking for something.
The liturgical drama in the initial period of its existence closely adjoined the Mass itself. This meant that the text of the dramatization coincided with the text of the liturgy, they also had a common style. The liturgical drama, just like the mass, was solemn, melodious, declamatory, the movements of all participants were majestic, the main language of worship and drama was Latin. But gradually the drama is separated and two independent cycles of liturgical dramas are formed - Christmas and Easter. The Christmas cycle included episodes: the procession of biblical shepherds, foreshadowing the birth of Christ; the procession of the Magi, who come to worship the baby Christ; the scene of the wrath of the king of the Jews Herod, who orders to kill all the babies born on the night of the birth of Christ; Rachel's lament for the dead children. The Easter cycle included a number of episodes related to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This cycle also included a significant work of this genre - the liturgical drama "The Bridegroom, or the Wise Virgins and the Foolish Virgins", written at the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century. Its action began with a sermon in Latin - the gospel text was translated into verse. Then there was a short drama written in Latin with episodes in Provençal. The preacher announced the imminent coming of the "groom" - Christ. Wise virgins are ready to meet - their lamps are filled with oil. The foolish ones were in confusion, they slept too long and did not have time to fill their lamps with oil. To the prayer of the foolish for help, the wise virgins answered with advice to go and ask the sellers to give oil to the lazy in the lamps. But the sellers refused to help the foolish and said that they were looking for the light that the sellers could not give: "Look for someone who can give you light, O mournful ones." Christ appeared and exclaimed in Latin:
I'm telling you - I don't know you;
Your light is gone.
Who neglected them
Tom on my doorstep
No go!
Then he added in Provençal:
Go, mournful ones, go, unfortunate ones,
You are forever doomed to torment:
They will take you to hell now.
Here the remark followed: "Let the devils seize them and throw them into hell." Thus, the doctrine of piety was personified in the images of wise virgins. Full and empty lamps symbolized spiritual piety and neglect.
The liturgical drama was originally static and symbolic. Gradually, it becomes more and more effective, everyday details, common folk intonations appear in it. The characters from the "Procession of the Shepherds" spoke in everyday speech, the participants in the episode "Procession of the Prophets" imitated the medieval scholastic scholars in the manner of speaking. The costume gradually changed, in the scene of the meeting of Christ with the apostles, the clergy who portrayed them were dressed in the usual costumes of wanderers - a tunic and a hat. They held staffs in their hands. Christ could appear barefoot and with a bag, or appear before the apostles in a red cloak. The shepherds had beards and wide-brimmed hats. Warriors wore helmets, John the Baptist - an animal skin, Nebuchadnezzar - royal vestments. The manner of performance also became simpler. Thus, for example, in the remarks to the liturgical drama Lamentations of Mary, there are such indications: “here she strikes her chest”, “here she raises both hands”, “here, lowering her head, she throws herself at the feet of Jesus.”
In the early period, the presentation of the liturgical drama took place only in one place - in the center of the temple, but later it occupied a larger area, which depicted various scenes (Jerusalem, Damascus, Rome, Golgotha). Sometimes the action was shown simultaneously in several places at once. For the ascension of Christ, there were special machines to depict it.
The liturgical drama was necessary, first of all, in order to speak with the audience, including in their native language, since the liturgy was conducted in Latin. But, gradually liberated from the church, the liturgical drama was deprived of the seriousness that is inherent in the Divine Liturgy. It seemed to simplify religious ideas and images, their materialization could lead to profanity. Conscious of all these difficulties, the church authorities transferred religious representations from the temple to the church porch. And with this change of place, naturally, the drama itself also changed.
Now it is called "semi-liturgical", as its representations are filled with more and more real and everyday elements. The appearance of worldly motives changed a lot in it: both the theme, the composition of the participants, and the external design of the performance. She was no longer part of the church service, she was no longer bound tightly by the church calendar. Now her performances were also held on the noisy days of the fair. Addressed to a large crowd of festively inclined people, it could only be successful if it was understood by this people. The Latin language was in no way suitable for this purpose. Church dramas began to be performed in folk languages. For this purpose, other plots were selected, such biblical stories, in which there would be a prototype of quite everyday and ordinary pictures.
The very principle of constructing the play has changed. All pictures, or episodes, lined up in space in a row, and were not played in the same place. In the poetic prologue to the drama "The Resurrection of the Savior" it was said:
We'll put on a show
Holy Resurrection.
Let's arrange in order
Pavilions and platforms.
Start with the cross
Then comes the tomb
Near it is a dungeon,
To sharpen the kids there.
Hell must be the end
And on the other side of the gazebos
There will be heaven.
Scenes with devils, the so-called demonic performances, were very loved: the appearances of devils with whooping, screeching and laughter evoked reciprocal mirth from the public. The "divine" roles were played by the clergy themselves, the robes and utensils remained church, the drama was accompanied by a church choir that performed religious hymns in Latin. But the strengthening of the mundane was inevitable as soon as the drama left the walls of the temple. The drama "The Action of Adam" is typical in this respect - it originated in England, where French was widespread after the Norman Conquest. Adam himself was presented as good-natured and humble, that is, having a certain character, frivolous and trusting played Eve; The devil is refined and crafty. The biblical text was subjected to free poetic processing. But sometimes the church itself changed the biblical story, introducing into it vitally understandable, modern elements. So, in one drama in the episode of Cain's murder of Abel, Cain's unwillingness to offer sacrifice to God was interpreted as his refusal to pay the so-called church tithe (that is, a tenth of the estate for the needs of the church). The action itself was of a domestic nature and was accompanied by a spectacular theatrical stunt. When Cain decides to kill Abel, who had a waterskin filled with "blood" under his clothes, he hits the waterskin and Abel prostrates as if dead. The devils immediately dragged Cain to hell, pushing him roughly.
The funds for the arrangement of this theater were allocated by the church, the place for the performance (porch) was also provided by the church, vestments and accessories - as well. The repertoire was selected by clergy, they were also the performers of the main roles. But religious subjects were increasingly intertwined with secular ones. In the final words of the author of "Acts about Adam" there was a complaint that the people now "... are more willing to listen to stories about how Roland, together with Olivier, goes to fight, than about the passions that Christ suffered because of Adam's sin." Heroic songs about Roland and the other paladins of Charlemagne attracted more and more interest. Theatrical drama is more and more obviously emancipated from church performance, but it is still far from complete separation.
Stubbornly struggling with the spectacles created by the people themselves, the church strove to strengthen religious propaganda to find more expressive, intelligible forms for it. One of the means of strengthening the impact of church dogmas on the psyche of believers was the liturgical drama that arose in Catholic churches from the ninth century.
This is nothing more than an Easter reading of texts about the burial of Jesus Christ, which was accompanied by a kind of ritual. A cross was placed in the middle of the temple, then it was wrapped in black cloth, and this meant the burial of the body of the Lord. On Christmas Day, an icon of the Virgin Mary with a baby was exhibited; priests approached her, depicting the gospel shepherds going to the newborn Jesus. The priest who served the liturgy asked them who they were looking for; the shepherds answered that they were looking for Christ.
It was a church trope - an arrangement of the gospel text in the form of a dialogue, which usually ended with the singing of the choir, after which the liturgy continued to go on as usual.
There were several scenes in the liturgical drama. One of them is the scene of the three Marys who came to the tomb of Christ. This "drama" was played out on Easter days. Three priests, wearing amicts on their heads - shoulder handkerchiefs denoting Mary's women's clothes - approached the coffin, at which sat a young priest dressed in all white, depicting an angel. The angel asked: "Who are you looking for in the tomb, Christians?" Mary answered in chorus: "Jesus of the Nazarene, crucified, oh, celestial!" And the angel said to them: "He is not here, he has risen, as he foretold before. Go and announce that he has risen from the tomb." The choir then sang a prayer praising the resurrection of Christ.
Over time, two cycles of liturgical dramas developed - Christmas and Easter.
The Christmas cycle included episodes: the procession of biblical prophets predicting the birth of Christ; the coming of the shepherds to the infant Christ; the procession of the Magi, who came to bow to the new king of heaven; the scene of the wrath of the king of the Jews Herod, who orders to kill all the babies born on the night of the birth of Christ; Rachel's lament for the dead children.
The Easter cycle consisted of episodes connected with the legend of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The liturgical drama, with its solemnity, melodious recitation, Latin speech and majestic movements, was as far from life as the church mass itself. Therefore, in order to strengthen the propaganda impact of religion, more vital means of depicting the gospel episodes were needed. And the church, in order to bring the liturgical drama closer to the common people, subsequently gradually revives it. The liturgical drama becomes more effective, everyday details and a certain comic element appear in it, common folk intonations are heard in it. Everyday liberties were also allowed in the external design of the liturgical drama. Appeared household costumes. The manner of performance also became more simplified. Stylized gestures are replaced by ordinary ones.
The staging moments of the liturgical drama became more complicated, and the musical element in it increased significantly. If in the early period (IX century) the presentation of the liturgical drama took place only in one place - in the center of the temple, then later (XII century) the liturgical drama captured a wider area, which depicted various scenes (Jerusalem, Damascus, Rome, Golgotha). The principle of simultaneity appeared - the simultaneous display of several scenes of action.
The technique of staging liturgical drama was also improved. Now it was possible to show the movement of the star of Bethlehem, which was lowered on a rope in the form of a flashlight, and she led the shepherds to the manger of the infant Jesus. Church hatches were used for disappearance scenes. There were even special flying machines for the ascension of Christ.
As a result of all this, the liturgical drama began to arouse the interest of the audience, but the more life features it absorbed into itself, the more it deviated from its original goal.
liturgical drama. Churchmen sought to use the theater to promote Christianity. In this regard, by the 9th century, a theatrical Mass (liturgical service) arose, a method was developed for reading in the faces of the legend of the burial of Jesus Christ and his resurrection. From such readings a liturgical drama was born. By the 10th century, there were two types of liturgical drama: Christmas and Easter. On the first stage, scenes from the Bible about the Birth of Christ were played out, on the second - about the Resurrection of Christ. By the 12th century, liturgical drama was improving its performances by using machines and other means of expression. Liturgical dramas were acted out by the priests, so the Latin speech and melody had little effect on the parishioners. The clergy decided to bring the liturgical drama closer to life and separate it from the mass.
Stubbornly struggling with the spectacles created by the people themselves, the church strove to strengthen religious propaganda to find more expressive, intelligible forms for it. One of the means of strengthening the impact of church dogmas on the psyche of believers was the liturgical drama that arose in Catholic churches from the ninth century.
The process of theatricalization of the mass was caused by the desire of the church to make religious ideas and images as clear, understandable and impressive as possible.
Already in the 9th century, the Easter reading of texts about the burial of Jesus Christ was accompanied by a peculiar ritual in Catholic churches. A cross was placed in the middle of the temple, then it was wrapped in black cloth, and this meant the burial of the body of the Lord. On Christmas Day, an icon of the Virgin Mary with a baby was exhibited; priests approached her, depicting the gospel shepherds going to the newborn Jesus. The priest who served the liturgy asked them who they were looking for; the shepherds answered that they were looking for Christ.
It was a church trope - a dialogized transcription of the gospel text, which usually ended with the singing of the choir, after which the liturgy continued to go on as usual.
From the above episode, the first liturgical drama was born - the scene of the three Marys who came to the tomb of Christ. This "drama" was played out on Easter days starting from the 9th century. Three priests, wearing amicts on their heads - shoulder handkerchiefs denoting Mary's women's clothes - approached the coffin, at which sat a young priest dressed in all white, depicting an angel. The angel asked: “Who are you looking for in the tomb, Christians?” Mary answered in chorus: “Jesus of the Nazarene, crucified, O celestial!” And the angel said to them: “He is not here, he has risen, as he predicted before. Go announce that he has risen from the tomb." The choir then sang a prayer praising the resurrection of Christ.
– In this scene, there were already dialogized group replicas-questions, combined with individual answers, and antiphonal singing "intertwined with speech dialogue. The text was distributed among individual performers, and appropriate costumes were already used.
A kind of "director's instruction" addressed to the performers of the liturgical drama has been preserved from the 10th century. The author of the instructions, Bishop Æthelwald of Winchester, pointed out: “During the third reading, let four of the brothers put on their clothes, and one, putting on an alba, as if for another service, let him approach the shroud unnoticed and sit quietly with a palm branch in his hand. During the singing of the third antiphon, let the three remaining put on their vestments and, with censers in their hands, go to the place of the coffin, pretending that they are looking for something.
The performers of the church dramatization received precise instructions from their spiritual shepherd on what they needed to wear, at what moment to go out, where to go and what to say.
Liturgical drama in the first period of its existence closely adjoined the mass itself; this was reflected not only in the complete coincidence of the text of the dramatization with the text of the liturgy, but also in the stylistic unity of the church service and the liturgical drama. The liturgical drama, with its solemnity, melodious recitation, Latin speech and majestic movements, was as far from life as the church mass itself.
In order to strengthen the agitational influence of religion, more vital means of depicting the gospel episodes were needed. And the church embarked on this tempting, but dangerous path for it.
Over time, two cycles of liturgical dramas were developed “- Christmas and Easter.
The Christmas cycle included episodes: the procession of biblical prophets predicting the birth of Christ; the coming of the shepherds to the infant Christ; the procession of the Magi, who came to bow to the new king of heaven; the scene of the wrath of the king of the Jews Herod, who orders to kill all the babies born on the night of the birth of Christ; Rachel's lament for the dead children.
The Easter cycle consisted of episodes connected with the legend of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
A significant work of this genre belongs to this cycle - the liturgical drama "The Bridegroom, or the Wise Virgins and the Foolish Virgins", written at the very end of the 11th or at the beginning of the 12th century. In this drama, the contradictions between the strict canonical requirements of the church
1 A chant sung alternately by two choirs.
-style and inclination towards the depiction of everyday life, which can be seen in a number of liturgical dramas.
The action began with a sermon composed in Latin (the gospel text was translated into verse). This was followed by a liturgical drama, written in Latin with small inserts in Provençal. The preacher announced the imminent coming of the "bride" - Jesus Christ. Wise virgins are ready to meet - their lamps are full of oil. The foolish virgins are in confusion - they slept too long and did not have time to fill their lamps. To the entreaty of the foolish sisters to help them, the wise answered with advice to go quickly and ask the sellers: “Let them give you lazy ones oil for your lamps.” But the oil sellers also refused to help the foolish and said: “Dear ladies, you should not be here. You ask for light, we cannot give it to you; look for someone who can give you light, O sorrowful ones. Christ appeared and angrily exclaimed in Latin:
I tell you -
I don't know you;
Your light is gone.
Who neglected them
Tom on my doorstep
No go!
Then he added in Provençal:
Go, mournful ones, go, unfortunate ones. You are forever doomed to torment: They will lead you to hell now.
The Latin remark followed: “Let the devils seize them and throw them into hell,” after which the devils appeared and took the foolish virgins to hell.
The teaching of religion about piety, which gives a Christian the right to enter paradise, was personified in the images of wise virgins triumphing over the unreasonable. Full and empty lamps symbolized spiritual piety and neglect.
The liturgical drama, originally static and symbolic, gradually comes to life, becomes more effective, everyday details and a certain comic element appear in it, common folk intonations are heard in it. The characters from the "Procession of the Shepherds" allowed themselves ordinary speech, the participants in the episode "Procession of the Prophets" spoke, imitating medieval scholastic scholars. Oil merchants were endowed with the traits of bazaar doctors-charlatans. The prophet Balaam entered the temple on a donkey, which was depicted by two church servants, and when the prophet squeezed the donkey's sides with his heels, then the living
- this, according to biblical tradition, said: "Do not hurt me so much."
Everyday liberties were also allowed in the external design of the liturgical drama. Appeared household costumes. In the scene of the meeting of Christ with the apostles, the clergy who portrayed them were dressed in the usual costumes of wanderers - a tunic and a hat. They held staffs in their hands. Christ was just as simply dressed: at first he went out barefoot and with a bag, and then appeared before the apostles dressed in a red cloak. The shepherds had long beards and wide-brimmed hats; warriors wore helmets, John the Baptist - an animal skin, Nebuchadnezzar - royal vestments.
Gradually, the liturgical drama abandoned the conventional symbolic design, approaching the everyday. The manner of performance also became more simplified. Stylized gestures are replaced by ordinary ones. Thus, for example, in the remarks to the liturgical drama Lamentations of Mary, the following indications are found: “here she strikes her chest”, “here she raises both hands”, “here, lowering her head, she throws herself at the feet of Jesus”, etc. The staged moments of the liturgical drama became more complex, and the musical element in it became much stronger.
If in the early period the presentation of the liturgical drama took place only in one place - in the center of the temple, now the liturgical drama has captured a wider area, which depicts various scenes of action (Jerusalem, Damascus, Rome, Golgotha). The principle of simultaneity appeared - the simultaneous display of several scenes of action.
The technique of staging liturgical drama was also improved. Now it was possible to show the movement of the star of Bethlehem, which was lowered on a rope in the form of a flashlight, and she led the shepherds to the manger of the infant Jesus. Church hatches were used for disappearance scenes. There were even special flying machines for the ascension of Christ.
As a result of all this, the liturgical drama began to arouse the interest of the audience, but the more life features it absorbed into itself, the more it deviated from its original goal. Designed to draw the attention of the masses to religious ideas, it now drew the masses away from those ideas. The development of the liturgical drama concealed in itself the destruction of this genre; even in this dead shell, under the vaults of a Catholic church, the vital element, developing, was bound to collide with the ecclesiastical element.
The Church, which created the liturgical drama, saw that this new instrument of agitation, in its very development, harbors a profanation of religion, comes into conflict with its ideas.
-Recognizing the impossibility of the liturgical drama remaining under the vaults of the temple, the church authorities did not want to completely lose this effective means of agitation and transferred religious performances to the church porch.
The liturgical drama of the second period is called semi-liturgical drama and dates from the middle of the 12th century. Unrestrained by pain, but by the strictness of the church situation and the rigor of the clergy, religious ideas are filled with vital, everyday features. The urban crowd that filled the churchyard was already openly dictating its tastes.
The appearance of secular motifs in the liturgical drama simultaneously affected the themes, the organization, the composition of its participants, the manner of performance, and the external design of the performance.
Formally, while still entirely in the hands of the clergy, the liturgical drama, having entered the porch of the temple, ceased to be part of the church service and severed its connection with the church calendar. Now her performances were arranged on noisy fair days. Serving a large crowd of cheerful, festive-minded people, the liturgical drama could only claim success if the eye was understandable. The Latin language was clearly unsuitable for this purpose. Church dramas began to be performed, as a rule, in folk languages. For this, it was necessary to select closer, everyday stories. For this purpose, they began to use biblical episodes, which make it possible to see in church histories the prototype of quite ordinary, purely worldly pictures.
With the transition to the porch, the appearance of the performance also changed. The principle of simultaneity was fully developed in it.
The organizers of the performance did not allow the change of different scenes of action on the same stage and placed them at a distance from one another, stretching them in one line. In the poetic prologue, prefaced by the drama "The Resurrection of the Savior" (XII century), it was said:
We will show the presentation of the Holy Resurrection. Arrange in order Arbors and platforms. You should start with the cross, Then the tomb will go, Next to it is a dungeon, To imprison the thieves there. Hell should be the last, And on the other side of the arbors There will be heaven.
- In the remarks to "Act about Adam" "gives an accurate description of the structure of heaven and hell, indicates the costume of the characters, says that the performers must know the text of their roles, refrain from replaying, gag and unnecessary jokes. This appeal referred to to amateur actors who were involved in semi-liturgical dramas, and especially to histrions, who, playing the role of devils, disrupted the solemn course of a religious performance.When dozens of devils, whooping, screeching and laughing, ran onto the stage and, playing comic pantomimes, dragged sinners into hell, the audience, instead of being imbued with fear of the torments of hell, laughed merrily.
Scenes with devils, the so-called "demonic actions" (diableries), were very loved by the people; they came into conflict with the general course of the performance, which the clergy still tried to keep within the strict framework of church style.
For this purpose, the main, “divine” roles were played by the clergy themselves, the robes and utensils remained church, and the action was accompanied by a church choir that performed religious hymns in Latin.
But no matter how the churchmen restrained the manifestation of worldly moods in the liturgical drama, the fact that among its participants were lay people, people from the very crowd that surrounded the church porch, inevitably had to move the development of church performances in the direction of an ever greater strengthening of realistic, everyday and comic heck.
The most illustrative in this respect is the semi-liturgical drama of the mid-12th century, The Act of Adam. The author of this play is unknown. It originated in England, where, after the Norman Conquest, French was spoken. Therefore, "The Action of Adam" is written in the Anglo-Norman dialect of French.
The drama consists of three episodes: "The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise", "Cain's Murder of Abel" and "The Appearance of the Prophets".
At first, a priest delivered a sermon, reading in Latin the biblical story about the creation of the world. In response, the choir sang Latin verses. Then the performance began.
A god called the Being appears and exhorts Adam and Eve to live in harmony and peace. Let the wife be afraid of her husband, let the spouses be submissive to the will of God, and they will be provided with heavenly bliss. God leads Adam and Eve to paradise, located to the right of the porch and arranged in the form of an arbor; in paradise, he points them to the "tree of knowledge" and forbids them to touch the fruits with
1 In another translation - "The idea of Adam." 32
– him. After the departure of the god, the Devil immediately appears. First, he tries to seduce Adam, assuring him that if he eats the forbidden fruit, "his eyes will be opened, the future will become clear to him, and he will cease to be a vassal of God." But Adam, as a good Christian, does not heed rebellious speeches. Then the Devil turns to Eve. His flattering speech is full of poetic beauty. Eve succumbs to temptation and eats the forbidden fruit, after which she exclaims with delight:
Eyes filled with fire
Now I have become like God!
Eat, Adam, feel free to trust me.
We will know happiness now.
Adam tries the apple, but fear immediately seizes him, and he reproaches Eve.
An angry god comes out and, turning to Adam and Eve, says:
Build your house on earth
But be sure that
What's with you now forever
There will be hunger, sadness, poverty.
And when death overtakes you
And the bones will crumble to dust
Your souls will have to burn
In fiery hellish furnaces.
And no one can help you
When God has turned you away.
After that, an angel in white robes appeared, with a "flaming sword in his hands", and drove Adam and Eve out of paradise.
The further life of Adam and Eve serves as an illustration to the prophecy of God. The text of the first part of the “Action about Adam” ends with the remark: “Then the devil will come and the devils with him, carrying chains and iron rings in their hands, which they will put on the necks of Adam and Eve. Some will push them, others will drag them to hell, others will meet them near hell, arranging a big dance on the occasion of their death.
Despite the biblical plot and strict religious morality, in the "Action about Adam" lively, everyday realistic features were noticeable. In the speeches of the Devil, one can hear echoes of freethinking condemned by the church, in the earthly life of Adam and Eve one could guess the painful fate of the poor farmer, the conflict between Adam and Eve resembled family strife, and the images of the good-natured, humble Adam, the frivolous, trusting Eve and the refined, crafty Devil were to a certain extent, they were individualized and were perceived not only as biblical characters, but also as real life types.
In the "Action about Adam" some artistic moments were also palpable: the biblical text was subjected to free
-poetic processing, new dramatic features that were absent in the biblical story were introduced, the dialogue was somewhat enlivened, and comic episodes appeared.
But new trends not only penetrated from the outside into church performances. In other cases, the church, wishing to make its propaganda tool sharper, itself gave biblical subjects a topical interpretation. So, in the episode of Cain's murder of Abel, Cain's unwillingness to offer sacrifice to God was interpreted as his refusal to pay the so-called church "tithe". This refusal was portrayed as a grave "Cainian sin." The action itself was of a purely domestic nature and was accompanied by a spectacular theatrical stunt. God, favorably accepting the rich sacrifice of Abel, with anger rejected the worst ears of the harvest that Cain sacrificed to him. Out of jealousy for his brother, Cain decided to kill Abel. A note followed:
“Then Abel kneels down, facing the east, and he will have a waterskin filled with blood under his clothes, which Cain will hit as if he had killed Abel. Then Abel will remain prostrate, as if dead.”
After that, the choir sang in Latin: "Cain, where is your brother?" The “angry” god came out and cursed Cain. Then followed the traditional appearance of the devils, who dragged Cain to hell by pushing him; Abel they led to hell "affectionately."
Despite all the innovations of the semi-liturgical drama, this genre was still too closely connected with the liturgical drama. This was especially noticeable in the third episode of "Acts about Adam" - the scene of the "Procession of the Prophets", which in fact was only an extended version of the liturgical drama of the same name.
Dominating the spectacle ideologically, the church did not let go of the organizational side of the matter. Facilities the church allocated for the arrangement of spectacles, place for presentation - the porch - provided by the church, vestment and accessories were church repertoire was compiled by clerics, they were also the performers of the main roles, teachers of the choir and leaders of the action as a whole. And yet, the clergy did not leave the anxiety that the viewer is losing interest in religious subjects and is increasingly drawn to a lively depiction of life. Evidence of this growing anxiety is provided by the closing words of the author of The Action of Adam, who bitterly complained that the people now "are more willing to listen to stories about how Roland goes to fight with Olivier than about the passions that Christ suffered because of the sin of Adam" . Heroic songs about Roland and other paladins of Charlemagne were dearer and closer to the people than the deadly Passion of the Lord.
liturgical drama, a type of medieval Western European religious performance that was part of the Easter or Christmas church service (liturgy).
Liturgical drama arose in the early Middle Ages, in the 9th century, and became the source of the revival of professional theater, which experienced a year of persecution and prohibitions during the formation of Christianity. Waging a merciless war against pagan traditions (which undoubtedly included the theatricalization of rituals), the Christian church, nevertheless, widely used theatricalization in church rituals. This undoubtedly contributed to a piercing communion with the sacrament of the church, a quivering, ecstatic perception of the service. In fact, the goal was to achieve catharsis, purification.
The origins of the liturgical drama were the so-called. antiphons (Greek antiphōnos - church singing, in which the choir is divided into two groups singing alternately) or responsories (the choir's response to the words of the clergyman). From these dialogic elements of the liturgy were formed the so-called. tropes (Greek tropos - literally “turn”, figuratively - turnover, image) - retelling of the gospel text in dialogues. This is how the first dramatizations of individual gospel episodes arose. The first liturgical dramas were written in Latin, distinguished by a brief dialogue and a strict formalized ritual-symbolic nature of performance. However, over time, some everyday features, folk expressions, comic elements began to penetrate into the liturgical drama (for example, the liturgical drama of the 11th century BC). Bridegroom, or Virgos wise and foolish). For a more vivid impression, various technical devices were developed: blocks for ascension, hatches for “falling into hell”, etc. Such an increase in the secular nature of the liturgical drama led it to contradict the general canonical sound of the liturgy. Pope Innocent III in 1210 issued a Decree banning the display of liturgical dramas in churches. However, it was impossible to refuse such a spectacle, and the performances were transferred to the porches in front of the temples (the so-called semi-liturgical drama). The transfer to the porch and, as a result, an increase in the number of spectators played a significant role in the popularization and development of religious theater. Church dramas began to be performed in the vernacular; in addition to the clergy, the laity also began to take part in the performances - mainly in the comic roles of devils or household episodic persons. The most significant liturgical drama of that period is Action about Adam(12th century).
The constantly growing popularity of the liturgical drama led to the fact that the porch in front of the temple could no longer accommodate everyone. The action was moved to the streets and fenced areas. By that time (beginning of the 14th century) the liturgical drama had actually changed into a mystery play.
Tatyana Shabalina
Another form of theatrical art of the Middle Ages was church drama. The clergy sought to use the theater for their own propaganda purposes, so they fought against the ancient theater, rural festivities with folk games and histrions.
In this regard, by the 9th century, a theatrical mass arose, a method of reading in the faces of the legend of the burial of Jesus Christ and his resurrection was developed. From such readings was born the liturgical drama of the early period. Over time, it became more complex, the costumes became more diverse, the movements and gestures became better rehearsed. The liturgical dramas were acted out by the priests themselves, so the Latin speech, the melodiousness of church recitation still had little effect on the parishioners. The clergy decided to bring the liturgical drama closer to life and separate it from the mass. This innovation has produced very unexpected results. Elements were introduced into the Christmas and Easter liturgical dramas that changed the religious direction of the genre.
The drama acquired a dynamic development, much simplified and updated. For example, Jesus sometimes spoke in the local dialect, the shepherds also spoke in everyday language. In addition, the costumes of the shepherds changed, long beards and wide-brimmed hats appeared. Along with speech and costumes, the design of the drama also changed, gestures became natural.
The directors of liturgical dramas already had stage experience, so they began to show the parishioners the Ascension of Christ to Heaven and other miracles from the Gospel. By bringing the drama to life and using staged effects, the clergy did not attract, but distracted the flock from the service in the church. Further development of this genre threatened to destroy it. This was the other side of innovation.
The church did not want to abandon theatrical performances, but sought to subjugate the theater. In this regard, liturgical dramas began to be staged not in the temple, but on the porch. Thus, in the middle of the 12th century, a semi-liturgical drama arose. After that, the church theater, despite the power of the clergy, fell under the influence of the mob. She began to dictate her tastes to him, forcing him to give performances not on the days of church holidays, but on the days of fairs. In addition, the church theater was forced to switch to a language understandable to the people.
In order to continue to direct the theater, the priests took care of the selection of everyday stories for productions. Therefore, the topics for the semi-liturgical drama were mainly biblical episodes interpreted at the everyday level. More than others, scenes with devils, the so-called diablerie, were popular with the people, which contradicted the general content of the entire performance. For example, in the well-known drama "Action about Adam", the devils, having met Adam and Eve in hell, staged a merry dance. At the same time, the devils had some psychological traits, and the devil looked like a medieval freethinker.
Gradually, all biblical legends were subjected to poetic processing. Little by little, some technical innovations began to be introduced into the productions, that is, the principle of simultaneous scenery was put into practice. This meant that several locations were shown at the same time, and in addition, the number of tricks increased. But despite all these innovations, the semi-liturgical drama remained closely connected with the church. It was staged on the church porch, the church allocated funds for the production, the clergy made up the repertoire. But the participants in the performance, along with the priests, were also worldly actors. In this form, the church drama existed for quite a long time.
secular dramaturgy
The first mention of this theatrical genre concerns the trouveur, or troubadour, Adam de La Al (1238-1287), who was born in the French town of Arras. This man was fond of poetry, music and everything connected with the theater. Subsequently, La Halle moved to Paris, and then to Italy, to the court of Charles of Anjou. There he became very famous. People knew him as a playwright, musician and poet.
The first play - "The Game in the Gazebo" - La Al wrote while still living in Arras. In 1262, it was staged by members of the theatrical circle of his native city. Three lines can be distinguished in the plot of the play: lyrical-everyday, satirical-buffoon and folklore-fantastic.
The first part of the play tells that a young man named Adam is going to go to Paris to study. His father, Master Henri, does not want to let him go, citing the fact that he is sick. The plot of the play is woven into Adam's poetic recollection of his already deceased mother. Gradually, satire is added to the everyday scene, that is, a doctor appears who diagnoses Master Henri - avarice. It turns out that most of the wealthy citizens of Arras have such a disease.
After that, the plot of the play becomes simply fabulous. A bell is heard, announcing the approach of the fairies whom Adam has invited to a farewell dinner. But it turns out that the fairies, with their appearance, are very reminiscent of urban gossips. And again, the fairy tale is replaced by reality: the fairies are replaced by drunkards who go to a general drinking bout in a tavern. This scene shows a monk promoting sacred relics. But a little time passed, the monk became drunk and left the holy things so zealously guarded by him in the tavern. The sound of the bell sounded again, and everyone went to worship the icon of the Virgin Mary.
Such genre diversity of the play suggests that secular dramaturgy was still at the very beginning of its development. This mixed genre was called "pois piles", which meant "crushed peas", or in translation - "a little bit of everything."
In 1285, de La Halle wrote and staged a play in Italy called The Play of Robin and Marion. In this work of the French playwright, the influence of Provencal and Italian lyrics is clearly visible. La Halle also introduced an element of social criticism into this play:
the idyllic pastoral of the shepherd Robin in love and his beloved, the shepherdess Marion, is replaced by the scene of the abduction of the girl. It was stolen by the evil knight Ober. But the terrible scene lasts only a few minutes, because the kidnapper succumbed to the entreaties of the empty woman and let her go.
Dances, folk games, singing begin again, in which there is salty peasant humor. The everyday life of the people, their sober view of the world around them, when the charm of a kiss of lovers is sung along with the taste and smell of food prepared for a wedding feast, as well as the folk dialect that is heard in poetic stanzas - all this gives a special charm and charm to this play. In addition, the author included 28 folk songs in the play, which perfectly showed the closeness of La Al's work to folk games.
In the work of the French troubadour, a folk-poetic beginning was very organically combined with a satirical one. These were the beginnings of the future theater of the Renaissance. And yet, the work of Adam de La Alya did not find successors. The cheerfulness, free-thinking and folk humor present in his plays were suppressed by church strictness and the prose of city life.
In reality, life was shown only in farces, where everything was presented in a satirical light. The characters of farces were fairground barkers, charlatan doctors, cynical guides of blind people, etc. The farce reached its peak in the 15th century, in the 13th century any comedic stream was extinguished by the Miracle Theater, which staged plays mainly on religious subjects.
Miracle
The word "miracle" in Latin means "miracle". And in fact, all the events that take place in such productions end happily thanks to the intervention of higher powers. Over time, although these plays retained a religious background, plots began to appear more and more often, showing the arbitrariness of the feudal lords and base passions that owned noble and powerful people.
The following miracles can serve as an example. In 1200, the play "The Game of St. Nicholas" was created. According to the plot of the work, one of the Christians is captured by the pagans. Only Divine Providence saves him from this misfortune, that is, Saint Nicholas intervenes in his fate. The historical situation of that time is shown in the miracle only in passing, without details.
But in the play "Miracle about Robert the Devil", created in 1380, the author gave a general picture of the bloody century of the Hundred Years War of 1337-1453, and also painted a portrait of a cruel feudal lord. The play begins with the Duke of Normandy scolding his son Robert for debauchery and unreasonable cruelty. To this, Robert, with an impudent grin, declares that he likes such a life and henceforth he will continue to rob, kill and whore. After a quarrel with his father, Robert and his gang ransacked the farmer's house. When the latter began to complain about this, Robert answered him: "Say thanks that we have not killed you yet." Then Robert and his friends ravaged the monastery.
The barons came to the Duke of Normandy with a complaint against his son. They said that Robert destroys and ravages their castles, rapes their wives and daughters, kills servants. The duke sent two of his entourage to Robert to reassure his son. But Robert did not speak to them. He ordered each of them to gouge out the right eye and send the unfortunate ones back to their father.
On the example of only one Robert in the miracle, the real situation of that time is shown: anarchy, robberies, arbitrariness, violence. But the miracles described after the cruelties are completely unrealistic and are generated by a naive desire for moralization.
Robert's mother tells him that she has been barren for a long time. Since she really wanted to have a child, she turned to the devil with a request, because neither God nor all the saints could help her. Soon her son Robert was born, who is a product of the devil. According to the mother, this is the reason for such cruel behavior of her son.
The play goes on to describe how Robert's repentance took place. In order to beg forgiveness from God, he visited the Pope, a holy hermit, and also constantly offered prayers to the Virgin Mary. The Virgin Mary took pity on him and ordered him to pretend to be crazy and live with the king in a doghouse, eating leftovers.
Robert the Devil resigned himself to such a life and showed amazing fortitude. As a reward for this, God gave him the opportunity to distinguish himself in battle on the battlefield. The play ends just fabulous. In the crazy ragamuffin who ate from the same bowl with the dogs, everyone recognized the brave knight who won two battles. As a result, Robert married the princess and received forgiveness from God.
Time is to blame for the emergence of such a controversial genre as miracle. The entire XV century, full of wars, popular unrest and massacres, fully explains the further development of the miracl. On the one hand, during the uprisings, the peasants took up axes and pitchforks, and on the other, they fell into a pious state. Because of this, elements of criticism appeared in all the plays, along with a religious feeling.
Miracles had yet another contradiction that was destroying this genre from within. The works showed real everyday scenes. For example, in the Miracle "The Game of St. Nicholas" they occupied almost half of the text. The plots of many plays were built on scenes from the life of the city ("Miracle about Gibourg"), the life of the monastery ("The Saved Abbess"), the life of the castle ("Miracle about Bertha with Big Legs"). In these plays, simple people, close to the masses in their spirit, are shown in an interesting and intelligible way.
The ideological immaturity of urban creativity of that time is to blame for the fact that the miracle was a dual genre. The further development of the medieval theater gave impetus to the creation of a new, more universal genre - mystery plays.
Mystery
In the XV-XVI centuries, the time of rapid development of cities came. Social contradictions intensified in society. The townspeople have almost got rid of feudal dependence, but have not yet fallen under the power of an absolute monarchy. This time was the heyday of the mystery theater. Mystery became a reflection of the prosperity of the medieval city, the development of its culture. This genre arose from ancient mimic mysteries, i.e. city processions in honor of religious holidays or the solemn entry of kings. From such holidays, the square mystery gradually took shape, which took as a basis the experience of the medieval theater, both in terms of literature and stage.
The staging of the mysteries was carried out not by churchmen, but by city workshops and municipalities. The authors of the mysteries were playwrights of a new type: theologians, doctors, lawyers, etc. Mystery became an amateur art in the arena, despite the fact that the productions were directed by the bourgeoisie and the clergy. Hundreds of people usually took part in the performances. In this regard, folk (worldly) elements were introduced into religious subjects. The Mystery existed in Europe, especially in France, for almost 200 years. This fact vividly illustrates the struggle between religious and secular principles.
Mystery dramaturgy can be divided into three periods: "Old Testament", using the cycles of biblical legends; "New Testament", which tells about the birth and resurrection of Christ; "apostolic", borrowing plots for plays from the "Lives of the Saints" and miracles about saints.
The most famous mystery of the early period is the "Mystery of the Old Testament", consisting of 50,000 verses and 242 characters. It had 28 separate episodes, and the main characters were God, angels, Lucifer, Adam and Eve.
The play tells about the creation of the world, Lucifer's rebellion against God (this is an allusion to disobedient feudal lords) and biblical miracles. Biblical miracles were very effectively performed on the stage: the creation of light and darkness, firmament and sky, animals and plants, as well as the creation of man, his fall into sin and expulsion from paradise.
Many mysteries dedicated to Christ were created, but the most famous of them is considered the "Mystery of the Passion" ( rice. 12). This work was divided into 4 parts in accordance with the four days of performance. The image of Christ is permeated with pathos and religiosity. In addition, there are dramatic characters in the play: the Mother of God mourning Jesus and the sinner Judas.
Rice. 12. Scene from the "Mystery of the Passion" in Valenciennes
In other mysteries, the existing two elements are joined by a third - carnival-satirical, the main representatives of which were devils. Gradually, the authors of the mysteries fell under the influence and tastes of the crowd. Thus, purely fairground heroes began to be introduced into biblical stories: charlatans-doctors, loud-voiced barkers, obstinate wives, etc. Clear disrespect for religion began to be seen in mystery episodes, i.e., an everyday interpretation of biblical motives arose. For example, Noah is represented by an experienced sailor, and his wife is a grumpy woman. Gradually there was more criticism. For example, in one of the mysteries of the 15th century, Joseph and Mary are depicted as poor beggars, and in another work, a simple farmer exclaims: “He who does not work, he does not eat!” Nevertheless, it was difficult for elements of social protest to take root, and even more so to penetrate into the theater of that time, which was subordinated to the privileged strata of the urban population.
And yet the desire for a real depiction of life was embodied. After the siege of Orleans took place in 1429, the play "The Mystery of the Siege of Orleans" was created. The characters of this work were not God and the devil, but English invaders and French patriots. Patriotism and love for France are embodied in the main character of the play, the national heroine of France, Joan of Arc.
The "Mystery of the Siege of Orleans" clearly shows the desire of the artists of the amateur city theater to show historical facts from the life of the country, to create a folk drama based on contemporary events, with elements of heroism and patriotism. But the real facts were adjusted to the religious concept, forced to serve the church, singing the omnipotence of Divine Providence. Thus, the mystery lost part of its artistic merit.
The emergence of the mystery genre allowed the medieval theater to significantly expand its thematic range. The staging of this type of play made it possible to accumulate good stage experience, which was later used in other genres of medieval theater.
Performances of mysteries on city streets and squares were made out with the help of different scenery. Three options were used: mobile, when carts passed by the audience, from which mysterious episodes were shown; ring, when the action took place on a high circular platform divided into compartments and at the same time below, on the ground, in the center of the circle outlined by this platform (spectators stood at the pillars of the platform); gazebo. In the latter version, pavilions were built on a rectangular platform or simply on the square, representing the emperor’s palace, city gates, heaven, hell, purgatory, etc. If it was not clear from the appearance of the pavilion what it depicts, then an explanatory inscription was hung on it.
During that period, the decorative arts were practically in their infancy, and the art of stage effects was well developed. Since the mysteries were full of religious miracles, it was necessary to demonstrate them visually, because the naturalness of the image was a prerequisite for the popular spectacle. For example, red-hot tongs were brought onto the stage and a brand was burned on the body of sinners. The murder that took place in the course of the mystery was accompanied by pools of blood. Actors hid bullish blisters with red liquid under their clothes, pierced the blisters with a knife, and the person was covered in blood. The remark in the play could give an indication: “Two soldiers forcefully kneel and make a substitution,” that is, they had to deftly replace a person with a doll, which was immediately beheaded. When the actors portrayed scenes in which the righteous were laid on hot coals, thrown into a pit with wild animals, stabbed with knives or crucified on a cross, this affected the audience much more than any sermon. And the more violent the scene, the more powerful the impact.
In all the works of that period, the religious and realistic elements of the depiction of life not only coexisted together, but also fought against each other. Theatrical costume was dominated by everyday components. For example, Herod walks around the stage in Turkish attire with a saber at his side; Roman legionnaires are dressed in modern soldier uniforms. The fact that the actors portraying biblical heroes put on everyday costumes showed the struggle of mutually exclusive principles. She also left her mark on the game of actors who presented their heroes in a pathetic and grotesque form. The jester and the demon were the most beloved folk characters. They introduced into the mysteries a stream of folk humor and everyday life, which gave the play even more dynamism. Quite often, these characters did not have a pre-written text, but improvised in the course of the mystery. Therefore, in the texts of the mysteries, attacks against the church, feudal lords and the rich were most often not recorded. And if such texts were written down in the script of the play, they were greatly smoothed out. Such texts cannot give the modern viewer an idea of how sharply critical certain mysteries were.
In addition to the actors, ordinary townspeople took part in the productions of mysteries. Members of various city workshops were engaged in separate episodes. People willingly took part in this, since the mystery gave the opportunity for representatives of each profession to express themselves in their entirety. For example, the scene of the Flood was played by sailors and fishermen, the episode with Noah's Ark was played by shipbuilders, the expulsion from paradise was played by gunsmiths.
The staging of the mystery spectacle was directed by a man who was called the "master of the games." The Mysteries not only developed the taste of the people for the theatre, but helped to improve theatrical technique and gave impetus to the development of certain elements of the Renaissance drama.
In 1548, the mysteries, especially widespread in France, were forbidden to be shown to the general public. This was done due to the fact that the comedic lines present in the mysteries became too critical. The reason for the ban also lies in the fact that the mysteries did not receive support from the new, most progressive sections of society. Humanist-minded people did not accept plays with biblical plots, and the areal form and criticism of the clergy and authorities gave rise to church prohibitions.
Later, when the royal power forbade all urban liberties and guild unions, the mystery theater lost ground.
Morality
In the 16th century, a reform movement arose in Europe, or the Reformation. It had an anti-feudal character and affirmed the principle of so-called personal communion with God, that is, the principle of personal virtue. The burghers made morality a weapon both against the feudal lords and against the people. The desire of the bourgeois to give their worldview more holiness and gave impetus to the creation of another genre of medieval theater - morality.
There are no church plots in morality plays, since moralization is the only goal of such productions. The main characters of the morality theater are allegorical heroes, each of which personifies human vices and virtues, forces of nature and church dogmas. The characters do not have an individual character, in their hands even real things turn into symbols. For example, Hope went on stage with an anchor in her hands, Selfishness constantly looked in the mirror, etc. Conflicts between the characters arose because of the struggle between two principles: good and evil, spirit and body. The clashes of the characters were displayed in the form of an opposition of two figures, which represented the good and evil principles that have an influence on a person.
As a rule, the main idea of morality was this: reasonable people follow the path of virtue, and the unreasonable become victims of vice.
In 1436, the French morality The Prudent and the Unreasonable was created. The play showed that the Prudent trusts Reason, and the Fool adheres to Disobedience. On the way to eternal bliss, the Prudent met Almsgiving, Fasting, Prayer, Chastity, Abstinence, Obedience, Diligence and Patience. But the Foolish on the same path is accompanied by Poverty, Despair, Theft and a Bad End. Allegorical heroes end their lives in completely different ways: one in heaven and the other in hell.
The actors who participate in this performance act as orators, explaining their attitude to certain phenomena. The style of acting in morality was restrained. This made the task much easier for the actor, because it was not necessary to transform into an image. The character was understandable to the viewer by certain details of the theatrical costume. Another feature of morality was poetic speech, which received much attention.
The playwrights working in this genre were early humanists, some professors of medieval schools. In the Netherlands, the writing and staging of morality was done by people fighting against Spanish dominance. Their works contained many different political allusions. For such performances, the authors and actors were constantly persecuted by the authorities.
As the genre of morality developed, it gradually freed itself from strict ascetic morality. The impact of new social forces gave impetus to the display of realistic scenes in morality. The contradictions present in this genre indicated that theatrical productions were becoming more and more close to real life. Some plays even contained elements of social criticism.
In 1442, the play "Trade, Craft, Shepherd" was written. It describes the complaints of each of the characters that life has become difficult. Here Time appears, dressed first in a red dress, which meant Rebellion. After that, Time comes out in full armor and personifies the War. It then appears wearing bandages and a cloak hanging in tatters. The characters ask him the question: "Who painted you like that?" Time responds to this:
I swear on my body, you heard
What kind of people have become.
I've been beaten so hard
What Time you hardly know.
Plays that were far from politics, opposed to vices, were directed against the morality of temperance. In 1507, the morality “The Condemnation of Feasts” was created, in which the characters-ladies Delicacy, Gluttony, Outfits and characters-cavaliers Pew-for-your-health and Pew-mutually were introduced. These heroes at the end of the play die in the fight against Apoplexy, Paralysis and other ailments.
Despite the fact that in this play human passions and feasts were shown in a critical light, their depiction in the form of a cheerful masquerade spectacle destroyed the very idea of \u200b\u200bcondemning any kind of excess. Morality turned into a perky, picturesque scene with a life-affirming attitude.
The allegorical genre, to which morality should be attributed, introduced structural clarity into medieval dramaturgy, the theater was supposed to show mostly typical images.
Farce
From the time of its inception until the second half of the 15th century, the farce was vulgar, plebeian. And only then, having gone through a long, hidden path of development, did it stand out as an independent genre.
The name "farce" comes from the Latin word farsa, which means "stuffing". This name arose because during the show of the mysteries, farces were inserted into their texts. According to theater critics, the origins of farce are much further. It originated from the performances of histrions and carnival carnival games. Histrions gave him the direction of the theme, and carnivals - the essence of the game and mass character. In the mystery play, the farce was further developed and stood out as a separate genre.
From the beginning of its origin, the farce aimed to criticize and ridicule the feudal lords, the burghers and the nobility in general. Such social criticism was instrumental in the birth of farce as a theatrical genre. In a special type, one can single out farcical performances in which parodies of the church and its dogmas were created.
Shrovetide performances and folk games became the impetus for the emergence of so-called stupid corporations. They included minor judicial officials, schoolchildren, seminarians, etc. In the 15th century, such societies spread throughout Europe. In Paris, there were 4 large "stupid corporations" that regularly staged farcical screenings. In such viewings, plays were staged that ridiculed the speeches of bishops, the verbiage of judges, the ceremonial, with great pomp, entries of kings into the city.
The secular and ecclesiastical authorities reacted to these attacks by persecuting the participants in farces: they were expelled from the cities, imprisoned, etc. In addition to parodies, satirical scenes-soti (sotie - “stupidity”) were played out in farces. In this genre, there were no longer everyday characters, but jesters, fools (for example, a vain fool-soldier, a fool-deceiver, a bribe-taking clerk). The experience of morality allegories found its embodiment in hundreds. The genre of honeycomb reached its greatest flourishing at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. Even the French king Louis XII used the popular theater of farce in the fight against Pope Julius II. Satirical scenes were fraught with danger not only for the church, but also for the secular authorities, because they ridiculed both wealth and the nobility. All this gave Francis I a reason to ban farce and soti performances.
Since the performances of the hundreds were conditionally masquerade in nature, this genre did not have that full-blooded nationality, mass character, freethinking and everyday specific characters. Therefore, in the 16th century, the more effective and buffoonish farce became the dominant genre. His realism was manifested in the fact that it contained human characters, which, however, were given somewhat more schematically.
Practically all farcical plots are based on purely everyday stories, i.e., the farce is completely real in all its content and artistry. The skits ridicule marauding soldiers, pardon-selling monks, arrogant nobles, and greedy merchants. The seemingly uncomplicated farce "About the Miller", which has a funny content, actually contains an evil folk grin. The play tells about a dull-witted miller who is fooled by a young miller's wife and a priest. In the farce, character traits are accurately noticed, showing the public satirical life-truthful material.
Rice. 13. Scene from "The Farce of Lawyer Patlen"
But the authors of farces ridicule not only priests, nobles and officials. The peasants do not stand aside either. The real hero of the farce is the rogue city dweller who, with the help of dexterity, wit and ingenuity, defeats judges, merchants and all kinds of simpletons. A number of farces were written about such a hero in the middle of the 15th century (about the lawyer Patlen) ( rice. thirteen).
The plays tell about all kinds of adventures of the hero and show a whole series of very colorful characters: a pedant-judge, a stupid merchant, a self-serving monk, a stingy furrier, a close-minded shepherd who actually wraps Patlen himself around his finger. Farces about Patlen colorfully tell about the life and customs of the medieval city. At times they reach the highest degree of comedy for that time.
The character in this series of farces (as well as dozens of others in different farces) was a real hero, and all his antics were supposed to arouse the sympathy of the audience. After all, his tricks put the mighty of this world in a stupid position and showed the advantage of the mind, energy and dexterity of the common people. But the direct task of the farcical theater was still not this, but denial, the satirical background of many aspects of feudal society. The positive side of the farce was developed primitively and degenerated into the affirmation of a narrow, petty-bourgeois ideal.
This shows the immaturity of the people, which was influenced by bourgeois ideology. But still, the farce was considered a folk theater, progressive and democratic. The main principle of acting art for farcers (farce actors) was characterization, sometimes brought to a parody caricature, and dynamism, expressing the cheerfulness of the performers themselves.
Farces were staged by amateur societies. The most famous comic associations in France were the Bazoches circle of judicial clerks and the Carefree Boys society, which experienced their highest heyday at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. These societies supplied cadres of semi-professional actors for theaters. To our great regret, we cannot name a single name, because they have not been preserved in historical documents. A single name is well known - the first and most famous actor of the medieval theater, the Frenchman Jean de l'Espina, nicknamed Pontale. He received this nickname by the name of the Parisian bridge, on which he arranged his stage. Later, Pontale joined the Carefree Guys corporation and became its main organizer, as well as the best performer of farces and morality.
Many testimonies of contemporaries about his resourcefulness and magnificent improvisational gift have been preserved. They cited such a case. In his role, Pontale was a hunchback and had a hump on his back. He went up to the hunchbacked cardinal, leaned against his back and said: "But mountain and mountain can come together." They also told an anecdote about how Pontale beat a drum in his booth and this prevented the priest of a neighboring church from celebrating Mass. An angry priest came to the booth and cut the skin on the drum with a knife. Then Pontale put a holey drum on his head and went to church. Because of the laughter that stood in the temple, the priest was forced to stop the service.
Pontale's satirical poems were very popular, in which hatred of nobles and priests was clearly visible. Great indignation can be heard in these lines:
And now the villainous nobleman!
He destroys and destroys people
Ruthless than plague and pestilence.
I swear to you, you need to hurry
Hang them all indiscriminately.
So many people knew about Pontale's comic talent and his fame was so great that the famous F. Rabelais, author of Gargantua and Pantagruel, considered him the greatest master of laughter. The personal success of this actor indicated that a new professional period in the development of the theater was approaching.
The monarchical government was increasingly dissatisfied with the city's freethinking. In this regard, the fate of gay comic amateur corporations was the most deplorable. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, the largest farser corporations ceased to exist.
The farce, although it was always persecuted, had a great influence on the further development of the theater of Western Europe. For example, in Italy the commedia dell'arte developed from farce; in Spain - the work of the "father of the Spanish theater" Lope de Rueda; in England, John Heywood wrote his works in the style of a farce; in Germany, Hans Sachs; in France, farcical traditions nourished the work of the comedy genius Molière. So it was the farce that became the link between the old and the new theatre.
The medieval theater tried very hard to overcome the influence of the church, but it did not succeed. This was one of the reasons for his decline, moral death, if you like. Although no significant works of art were created in the medieval theater, the entire course of its development showed that the strength of the resistance of the vital principle to the religious one constantly increased. Medieval theater paved the way for the emergence of a powerful realistic theatrical art of the Renaissance.