Primates - what kind of family is this? Order of primates and their evolution. Classification of modern primates Order system of primates

The primate order is divided into two suborders and 16 families:

Suborder Wet Nose ( Strepsirrhini) includes the following families:

• Dwarf lemurs ( Cheirogaleidae);
• Lemurs ( Lemuridae);
• Lepilemory ( Lepilemuridae);
• Indriaceae ( Indriidae);
• Hand-legged ( Daubentoniidae);
• Loriaceae ( Loridae);
• Galagic ( Galagonidae).

Suborder Dry-nosed ( Haplorrhini) consists of the following families:

• Tarsiers ( Tarsiidae);
• Igrunkovye ( Callitrichidae);
• chain-tailed monkeys ( Cebidae);
• night monkeys ( aotidae);
• Sakov ( Pitheciidae);
• Spider Monkeys ( Atelidae);
• Monkey ( Cercopithecidae);
• Gibbons ( Hylobatidae);
• hominids ( Hominidae).

Evolution

Fossils of early primates are from the early (56 to 40 million years ago) or possibly the late Paleocene (59 to 56 million years ago). Although they are an ancient group, and many (especially the broad-nosed or New World monkeys) have remained fully arboreal, others have become at least partially terrestrial and have reached a high level of intelligence. There is no doubt that this particular detachment includes some of the.

Lifespan

Although humans are the longest-lived primates, the potential lifespan of chimpanzees is estimated at 60 years, and orangutans sometimes reach that age in captivity. On the other hand, the lifespan of lemurs is about 15 years, while that of monkeys is 25-30 years.

Description

Roxellan rhinopitecus

Despite notable differences between primate families, they share several anatomical and functional characteristics that reflect their common order. Compared to body weight, primate brains are larger than those of other mammals and have a unique spur-like groove that separates the first and second visual areas on each side of the brain. While all other mammals have claws or hooves on their fingers, primates have flat nails. Some primates have claws, but the thumb still has a flat nail.

Not all primates have equally nimble hands; only narrow-nosed monkeys (marmosets and hominids, including humans), as well as some lemurs and lorises, have an opposable thumb. Primates are not the only animals that grasp various objects with their limbs. But since this characteristic is found in many other arboreal mammals (such as squirrels and opossums), and since most modern primates are arboreal, it is assumed that they evolved from an ancestor that was arboreal.

Primates also have specialized nerve endings on their limbs that increase tactile sensitivity. As far as is known, no other placental mammal has them. Primates have fingerprints, but so do many other arboreal mammals.

Primates have binocular vision, although this feature is by no means limited to primates, but it is a common characteristic seen among . Therefore, it has been proposed that the ancestor of primates was a predator.

Primate teeth differ from those of other mammals by having low, rounded molar and premolar teeth that contrast with the long, sharp teeth of other placental mammals. This difference makes it easy to recognize primate teeth.

The size

Members of the primate order show a range of sizes and adaptive diversity. The smallest primate is the mouse lemur ( Microcebus berthae), which weighs about 35-50 grams; the most massive primate is, of course, the gorilla ( Gorilla), whose weight varies from 140 to 180 kg, which is almost 4000 times the weight of the mouse lemur.

Geographic range and habitat

Primates occupy two main vegetation zones: and. Each of these zones has created appropriate adaptations in primates, but among the arboreal species there may be more variety of bodily forms than among the inhabitants of the savannah. Arboreal primates have many of the same characteristics that likely evolved as adaptations to life in trees. Several species, including our own, have left their trees to become terrestrial.

Non-human primates are widespread in all tropical latitudes, India, Southeast and. In Ethiopia, gelada (genus Theropithecus) is found at altitudes up to 5000 meters. The gorillas of the Virunga Mountains are known to pass through mountain passes at over 4,200 meters. Red Howlers ( Alouatta seniculus) Venezuelans live at an altitude of 2500 meters in the mountains of the Cordillera de Merida, and in northern Colombia, the Mirikins (genus Aotus) are found in the tropical mountain forests of the Central Cordillera.

The gestation period varies among primate species. For example, mouse lemurs have a gestation period of 54-68 days, lemurs 132-134 days, macaques 146-186 days, gibbons 210 days, chimpanzees 230 days, gorillas 255 days, and humans (on average) 267 days. Even in small primates, the gestation period is significantly longer than in other mammals of equivalent size, reflecting the complexity of primates. Although there is a general evolutionary trend in primates towards an increase in body size, there is no absolute correlation between body size and the length of the gestation period.

The degrees of puberty and maternal dependence at birth appear to be closely related. Newborn primates are not as helpless as kittens, puppies or rats. With few exceptions, the young primate is born with open eyes and fur. Cubs should be able to cling to their mother's fur; only a few species leave their babies in shelters while feeding. The young of the highest primates are able to cling to their mother's fur unaided; however, humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas must support their newborns, and humans do so the longest.

Once the primate infant has learned to support itself by standing on its two (or four) legs, the physical dependency phase is over; the next stage, psychological addiction, lasts much longer. The human child is attached to the mother for a much longer time than the non-human primate. The adolescent period of psychological maternal dependence is 2.5 years in lemurs, 6 years in monkeys, 7-8 years in most hominoid, and 14 years in humans.

Behavior

Primates are among the most social animals, forming pairs or family groups. Social systems are influenced by three main environmental factors: distribution, group size, and predation. Within a social group, there is a balance between cooperation and competition. Cooperative behavior includes social grooming, food sharing, and collective defense against predators. Aggressive behavior often signals competition for food, sleeping quarters, or helpers. Aggression is also used to establish dominance hierarchies.

It is known that several species of primates can cooperate in the wild. For example, in the Tai National Park in Africa, several species coordinate their behavior to protect themselves from predators. These include Diana monkey, Campbell's monkey, lesser white-nosed monkey, red colobus, king colobus, smoky mangobey. Among the predators of these monkeys is the common chimpanzee.

Primates have developed cognitive abilities: some make tools and use them to obtain food and for social display; others have complex hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and dominance; they are status conscious, manipulative and deceitful; these animals can learn to use symbols and understand human language.

Some primates rely on olfactory cues for many aspects of social and reproductive behavior. Specialized glands are used to mark territories with pheromones that are picked up by the vomeronasal organ. Primates also use vocalizations, gestures, and emotions to convey a psychological state. Like humans, chimpanzees can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar faces.

Primate conservation

While many primates are still abundant in the wild, populations of many species are in sharp decline. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), more than 70% of primates in Asia and approximately 40% of primates in South America, the African mainland and the island of Madagascar are listed as endangered. A number of species, especially the gorilla, some of the Madagascar lemurs, and some species from South America, are in serious danger of extinction as their habitats are being destroyed and poaching is rampant.

However, some endangered species have increased in numbers. A concerted captive breeding effort has been successful, and reintroduction into the wild is also practiced in Brazil.

Primates (lat. Primates, from lat. primas, lit. "first") - one of the most progressive orders of placental mammals, including, among other things, monkeys and humans. The order includes more than 400 species

Appearance

Primates are characterized by five-fingered, very mobile upper limbs (hands), opposition of the thumb to the rest (for the majority), and nails. The body of most primates is covered with hair, and lemurs and some broad-nosed monkeys also have an undercoat, which is why their hairline can be called real fur.

general characteristics

 binocular vision

 Hairline

 five-fingered limb

 fingers are equipped with nails

 the thumb of the brush is opposed to all the rest

 underdeveloped sense of smell

Significant development of the cerebral hemispheres

Classification

A detachment of primates was identified back in 1758 by Linnaeus, who attributed to him people, monkeys, semi-monkeys, bats and sloths. For the defining features of primates, Linnaeus took the presence of two mammary glands and a five-fingered limb. In the same century, Georges Buffon divided primates into two orders - four-armed (Quadrumana) and two-armed (Bimanus), separating man from other primates. Only 100 years later, Thomas Huxley put an end to this division by proving that the monkey's hind limb is a leg. Since the 18th century, the composition of the taxon has changed, but back in the 20th century, the slow loris was attributed to sloths, and bats were excluded from the closest relatives of primates at the beginning of the 21st century.

Recently, the classification of primates has undergone significant changes. Previously, suborders of semi-monkeys (Prosimii) and anthropoid primates (Anthropoidea) were distinguished. The semi-monkeys included all representatives of the modern suborder of the strepsirrhines, (Strepsirhini), tarsiers, and sometimes tupai (now considered as a special detachment). Anthropoids became the infraorder apes in the suborder dry-nosed monkeys. In addition, the Pongidae family was previously distinguished, which is now considered a subfamily of Pongina within the Hominid family.

 suborder strepsirrhines (Strepsirhini)

 Lemuriformes infraorder

 lemurs, or lemurids (Lemuridae): actually lemurs

 dwarf lemurs (Cheirogaleidae): dwarf and mouse lemurs

Lepilemuridae (Lepilemuridae)

 Indriidae (Indriidae): indri, avagis and sifaki

 hand-legged (Daubentoniidae): aye-aye (single species)

 Infraorder Loriformes (Loriformes)

Loris (Loridae): lorises and pottos

 Galagonidae (Galagonidae): Galago proper

 suborder dry-nosed (Haplorhini)

 infraorder tarsiiformes (Tarsiiformes)

 tarsiers (Tarsiidae)

 Infraorder Monkeys (Simiiformes)

 parvoorder broad-nosed monkeys, or monkeys of the New World (Platyrrhina)

 marmosets (Callitrichidae)

 chain-tailed (Cebidae)

 night monkeys (Aotidae)

 Saky (Pitheciidae)

 arachnids (Atelidae)

 narrow-nosed monkeys, or primates of the Old World (Catarhina)

 superfamily canine-headed (Cercopithecoidea)

 marmoset, or lower narrow-nosed monkeys (Cercopithecidae): macaques, baboons, monkeys, etc.

 superfamily great apes, or hominoids (Hominoidea), or anthropomorphids (Anthropomorphidae)

 gibbons, or lesser apes (Hylobatidae): true gibbons, nomascuses, huloks and siamangs

 hominids (Hominidae): orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans

The initial interest in monkeys, the anatomical description of which we find in Aristotle, led to the development of a separate section of biological science - primatology. This section summarizes data on fossil monkeys, as well as the results of observations of their currently existing species.

Most primates lead an arboreal lifestyle. Their body length varies from 12 cm (some semi-monkeys) to 2 m (gorillas). In the process of adapting to an arboreal existence, the ancestors of primates developed many properties that corresponded to their way of life.

Primates have five-fingered grasping limb. Five-fingeredness, the oldest sign of mammals and terrestrial vertebrates in general, was preserved in primates and contributed to the formation of a grasping limb. This led to increased mobility, variety of movements and tenacity of the limbs. These properties of the forelimb are due to the presence of the collarbone, which all primates possess. The mobility of the forearm is associated with pronation and supination characteristic of primates, i.e. the ability of the radius to rotate freely relative to the ulna, to perform flexion and extension movements in the elbow joint.

Tenacity in most primates is due to the ability of the first finger to oppose the rest. Primate fingers are mostly equipped with flat nails rather than claws. In those forms that have claws on separate fingers, the first is always provided with a nail.

When primates move on the ground, they usually rely on the entire foot. Therefore, they can be defined as plantigrade animals, less adapted to fast running than typical terrestrial forms - digitigrade.

Life on trees gives primates a variety of food - fruits, leaves, berries, buds, as well as insect larvae, chicks, eggs, i.e. - Mixed food. All three categories of teeth are involved in its chewing, and this allowed primates to avoid those unilateral changes in the dental apparatus that characterize other orders of mammals, such as ungulates, rodents, carnivores, etc. Primates, like humans, are characterized by the presence of all types of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars), and the number of these teeth is relatively constant. Such a dental system is called heterodont. Primates are characterized by a complete change of teeth, that is, two generations - dairy and permanent.

A grasping, very mobile hand, frees, to a certain extent, the jaws from the functions of capturing food. Many primates grasp food, usually with their hands, and bring it to their mouths. This relief of the load on the jaw apparatus was reflected to some extent in a decrease in the size of the jaws and, in general, in a decrease in the facial part of the skull compared to the brain part. The process of changing the ratios between the brain skull and the facial one is also associated with other phenomena that took place during the evolution of primates.

The arboreal way of life affected the relative importance of the sense organs of these animals. The primitive land mammal is guided in its behavior mainly by olfactory sensations. The olfactory organ plays the first role in the life of such an animal, and the olfactory lobe of the cerebral hemispheres is the largest and most progressive. With a predominant existence on a tree and with a separation from the ground, the situation changes; on trees, the animal's perception of odors loses its meaning. Hearing and an accurate eye are much more important here. Arboreal animals progressively develop the corresponding sense organs. In addition, for primates with their grasping limbs, with their easily movable fingers, tactile sensations, especially acutely perceived through sensitive bare skin located on the limbs, become of great importance. The ends of the fingers of primates in connection with this are expanded; they are protected by flat nails (instead of the claws of most other mammals) and on their skin, in contact with surrounding objects, there are "tactile patterns" - rows of thin rollers arranged in arcs, loops, circles, ovals.

The increased development of the organ of sight and touch was accompanied by a decline in the role of smell in primates. Accordingly, they have a reduced number of turbinates and the entire nasal region of the skull. This, in turn, reduces the face and changes its relationship to the cerebral skull in favor of the latter. Finally, the rapid development of those areas of the cortex that are involved in the conscious perception of visual and tactile sensations has led to a general increase in the mass of the brain and its deep restructuring. The hemispheres grow so much that other parts of the brain do not keep up with it; the occipital part of the hemispheres in many primates covers the cerebellum (partly or entirely), just as it does in humans. Not only the cerebral hemispheres develop, this process also covers the cerebellum, but the latter does not develop as quickly as the large brain. The total mass of the brain compared with the body mass in primates changes in the direction of cerebralization.

Enlargement and internal restructuring of the brain was a prerequisite for the development of close coordination of various and complex movements performed by primates when climbing, hanging from branches, and jumping through trees. Along with this, primates have developed an instinctive desire to manipulate objects, regardless of their nutritional value. Any unfamiliar thing the monkey grabs, examines, feels from all sides, tries with teeth and tongue, etc. All this is possible only with a relatively high level of development of the psyche and brain.

Therefore, primates are characterized by a greater development of the cerebral hemispheres in comparison with other mammals, an increase in its volume and, in accordance with this, an increase in the capacity of the cranium. The large size of the cranium and brain, its high differentiation are associated with the extraordinary mobility of the representatives of this order and the variety of functions of their forelimbs.

Most primates have lost the seasonality of their sexual life and are able to breed throughout the year. The detachment is characterized by low fertility, most often one cub is born. The decrease in fertility and increased care for offspring created better conditions for survival. Primates are characterized by an increase in the period before the onset of puberty, at which time experience is transferred from adults to a new generation.

The communication of individuals in the herd occurs with the help of facial expressions and vocalization - both of these methods have reached high development in monkeys. Monkeys can make about 50 different sounds, which serve as signals of danger warning, curiosity, friendly greeting, enthusiasm, displeasure, etc.

The structure of the larynx of monkeys differs significantly from its structure in humans. All attempts to teach them to pronounce words by imitation ended in failure. At the same time, it was possible to teach chimpanzees "sign language" - they mastered about 120 words expressing their needs and requests addressed to the experimenter. It is clear that there is a huge qualitative difference between these methods of transmitting information and human speech based on abstract thinking.

Signs that characterize the detachment of Primates:

1) Limbs of a grasping type, five-fingered, the thumb is movable and in many can be opposed to the rest. Nails are developed on the fingers.

2) Heterodont dental system.

3) The brain has a larger volume and complex structure, the eyes are directed forward.

4) When walking, they rely on the entire foot.

5) With low fecundity, they are capable of reproduction throughout the year.

The listed features characteristic of primates explain why it was in this order that the progressive direction of evolution became possible, which led to the appearance of man.

Questions and tasks for self-control

I. Give answers to control questions.

1. Give an explanation of direct and indirect evidence confirming the high degree of human relationship with animals and great apes.

2. Describe the systematic position of man in the animal kingdom.

3. In connection with what features of the structure of living primates are divided into two main groups of suborders - Strepsirin and Gaplorin.

4. Describe the appearance of strepsirin primates, which families of semi-monkeys belong to them?

5. Name the common features of haplorin primates, give a description of the taxa included in this group.

6. Describe the structure, lifestyle and taxonomy of the suborder Tarsiers.

7. Give a description of the structure, lifestyle and taxonomy of broad-nosed monkeys.

8. Narrow-nosed monkeys: structure, lifestyle and taxonomy.

9. Describe the taxonomy of the superfamily Hominoids.

10. List the signs that characterize the detachment of Primates.

II. Choose the correct answer.

1. Direct evidence confirming the family ties between humans and animals and a high degree of human kinship with great apes include:

And the bones of a fossil man;

B data of comparative embryology;

In physiological data;

The doctrine of rudimentary organs and atavisms;

D all answers are correct.

2. The vestigial human organs, which had a functional significance in his distant ancestors, but gradually lost it in the process of evolution, include:

And the remains of the general hairline;

B tail vertebrae;

In polymastia;

D muscles that move the auricle;

D all answers are correct.

3. According to the criteria of zoological systematics, the species "Homo sapiens" refers to:

And the suborder of the Semi-monkeys;

B suborder Dolgopyatovye;

Infraorder Broad-nosed monkeys;

To the infraorder Narrow-nosed monkeys;

D all answers are correct.

4. The human body has many features in common with mammals:

And all answers are correct;

B four-chambered heart;

In nuclear-free erythrocytes;

G spine;

D constant body temperature.

5. The most ancient group of Strepsirin primates does not include:

And lemurs;

B tarsiers;

In tupai;

6. What primates are characterized by the formation of "mixed flocks", which may even include raccoons and birds?

And the lower narrow-nosed monkeys;

B tarsiers;

In broad-nosed monkeys;

G hominoids;

7. Bonobo belongs to the genus:

And Gorillas;

B Gibbons;

The Orangutans;

G Chimpanzee;

D All answers are wrong.

8. A trait uncharacteristic for the order Primates:

And they are only capable of seasonal reproduction;

B the brain has a larger volume and complex structure;

In walking, they rely on the entire foot;

G grasping limbs;

D gerotodontic dental system.

9. The most evolutionarily successful family of monkeys, all species of which are diurnal.

B Monkeys;

In marmosets;

G Lemurs;

D Orangutans.

10. Primates progressively develop sensory organs that cause the following types of sensitivity:

And the sense of smell;

B taste and touch;

In sight;

D hearing and smell;

Sight, hearing and touch.

The detachment unites the most developed and progressive mammals. "Primates" in translation means "first", since representatives of the monkey species are one of the most highly organized animals. There are more than 200 species of primates - these are small pygmy marmosets (up to 10 cm in length) and huge gorillas (up to 180 cm in length) weighing about 250 kg.

General characteristics of the Squad

Primates inhabit tropical zones: they prefer to live in dense thickets. Other types of arboreal animals climb trees with sharp claws. But primates use long fingers for this, with which they wrap around a branch.

The fore and hind limbs are five-fingered, the first finger, like in humans, is opposed to the rest. So the animals securely grab onto the branches and hold on to them. There are no claws on the fingers, but flat nails grow. Primates use their limbs not only to move, but also to grab food, clean and comb their hair.

Signs of the detachment of primates:

• binocular vision;
• limbs with five fingers;
• body densely covered with hair;
• nails are developed instead of claws;
• the first finger is opposed to the rest;
• poor development of the sense of smell;
• developed brain.

Evolution

Primates are the oldest group of placental mammals. With the help of the remains, it was possible to study their evolution over 90 million years, it was then that the primates were divided into primates and woolly wings.

After 5 million years, two new groups formed: dry-nosed and strep-nosed primates. Then tarsiformes, apes, lemurs appeared.

The global cooling that occurred 30 million years ago led to the mass extinction of primates, representatives remained only in Africa, America and Asia. Then the first true ancestors of modern primates began to appear.

These animals lived in trees and fed on insects. From them came orangutans, gibbons, driopithecus. The latter are an extinct group of primates that evolved into other species: chimpanzees, gorillas, humans.

The opinion of scientists that man descended from driopitenki is based on many similarities in structure and appearance. Bipedal locomotion is the main feature that first separated humans from primates in the course of evolution.

Similarities between humans and primates
similarity	Characteristic
Appearance	Large size, long limbs with the same body plan (five-fingered, opposition of the first finger to the rest), similar shape of the outer ear, nose, facial muscles, nail plates
Internal skeleton	12-13 pairs of ribs, similar sections, identical bone structure
Blood	One cell composition, four blood types
Chromosomal set	Number of chromosomes from 46 to 48, similar shape and structure
metabolic processes	Dependence on enzyme systems, hormones, the same mechanisms for the breakdown of nutrients
Diseases	Tuberculosis, diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis proceed in the same way

sense organs

Among all mammals, monkeys have the most developed brain, with many convolutions in the hemispheres. Hearing and vision are well developed. The eyes simultaneously focus on the object, allowing you to accurately determine the distance, which is very important when jumping on branches.

Monkeys are able to distinguish the shape of surrounding objects and their color, being at a distance, they see ripe fruits and edible insects. Olfactory receptors do not distinguish smells well, and fingers, palms and feet, devoid of hair, are responsible for touch.

Lifestyle

They eat plants and small animals, but still prefer plant foods. Newborn primates are able to see from the first days, but they cannot move independently. The cub clings to the fur of the female, who holds it with one hand and carries it with her.

Lead an active lifestyle during the day. They unite in herds with the leader - the strongest male. Everyone obeys him and follows his instructions, which are sent through facial expressions, gestures, sounds.

habitats

In America, primates with wide nostrils (broad-nosed monkeys) are common, with an elongated tail that easily clings to branches. A well-known representative of the broad-nosed is the spider monkey, which received its name because of its long limbs.

Narrow-nosed primates live in Africa and tropical Asia. The tail, for example, in monkeys, does not play a significant role during climbing, and some species are completely devoid of it. Baboons prefer to live on the ground, moving on all fours.

Squad classification

There are several classifications of the order primates. The modern one distinguishes two suborders: wet-nosed primates and dry-nosed primates.

Characters from the suborder Wet-nosed distinguish them from dry-nosed species. The main difference is a wet nose, which makes it possible to perceive odors better. The first finger is less opposed to the other fingers. Wet-nosed give more prolific offspring - up to several cubs, and dry-nosed mostly bear one child.

The division of primates into two groups is considered older: semi-monkeys (lower primates) and monkeys (higher primates):

1. The semi-monkeys include lemurs and tarsiers, small animals that are active at night. They inhabit the territory of tropical Asia and Africa.
2. Monkeys are highly organized animals, which include different types of monkeys, marmosets, gibbons, and also great apes.

The great apes include the African gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan. Great apes climb trees during the day in search of food, and at night they settle in nests made of boughs. They skillfully and quickly move on their hind limbs, maintaining balance with the help of the back surface of the hand, which rests on the soil. Great apes lack a tail.

Members of the family have a well-developed brain, which determines their behavior. They are endowed with excellent memory and intelligence. Great apes can make a primitive tool out of improvised means. A chimpanzee, using a branch, pulls out insects from narrow gorges, uses straws as toothpicks. Big knots, piles of earth monkeys use as weapons.

Thanks to the developed facial muscles, chimpanzees can communicate by sending mimic signs to each other: they can depict fear, anger, joy. In this respect, great apes are very similar to humans.

For a person as a representative of primates, it is also characteristic: a five-fingered grasping limb, a tactile pattern, differentiation of teeth, a significant development of sensory systems, low fertility, and more. That is why man belongs to the family of great apes. A distinctive feature of people is consciousness, which arose in connection with labor activity.

More than 400 species of primates live in nature, and on this site we will try to describe them all. The most famous of them are the great apes. The sizes of primates are variable: body length is from 8.5-10-12 cm (tarsiers, lemurs, tupai) to 180 cm (gorillas).

Primates are predominantly arboreal (some tupai, ring-tailed lemur and baboons). Monkeys keep in small, rarely large groups. Activity is usually diurnal.

According to the nature of nutrition, they tend to be omnivorous with various deviations towards herbivory or carnivory, depending on the species, season and habitat. On this site we plan to publish descriptions of all types of monkeys, both the most famous and very rare ones.

PRIMATES (Primates), an order of mammals, which includes humans, great and other apes, as well as prosimians. Possibly, the tupai from Southeast Asia should also be attributed to it. The name "primates", meaning "first", "leading", was given to the detachment by K. Linnaeus, the father of modern biological systematics.

Primates mainly live in trees, for the movement of which their limbs are also adapted. They are long and thin, and the hands and feet are of a grasping type: the thumbs are usually opposed to the rest. The limbs rotate easily at the hip and shoulder joints; the anterior and, to a lesser extent, the posterior may be turned with the palm and sole inward and even upward. The teeth of more primitive primates (in particular, tupai and lemurs) are covered with sharp tubercles and are adapted for grinding, in addition to plant food, also hard covers of insects. Their muzzle is elongated and pointed. In monkeys, the muzzle is shortened; the two branches of the mandible anteriorly merged without a seam, and the teeth bear rounded cusps and are adapted for grinding the soft parts of plants. The upper fangs are usually well developed, especially in males, and are used in fights.

The reproductive system of primates is similar to the human, except for small details. Many monkeys have a double discoidal placenta, but in tarsier and anthropoids it is formed by a single disc, like in humans. Lemurs have a diffuse, persistent placenta. As a rule, one cub is born.

The sense of smell in primates, unlike most mammals, is poorly developed, but vision and hearing are sharp. The eyes are located in the anterior plane of the face, which provides a wide binocular field, i.e. stereoscopic vision. Monkeys, especially anthropoids, have a well-developed brain; it looks like a human, but it is simpler.

Zoologists divide the order of primates in different ways. In the system proposed here, the order is divided into two suborders: prosimians and higher primates, i.e. apes and humans. Each suborder is divided into three superfamilies, which in turn include one or more families.

Prosimiae (half-monkeys). Tupaiidae (tupai). Tupai are often classified as insectivorous, but most likely they are close to the ancestral form of all primates and can be considered a special superfamily of prosimians. They have claws on their paws, five fingers are able to move apart widely. The chewing surface of the molars bears a W-shaped ridge. The eye sockets are surrounded by a solid bony ring, like in lemurs. Fossil tupai, close to modern forms, were found in Mongolia and date back to the Lower Oligocene. detachment primate monkey

Lemuroidea (lemurs). The oldest lemur-like primates are known from the Paleocene and Eocene of North America and Europe. The lemur family (Lemuridae) includes the lemurs of Madagascar. Only there is found the only species of the family of bats (Daubentoniidae) - aye-aye. Fossils found in France and dating from the Eocene have shown that this family was earlier more widely distributed. Loris (Lorisidae) include lorises, pottos and galagos that live in Southeast Asia and tropical Africa.

Tarsioidea (tarsiers). At present, this important superfamily is represented by only three species in the Malay Archipelago, but in the Eocene similar forms were common in Europe and North America. In many ways, they approach the higher primates.

Anthropoidea (higher primates, monkeys). Ceboidea (broad-nosed, New World monkeys). It is possible that this superfamily, independently of other apes, descended from the ancient lemuroids. Their nostrils are separated by a wide septum, and there are three premolar (two-apex) teeth. In marmosets (Callithricidae), except for Callimico, the last molars on both jaws are absent, and fingers, except for the first toe, are armed with claws in all species. Capuchins (Cebidae) have flat nails on all fingers, but in many cases the tail is tenacious, grasping; the thumbs are often very small or even absent. One fossil from the Lower Miocene of Patagonia is very similar to modern forms.

Cercopithecoidea (lower narrow-nosed, or dog-like , monkey). Old World monkeys of the marmoset family (Cercopithecidae) have only two premolar teeth and their tails are never prehensile. Monkeys, mangabeys, macaques, baboons, and other marmosets (subfamily Cercopithecinae) have cheek pouches. They feed on plants, insects and other small animals. Gverets, langurs and other representatives of the subfamily of thin-bodied monkeys (Colobinae) do not have cheek pouches. They feed mainly on leaves, and their stomachs are made up of three sections. The ancestors of the Old World monkeys appeared no later than the early Oligocene.

Hominoidea (humanoid). This superfamily includes three families of anurans: Hylobatidae (gibbons), Pongidae (humanoids), and Hominidae (humans). The similarity between them is no less than within the groups of dog-like and broad-nosed monkeys: dental systems, brain structure, placenta, embryonic development, and even serological reactions are very close. Fossil forms that could give rise to the entire superfamily are known from Egypt and date from the Lower Oligocene (Propliopithecus); the oldest remains of gibbons have been found in the Miocene deposits of Central Europe; early anthropoids are represented by many finds of Miocene and Pliocene age (Dryopithecus and Sivapithecus), and the genus Paleosimia, very similar to modern orangutans, is described from the Sivalik Formation (Upper Miocene) in northern India.