What norms are called morphological. Morphological norms. The main errors that occur when morphological norms are violated. Morphological norms of nouns
Morphological norms are the rules according to which the formation of grammatical forms of words of various parts of speech (forms of number, gender, short forms, degrees of comparison of adjectives, and others) takes place.
When morphological norms are violated, speech errors occur, which are associated with the use of different parts of speech. The occurrence of errors is primarily due to the “variability of norms in the field of morphology”.
Morphology (as well as the area of pronunciation and syntax) contains weak and strong norms. Strong morphological norms are observed by everyone for whom the Russian language is native. Weak norms are often distorted, difficult to assimilate, they are easy to influence from outside. Their presence depends on many reasons, in particular, on the peculiarities of the development of the grammatical and phonetic systems of the Russian language.
A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in an inappropriate context or in a non-existent form. For example: imported shampoo, railway rail, patent leather shoes, registered parcel post, lobster - lobster, mongoose - mongoose, sprat - sprat. Many difficulties and fluctuations in terms of morphology arise in the formation and use of various grammatical forms and categories of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and verb forms.
The morphological norms that apply to nouns are as follows.
1. The gender of words that were formed by composing the first letters is determined by the main word. For example, if in the abbreviation CIS the main word is "commonwealth" of the neuter gender, then the whole of it will be used in the neuter gender: the CIS arose.
2. Indeclinable nouns, which denote a traditionally male position, profession, are used in the masculine gender. The gender of geographical names that are not declined is determined by the generic word. For example, Ontario is neuter, as the generic word is "lake".
3. Nouns denoting a homogeneous mass of something, a substance, are used in only one number: either in the singular (milk, cement, clay, iron), or in the plural (sawdust, canned food). However, if they are included in the text with a special meaning, then the form of the number can also take on the opposite.
4. Nouns in the 2nd declension of the instrumental singular can have endings: oh, her or oh, her. The latter form is characteristic of poetic works.
Adjectives have the following morphological norms of the modern Russian language.
1. Bookish speech is more in line with the short form in -enen than in -en (immoral and immoral), although both of them are literary.
2. Qualitative adjectives have two forms of comparative degree: on -her and on -her, the latter is typical for colloquial speech. For example, more and more actively.
3. Only colloquial speech is characterized by possessive adjectives in -in and -ov: fathers, mother's. In other styles, it is customary to use the genitive form: mother's handkerchief, father's request. Exceptions are nouns that are part of a sustainable turnover. For example, the Solomonic solution, the Archimedean lever.
Morphological norms for numerals are as follows.
1. The basis on o- ends in the numeral "both" (neuter and masculine) - "both", and on e- - in the numeral "both" (feminine).
2. For those quantitative numbers that are formed from many words, each word is declined. Combining with the word one, the word "thousand" has the form "thousand" in the instrumental case, and not the erroneous "thousand". In oral speech, only the beginning and end of compound numbers can be declined.
Morphological norms for pronouns.
1. You can not use interchangeably the words "any", "every" and "any". They are only close in meaning, not equivalent.
2. Personal pronouns of 3 persons acquire the letter "n" at the beginning if they are preceded by a preposition. For example, in them, on it.
3. The pronouns "such" and "such" have shades of meaning. The latter is used as a reinforcement. But the pronoun "such" acts as a predicate in a sentence and is more often used in stable turns: and was such.
4. The pronouns "Your" and "You" are capitalized if they are used as a polite address to one person.
Language is constantly evolving over time. This changes not only its vocabulary, orthoepy, but also grammar, which includes syntax and morphology.
The latter is a combination of various forms of words and the rules for their use. This article will consider only individual morphological norms of the modern Russian language, and not those that have already changed and established historically. We deal with their variants every day and often experience difficulties in using them.
Morphological normsnouns
1. Those indeclinable nouns that name a profession, position, characteristic of men, belong to m. For example: referee, attache. The gender of those geographical names that cannot be inflected depends on the gender of the nouns corresponding to them. For example: Missouri river- female, Lake Ontario- s.r.
2. Abstract nouns that name a sign, action, but are not associated with specific persons or objects, can only be used in one of the two numbers.
3. Nouns of the 2nd declension can have two endings when they are in the form Tv. p.s.: head-head, page-page.
Morphological norms for adjectives
1. Possessive adjectives ending in -ov, -in, characteristic of colloquial speech ( babin, grandfather). In other styles, they are replaced by a noun in R. p. For example: grandmother's teaching, grandfather's legacy.
2. A qualitative adjective with a comparative ending - her, characteristic of colloquial speech ( more active), a - her- literary ( more active).
3. If from an adjective to -enny two short forms can be formed (on -en and - enen), both of which are literary.
Morphological norms of numerals
1. Those that belong to the category of collectives can only be combined with those nouns m. R. that denote persons ( two teachers), cubs ( five cubs); with nouns always in plural form. h. ( three points) or denoting paired objects ( four socks); with personal pronouns ( there were seven).
2. If the cardinal numeral is compound, each word is declined in it. Combination one thousand buys on TV. n. form one thousand, but not thousand.
3. Numerals both and both from the category of collective, having forms of the genus, stand apart. When leaning both, the stem ends with -about, and when inclined both- on the -e.
Morphological norms of pronouns
1. Pronoun such has a hint of amplification and is used mainly as a definition, and such is- often plays the role of a predicate.
2. Pronouns everyone, everyone cannot be replaced by an adjective any, although they are close in meaning.
3. Pronoun myself used in the meaning on one's own, a most used to draw the listener's or reader's attention to a specific feature.
Morphological norms of the Russian language in adverbs
Suffixes - yva, -willow can form imperfect forms. At the same time, alternation of sounds is possible in the basis oh-ah. In this case, parallel forms are often obtained. For example: condition-condition. Then the first has a literary use, and the second - colloquial.
Morphological norms are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms are regulated by morphology - a section of linguistics, which includes the doctrine of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their features.
Grammatical meaning is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.
The words cheese and litter have different lexical meanings: cheese is a food product; rubbish - rubbish. And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
The material expression of grammatical meaning is a grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes (prefixes, suffixes and endings). It can also be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values are combined into a system of number values. In such cases one speaks of the grammatical category of number. There are grammatical categories of tense, gender, mood, aspect, etc.
Morphological norms for the use of nouns
The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variants that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms.
Among the morphological norms for the use of nouns, the norms associated with the categories of gender and case cause the greatest difficulties.
The gender of many nouns is fairly easy to determine based on the ending (“zero”, -а/-я, -о/-е), however, there is a group of words whose gender is not determined in this way. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the attitude
nouns to the masculine or feminine gender. These fluctuations form variant forms of the word's generic affiliation.
1) equal options: unt-unta, shutter shutter, stack stack;
2) stylistic options: shoe (common) - shoes (colloquial), key (common) - keys (professional);
3) modern and obsolete options: hall hall, shoe boot, off-rail rail;
4) semantic variants (words in which the generic ending helps to distinguish lexical meaning): district (subdivision of the state territory) - districts (surrounding area), quarry - 1) place of open mining, 2) accelerated horse movement - quarry (prominent position in society).
There are different forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank, since there are not always analogues for denoting persons of both sexes. There are the following options:
1) two-gender nouns are masculine nouns that can also be used to refer to females: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain;
2) parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student;
3) stylistic variants in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced, has a colloquial or colloquial character: a doctor is a doctor, a conductor is a conductor, a director is a headmistress.
The assignment of gender to indeclinable nouns requires special attention: for many of them it is impossible to be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example, what kind of word is sconce? There are different versions of its translation: a lamp / night light is masculine, a lamp is feminine. It is impossible to use translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are the following rules:
1) inanimate foreign nouns belong to the middle gender: cafe, subway, taxi, interview, aloe. Some exceptions: masculine: coffee, sirocco (dry wind), names of drinks (brandy) and languages (Hindi, Dari); feminine: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. In a number of cases, parallel forms gradually develop: whiskey, coffee, auto, penalties (m.r. and sr.r.), tsunami, madrasah (m.r. and f.r.);
2) animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine: my / my counterpart, this / this attache;
3) in the names of animals (cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony), the masculine gender acts as the main one, and the feminine as an additional one - it depends on the context: funny pony (m. R.), bright hummingbird (f. R.);
4) in geographical names, the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they designate: full-flowing Mississippi (river → zh.r.), multimillion-dollar festive Tokyo (city → m.r., capital → zh.r.);
5) in abbreviations and compound words, the norm is unstable. In general, gender is determined by the main word: USTU (university → m.r.), UN (organization → f.r.). But there are exceptions here too: a university (s.r. → m.r.), NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.r. → c.p.), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. The above words began to be perceived as independent and "changed" the gender.
Various variants are also found in the case system of the Russian language.
Nominative case
There may be variant endings -ы -и and -а -я in the plural forms of masculine nouns: contracts - contracts, locksmiths - locksmith. The norm is the endings -s -i, the variant -а -я acts as colloquial.
Genitive
1. For some masculine nouns in the genitive singular, the main variant of the ending -а -я (tea, sugar) and the additional variant -у/-ю (tea, sugar) vary. The endings -u -yu can be used in the following cases:
In nouns with a real value to denote part of the whole (a glass of tea, a kilogram of sugar, a piece of cheese). However, if the noun is accompanied by a definition, you should choose the form with the ending -а/-я (a cup of hot tea, a pack of dried tobacco)",
In collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity (few people, a lot of noise)",
In negative sentences (there is no peace, there was no refusal).
In phraseological units, the ending is accepted - y: (a week without a year, eye to eye, with the world on a string).
2. In the genitive plural of masculine nouns, the following case endings are: -oβ!-eβ (many tables, museums), -ey (many pencils) and zero ending (many boots). Groups of masculine nouns have a zero ending:
Names of paired items (boots, boots, stockings (but socks, shoulder straps)",
Names of some nationalities, mainly nouns with the basis of the letters -н and -р (English, Armenians, Bulgarians)",
Names of units of measurement (amps, watts, volts, but: grams, kilograms).
Prepositional
In the prepositional case of the singular number of masculine nouns, there may be two variants of endings: -е and -у.
1) option -y - colloquial: in the shop - in the shop,
2) the ending indicates the difference between adverbial and objective meanings: to grow in the forest - to know about the forest",
3) in expressions of a phraseological nature: on a current account - to be in good standing.
When choosing an ending option, context should be taken into account: pay attention to what meaning is realized in the word.
Morphological norms of adjectives
The most complex issues in the morphology of adjectives from a normative point of view are the formation of forms of degrees of comparison and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives
There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. A simple comparative form is formed using the suffixes -ee and -ee (colloquial): faster - faster. Some adjectives form a comparative degree with the help of the suffix -e \ smarter, louder, sweeter. The simple form of the superlative degree of adjectives is formed using the suffixes -aysh(s) (highest), -eysh(s) (most beautiful).
The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and the superlative form is formed using the word most. This house is tall, but the neighboring one is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).
Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) with a mixture of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison (higher), 2) using simple and compound superlatives (the most beautiful) and 3) with the absence of an object of comparison (This room lighter).
Full and short forms of adjectives
There are differences between the full and short forms of the adjective, so such forms cannot always replace each other:
1) stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, full ones are neutral in their stylistic coloring (a child is capricious - a child is capricious);
2) semantic differences:
a) short forms indicate a temporary sign of an object, full ones - permanent (a person is sick, a sick person)",
b) short forms indicate a sign in relation to something, full ones - an irrelevant sign (the skirt is short - the skirt is short, the trousers are tight, the trousers are narrow);
3) syntactic difference: short forms have dependent words, full ones do not (the child has the flu). In some cases, the meaning of short and full forms diverges so much that they are perceived as different words (Eminent scientist, specialist. - The house is visible from afar; Free wind. - He is free to do as he knows).
Morphological norms of nouns
1. In complex and compound cardinal numbers, all parts decline (a book with one hundred and fifty-six pages).
2. When declining compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes in them (to be born in one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two).
3. Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral one) do not combine with nouns that are used only in the plural, such as sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses, etc. It is impossible: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors, follows: passed twenty-second day / twenty-two days. Bought scissors in the amount of thirty-three pieces.
4. Collective numerals are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two boys, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (one cannot say: three girls, only: three girls).
5. When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the genitive case of the singular (not allowed: 12.6 kilometers, only: 12.6 kilometers).
6. The numerals one and a half and one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the nominative and accusative cases - one and a half / one and a half and one and a half hundred, in all other cases - one and a half and one and a half hundred.
Morphological norms of pronouns
1. The pronoun they does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is impossible: The people went to the polls together, because they understood how important it was. Follows: people → he or people → people.
2. Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is impossible: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel.
3. In the presence of two subjects of action, personal and possessive pronouns require additional explanation or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is impossible: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report (Whose? Professor or graduate student?)
4. In indefinite pronouns with suffixes -that, -either, -nibud, the suffix -that forms the meaning of "unknown", the suffix -or - the meaning of "any", the suffix -nibud - the meaning of "unimportant" (It is impossible: Someone or someone knocks on the door (only: Someone knocks).
5. Definitive pronouns everyone, anyone and everyone cannot replace each other (It is impossible: Any person is responsible for his own life. Only: Every person ...).
Morphological norms of verbs
1. Verb pairs are stylistically different: see - see, hear - hear, raise - raise, climb, climb, etc. The first option is bookish, the second is colloquial.
2. Verbs with alternating o / / a in the stem (condition - condition, focus - concentrate, etc.) also differ as a book version (form with o) and colloquial (form with a).
3. In the so-called insufficient verbs (to win, to convince, to find oneself, to dare, to feel), the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character (I can / I will be able / I must win).
4. The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waving - waving (book and colloquial versions), moves (moves) moves (leads, encourages).
5. Some verbs in the past tense form forms without the suffix -nu- (get wet, get used to - used to).
6. The unity of the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs is the rule according to which all verbs within the same sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is impossible: On vacation, he rested and again did what he loved. Only: busy.
7. In a special form of the verb - gerunds - the suffix -v is normative, the suffix -lice is colloquial. Don't: After reading a book. Only; After reading a book.
In case of difficulties in the formation of forms of various parts of speech, it is recommended to refer to grammar dictionaries.
Accent norms
The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology(from lat. accentus - stress). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages in which stress is assigned to a particular syllable. For example, in English the first syllable is stressed, in Polish it is the penultimate one, in Armenian, French it is the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Stress in Russian is mobile and fixed. If in various forms of the word the stress falls on the same part, then such stress is fixed (shore, save, save, save, save, save - the stress is assigned to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called mobile (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can). Most of the words of the Russian language have a fixed stress.
Stress is of great importance in Russian and performs various functions:
The semantics of the word depends on the stress ( cotton - cotton; cloves - cloves).
It refers to the grammatical form ( arms- nominative plural, and arms- genitive singular).
Stress helps to distinguish the meaning of words and their forms: protein- the genitive case of the word protein, and protein- the nominative case of a word that names the component of the egg or part of the eye. The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, for example, kitchen, tool, solicitation, not properly: kitchen, tool, petition.
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called the set of rules for literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech; the attention of the listener is distracted by various irregularities of pronunciation and the statement in its entirety and with sufficient attention is not perceived. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially at present in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses. Consider basic rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed.
Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the law of reduction. Reduction can be quantitative (when the sound changes only the length of the sound) and qualitative (when the sound changes its quality). Vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced like [a]: ravine - [a] enemy, autonomy - [a] vt [a] nomia, milk - m [a] l [ a] to. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable denote a sound that is intermediate between [e] and [i]: nickel - n [i] so, pen - n [i] ro. The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition, or when pronouncing the word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical [s] institute, from a spark - from [s] hide.
Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.
In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread [p] - bread, sa [t] - garden, lyubo [f '] - love, etc. This stunning is one of the characteristic features of Russian literary speech. It should be noted that the consonant [g] at the end of the word always turns into a paired deaf sound [k]: le [k] - lay down, vice [k] - the threshold, etc. The pronunciation in this case of the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word god - bo[x]. [G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations of gk and gch: le [hk ’] y - easy, le [hk] o - easy. You should pay attention to the combination of ch, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. There is fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch], this especially applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing). The pronunciation [shn] instead of the orthographic ch is currently required in female patronymics in -ichna: Ilini[shn]a, Lukini[shn]a, -Fomini[shn]a, and is also preserved in separate words: kone[shn]o, transfer[shn]itsa, laundry[shn]aya, empty[shn]y, square[shn]ik, eggs[shn]itsa, etc.
Some words with a combination of ch in accordance with the norm are pronounced in two ways: order [shn] o and order [ch] o. In some cases, the different pronunciation of the combination ch serves for the semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend. Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern orthoepic norms and only in some cases differ in features in pronunciation. For example, the pronunciation of the sound [o] is sometimes preserved in unstressed syllables (m [o] del, [o] asis, [o] tel) and solid consonants before the front vowel [e] (s [te) nd, ko [de] ks, porridge [ne]). In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka[t ']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, mu[z']her, [r']ektor, pio[n' ]ep. Back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa [k '] et, [k '] egli, s [x '] ema, ba [g '] et. Pay attention to the table, which presents spelling errors, the list of which could not be explained in the previous material:
EXAMPLES OF SPELLING ERRORS
1. Assimilation(similarity of sounds) laboratory(instead of laboratory); fireboat(instead of hose); corridor (corridor); biton (can); cardon (cardboard).
2. Epenthesis(unjustified insertion of sounds): b extraordinary ( norm: unprecedented); military leader (military leader); dermatin (dermatin); porcupine (porcupine); competent (competent); compromise (compromise); competitive (competitive); state (state); reckoning (chronology); perspective (perspective); perEturbation (perturbation); to slip (to slip); light performance (light doomsday - the light is reposed, i.e. dies); sTram (shame); extraordinary (extraordinary), yaVstva (dishes).
3. Diereza(erroneous elimination of sounds): should be said keychainOka(R.p., singular), and not keychain; Azerbaijan(but not Azerbaijan); time forwarding(but not pastime)
4. Metathesis(changes of sounds), simplification: scrupulous(norm: scrupulous); tram (trauma); trauma (tram); colander (colander).
Lexical norms
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language, the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the correctness of speech. The correct choice of the word and its use in the right meaning always allow you to accurately express the content, the meaning of the statement.
Mastering the norms of word usage occurs throughout a person's life, because the vocabulary of the language includes, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (Big Academic) 120480 words. And this is far from a complete volume of vocabulary, moreover, the vocabulary of only the literary language. The lexical system is constantly evolving, replenished with new, including borrowed words. It is difficult to formalize and unify. That is why it is impossible to give a list of difficult cases of the implementation of the norms of word usage, some kind of set of rules. Turning to explanatory dictionaries, thoughtful reading of fiction and other texts contribute to the expansion of your vocabulary, the development of language flair.
1. Remember the need for an accurate understanding of the meaning of the word, in case of difficulty, refer to explanatory dictionaries or look for a replacement for this word with an equivalent you know. The applicant, who wrote in the essay: “He vegetated in the evenings in the theater,” obviously did not know the exact meaning of the word “vegetate” - to lead a miserable, meaningless, aimless life.
2. It must be borne in mind that incorrect word usage may be due to the indistinguishability of shades of the meaning of synonyms, that is, words that are close, but not identical in meaning. For example, the use of the word extensive in the context: “It remains to be surprised at his extensive (instead of great) love” is incorrect, since the adjective “extensive” is synonymous with the adjective “large” when denoting size, size (large territory, vast territory), but not when denoting the power of feeling.
It is useful to refer to special dictionaries of synonyms. So, in the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" Z.E. Alexandrova, the word extensive is given as a synonym for the adjective large with appropriate clarifications: extensive - large in volume.
3. We must not forget about such a phenomenon as the polysemy of a word. Many words in the language have this property, that is, the ability to be used in different meanings. Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main one is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then derivatives from it (portable, secondary). For example, the verb touch has the primary meaning "to touch someone or something" and two figurative, secondary meanings - "to relate to someone or something" (This does not concern you); “to touch on some issue in the presentation” (to touch on a topic, problem, issue). A word taken in isolation, out of context, is perceived in its main meaning, while derivative meanings are revealed only in combination with other words.
4. Remember that a polysemantic word can have different lexical compatibility, that is, the ability to connect in meaning with other words. In the language, the prohibition on combining words with each other is imposed primarily by their inherent meanings, as well as by the tradition of use, a historically established norm. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “having the shape of a circle” is combined with the words table, box, face, etc. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption (about time)”, the word round is combined only with nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “full, perfect” - with such as an ignoramus, an excellent student, an orphan. Violation of lexical compatibility often occurs in speech.
Examples from the essays of applicants: “to produce a special interest in the reader” (instead of “to impress” or “arouse interest”), “to apply folk art in their works” (instead of “refer to folk art in their works”), “to wear a symbolic image " (instead of "have a symbolic meaning"). In some cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the consolidation of the word in stable expressions. Stable combinations (that's why they are called so) have well-defined connections that cannot be destroyed: pay attention or attach importance, and not “pay attention”; play a role or make a difference, not "make a difference"; protest, not protest. That is why the following usages are erroneous: Moral problems are now given great importance. The novel played a great role in Pushkin's life. Going on a date, Katerina makes an open protest to the dark kingdom.
5. It is necessary to take into account the existence of paronyms in the language (from the Greek para near + onoma - name), that is, similar, consonant single-root words with different meanings, and paronomases, that is, words of different roots, distant in meaning, but similar in sound. For example, dress and put on, economy and economy (paronyms); to accustom and tame (paronomases). The presence of a similar sound image creates additional difficulties in choosing a word if you know its meaning only approximately. Hence such violations of the norms of word usage, such as a monogram instead of a monograph in the following statement: “This is a thought worthy of the depth of an entire monogram” (a monogram is “a link of two or more letters”, a monograph is “a scientific study devoted to one issue, topic.
6. Be careful when using words that have recently entered our everyday life (neologisms), and especially vocabulary of foreign origin. You should not use borrowed words without special need, and even more so if the meaning of the word is not entirely clear to you. It can hardly be considered correct, for example, to use the word vernissage in the following context: "At least a hundred people visit the vernissage of this artist's paintings every day." Referring to the dictionary S.I. Ozhegov, it is not difficult to find out that the vernissage is “the solemn opening of an art exhibition”, which cannot be held every day. It would be appropriate to replace the word vernissage in our proposal with the word exhibition.
7. Avoid semantic redundancy in speech. When using words that are unnecessary in meaning, so-called pleonasms arise (from the Greek. pleonasmos overabundance) - speech excess, interspersed in speech with words that are unnecessary from a purely semantic point of view, partial coincidence of the meanings of words that form the phrase: my autobiography (auto = mine), most the best (the best = the best), souvenir (souvenir = keepsake), joint cooperation (collaboration - teamwork), price list (price list - guide, list of prices). Failure to comply with the rules leads to errors and curiosities.
Lexical norms also include the rules for the use of phraseological units. Phraseologism is an indivisible, holistic in its meaning, stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. It is also called an idiom, or a stable combination of words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called a winged word.
It is impossible, as a rule, to insert a new word into a phraseological unit or throw out any component, it is impossible to replace a word even with those close in meaning and structure. Therefore, such an expression is erroneous, how to take care of your mind(necessary: take up mind). For example, in the phrase: Distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with the same brush(necessary: or cut with the same comb, or measure by one arshin).
Morphological norms of the Russian language
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories. The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the variants may differ in shades of meanings, stylistic coloring, scope of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify speech, testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
The largest group is made up of variants, the use of which is limited by the functional style or genre of speech. So, in colloquial speech, there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; at her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm. Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to designate varieties, varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marble. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical , equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in spring - in spring, doors - doors. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language : right rail, but not rail, right shoe, but not shoe and shoe. There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to designate people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting the position held, profession, rank, rank, the difficulties that arise in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.
The words professor, doctor have the meaning "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and a colloquial connotation, and as the titles of the position become colloquial. Generic Parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, janitor, usher qualify as colloquial, and doctor- as spacious. Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language.
As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence, more and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the called person is used, when, with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the standard of the literary language. In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech”, regarding such use of definitions, it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is adopted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; Indira Gandhi is the new Prime Minister of India. Thus, the most common grammatical errors associated with the use of nouns are:
1. Can be heard incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel. But the nouns rail, shampoo- masculine and corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say : railway rail, french shampoo, big corn, registered parcel.
2. Foreign indeclinable words denoting inanimate objects, as a rule, belong to the middle gender: highway, cafe, coat.
3. In the genitive plural, the following forms are used:
masculine words: a pair of boots, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volt (grams, kilograms ); feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets; neuter words: saucers, towels, blankets, mirror;
words without singular: manger, weekdays, twilight.
4. Prepositional case of type forms on vacation, on vacation preferable to -e(in -y - colloquial forms).
5. In the literary language, forms are used with an ending in -and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, holidays, passports, etc.; with the end -i, -s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc..
6. Collective numbers two, three etc. are used in the following cases: with nouns naming males (two friends); with nouns children, people, guys, faces(in the meaning of a person); with nouns that are used only in the plural (three days).
There are many variants in the verb inflection system.
Of the options raise - raise the second has a colloquial coloring: Gypsies ... raised their (horses) legs and tails, shouted, scolded (T.). Of the options to suffer - to suffer (to suffer, to suffer, to suffer etc.) the second is colloquial. Variant forms of prefixed verbs with the suffix - well- and without it: withered - withered, disappeared - disappeared, got wet - soaked, arose - arose, subsided - subsided. The first ones are out of use.
Many verbs cannot form the 1st person : to win, to convince, to find oneself, to be weird, to be wonderful, to blow, to please, etc.
Verbs that have in the infinitive - whose: burn, flow, bake(total 16 word forms), form variant forms of the 3rd person singular: along with literary ones: burns, flows, bakes - colloquial: burns, flows, bakes.
Separate verbs do not have imperative forms: want, be able, see, hear, go, crave, rot and others. The Old Slavic forms used in the 19th century, vizhd, were attentively archaic; colloquial variants can't go remain outside the literary norm, form drive is conversational. Literary form go, as well as forms derived from verbs listen, watch - listen (those), look (those). The formation of comparative and superlative degrees causes difficulties: one cannot say - the closest.
Pronouns are often misused: right - I think about you, miss you, miss us, I go to you, their choice (not theirs).
A large number of errors are associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. 1. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declining compound cardinal numbers, all the words included in it change, when declining compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:
“The current of the river reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; "On the night of June 26 (twenty-sixth) it was raining."
2. Education phrases "numeral + noun, having only the plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)", Collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numbers are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven, etc.) days”. You can’t say “twenty-two (three, four) scissors”, but you can say “twenty scissors and a couple more”, “twenty-two pieces of scissors”.
3. The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". The masculine and neuter genders in the nominative and accusative cases take the form "one and a half" in other cases - "one and a half". Feminine in the nominative and accusative cases - "one and a half". In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of pretexts
because of and thanks. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the cause that produces the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the right treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks, indicating a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.
Lecture on the topic "Morphological norms"
What is a morphological norm?
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies parts of speech and their inherent ways of word formation.
Morphology - it is a systematized set of word forms (declension, conjugation), as well as the rules for their use
Morphological norms are the norms for the formation and use of words
Morphological norms of nouns
Compound words made up of the first letters (CNG) or sounds (ITAR) of the words from which they are formed have the gender of the main word:
ITAR (agency-sr.r.) reported
CIS (commonwealth - sr.r.) arose
Indeclinable nouns denoting a profession, position, title, traditionally associated with male labor (such as attache, referee), refer to m.r.
The gender of indeclinable geographical names is determined by the gender of the corresponding generic noun:
Tbilisi-city (m.s.), Ontario-lake (s.s.)
Nouns denoting a substance, a homogeneous mass (perfume, milk, iron) are used only in the form of a single number
Some inanimate masculine nouns in R.p. can have endings not only -a, -ya, but also -y, -yu. These nouns include:
- real, when indicating the amount of something: centner of granulated sugar
- real, when indicating the absence of something: not a gram of sand-sand
- nouns with diminutive suffixes: pour sand
- abstract nouns - in the same cases: how much squealing - screeching
- words included in stable combinations (phraseological units): no year week
Some inanimate nouns m.r. In and P. cases singular with prepositions in and on with spatial meaning can always have stressed endings -y, -yu: on the closet, in the corner
The most common of these nouns are:
coast, board (ship), Crimea, forest, bridge,
port, row, garden, corner, cupboard
If there are variants of endings -e, -y, the first is neutral, the second is colloquial:
on vacation - on vacation
A number of nouns m.r. in I.p. pl. number has accented endings -а, -я:
address - addresses
The most common nouns that take this form are:
side, coast, century, evening, eye, voice, director, house, doctor, building, edge, camp, master, number, order, island, passport, train, professor, volume, color
Some groups of nouns m.r. in R.p. pl. numbers have the form I.p. units numbers (no ending). These groups are:
- separate names of persons of national identity: Buryats, Georgians, Turks, Gypsies (cf. Arabs, Mongols)
- individual names of persons associated with military service: hussar, partisan, soldier (but captains, colonels)
- separate names of paired items: boots, felt boots, boots, stockings (but cf. socks)
- separate names of units of measurement when indicating their quantity: ampere, watt, hertz, ohm, roentgen
Nouns have 2 declensions in T.p. units the numbers vary with the endings -oy, (-s) and -oy (-s):
Head, page - head, page
The latter forms are found, as a rule, in poetry, being due to the rules of rhyme
Nouns of the general gender are declined according to the pattern of the declension of the female gender, but are used most often in colloquial speech:
curmudgeon, bore
In animate nouns of all genders in the plural. number and m.r. in units the number of endings of V. and R. cases are the same
At the zoo, the children saw an elephant, a bear.
Inanimate nouns used in a figurative sense are perceived as animated
Cf .: In daylight, it is impossible to see the stars. - At the gala concert, we saw real stars.
Among nouns there are indeclinable ones, i.e. retaining the initial form in all cases. They belong to:
- words of foreign origin that end in a vowel: menu, metro
- foreign female names: lady, miss, frau
- Russian surnames ending in -ago, -ovo, -ykh, -ikh: Zhivago, Durnovo, Dolgikh
- compound words like RF, deputy director
If indeclinable nouns name objects, then they refer to cf. Genus: Kimono, Domino.
Exception-coffee (m.s.)
If indeclinable nouns name living beings, then their gender depends on the gender of the latter:
young kangaroo young kangaroo
In the absence of an indication of gender, the names of animals are masculine.
Personal nouns with the suffixes -sh-a and -ih-a of the engineer type are colloquial
Morphological norms of adjectives
If it is possible to form short forms from adjectives - en -en to -en and -enen, it should be borne in mind that although both forms are literary, the latter is more characteristic of book speech:
immoral - immoral, immoral
Possessive adjectives in -ov, -in mean belonging to one person:
father's instructions, grandfather's household.
This is typical for spoken language.
In other styles, such adjectives are replaced by the R. case of the noun with the meaning of ownership:
father's instructions, grandfather's household
In the event that adjectives of this kind are included in stable combinations, they are also used in book speech.
Of the two variants of the simple comparative degree of qualitative adjectives in
She, - her last is characteristic of colloquial speech:
more active - more active
It is impossible to combine in one qualitative adjective the simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison:
more beautiful (cannot be more beautiful) the most beautiful (the most
beautiful)
Morphological norms of nouns
Collective numbers are combined most often:
- with m. gender nouns with meaningfaces: two students, three teachers
- with cub names: four cubs
- with nouns that have only the plural form. numbers: two scissors
- with nouns denoting paired objects: two socks
- with common nouns: five judges
- with personal pronouns: there were six of them
Collective numerals both (m, cf.r.) and both (f.r.) have the form of gender. When declining the numeral, both, the base ends in o (both-them), the numeral both - in e (both-them)
In compound cardinal numbers, each word is declined:
Twenty eight - twenty eight
The word thousand in combination with the word one has in T.P. the form of a thousand
one thousand two hundred and thirty three
Morphological norms of pronouns
Interrogative pronouns WHO, WHAT do not have morphological categories of gender and number. With the pronoun WHO, the verb-predicate is used in m.p., with the pronoun WHAT - in cf. kind:
Who is late for class? - What happened?
In combination with the pronoun WHO, definitions such as SUCH, OTHER, OTHER take the form m, f. gender depending on the real gender of the person indicated by the pronoun:
Who it? Who is she?
If the subject is a noun or pronoun of the 3rd person, then belonging to the acting person can only be expressed by the pronoun OWN:
One of the passengers forgot their umbrella.
If personal pronouns of 1.2 persons (I, you, we, you) act as the subject, then the belonging of someone or something to the acting person can be expressed by the pronoun own and the pronouns MY, YOUR, OUR, YOUR, although in live speech it is preferred first
It is necessary to distinguish in the use of the pronoun SAM, MOST.
CAM - means "independently" and is used with personal pronouns and animate nouns:
The rector himself decided to hold a meeting.
With inanimate nouns, the pronoun CAM can be used to clarify, highlight:
The meeting itself went well.
MOST - indicates the feature of the subject:
The meeting began to consider the most important issue.
SAMA - in V.p. has two forms: samoyo (bookish, outdated) and samu (more modern)
Differences between the pronouns SUCH and SUCH:
This is used most often as a definition and has a shade of enhancement:
This was the first time such a reception had been given.
Takov is used as a predicate:
That was his story.
The pronouns EVERYONE, EVERYONE and the adjective ANY are close in meaning, but not interchangeable
Athletes prepared for the competition every day (i.e. all days without exception).
That summer there were all sorts of competitions (i.e. various).
Athletes were ready to practice on any day (i.e., one of the days).
The accusative case of the reflexive pronoun SELF can refer to different persons mentioned in the sentence:
Friends don't let me make fun of myself. (Pronoun can be applied to friends and to me)
This ambiguity must be avoided:
My friends don't let me joke about myself.
After prepositions in personal pronouns
3 persons appears H:
Them - in them
him - around him
The pronoun theirs does not have the form IHNIY
The pronouns YOU and YOUR can be used as a form of polite address to one person and are written in this case with a capital letter:
Why do you think the audience will like your performance?
Morphological norms of adverbs
Compound superlative forms of adverbs can be formed from the basis of a complex superlative form of adjectives with the help of the suffix -e, but in modern Russian they are almost never used:
we humbly ask
Morphological norms of verbs
When forming imperfective forms from verbs with the help of the suffix -yva (-iva), alternation of sounds [o - a] in the stem can occur.
If in this case parallel forms are formed, then the first of them correspond to strictly literary use, and the second are used in colloquial speech:
condition - cause
Some verbs in -nut form variant forms with and without the -nu- suffix:
accustomed - accustomed, faded - faded
In modern Russian, preference is given to the latter
In the imperative mood, the verbs to put, ride, lie down have the following forms:
put - put (but there is no form of put),
put - put (but there are no lodge forms, put),
ride - go
lie down - lie down, lie down