Effects of psychoactive substances on the central nervous system. The main mechanisms of the formation of dependence on psychoactive substances Biological mechanisms of the formation of dependence on psychoactive substances

08.12.2020

Definition, signs and stages of drug addiction

Drug addiction - this word comes from the Greek words narke - numbness, clouding of consciousness and mania - passion. Drug addiction is a pathological attraction to the use of narcotic drugs that cause euphoria in small doses, in large doses - stunning, narcotic sleep. With their systematic use, addiction and a state of withdrawal occur (poor health in the absence of narcotic substances). With drug addiction, internal organs are affected, neurological and mental disorders occur, and social degradation develops. With constant drug use, personality degradation occurs, characterized by intellectual and emotional impoverishment, the loss of all interests not related to drugs.

Today, the most common type of drug addiction can be called chronic alcoholism. But there are also other types when marijuana, morphine, heroin and other hard drugs are used.

General signs of drug dependence: Chemical dependence in the DSM-IV classification (American Classification of Drugs for Substances) is described as a combination of cognitive, physiological and behavioral symptoms that indicate that an individual continues to take psychoactive drugs, without paying attention to the problems they cause. To diagnose chemical dependence, the DSM-IV suggests the following criteria:

Tolerance, which is determined in the presence of one of the signs: - the need to increase the dose of the drug taken to achieve the desired result,

a significant weakening of the effect of the drug while maintaining the dose. 2. Abstinence, which is determined in the presence of one of the signs: - the presence of characteristic signs of withdrawal syndrome, which is characteristic of this drug,

a similar or fairly similar substance that can relieve or make withdrawal symptoms disappear.

Psychoactive drugs are taken in fairly large doses or for longer than planned.

There is persistent craving or unsuccessful withdrawal experience, and lack of control over drug use.

Most of the time is spent searching for the drug, then using it and recovering from it.

As a result of taking a narcotic drug, unrelated activity is significantly reduced or completely disappears.

The use of psychoactive drugs continues despite knowledge of the harmful and detrimental consequences of such behavior.

In our medical literature, it is customary to talk about three syndromes that are the main indicators of drug addiction:

Altered Activity Syndrome. Here there is an increase in tolerance, the disappearance of the protective reactions of the body, as well as a change in the form of intoxication.

Syndrome of mental dependence. Characterized by obsessive attraction and comfort in a state of intoxication.

Syndrome of physical dependence. First of all, compulsive attraction and withdrawal symptoms are observed.

There are five stages of gradual anesthesia:

.Single or infrequent drug use.

.Their repeated use without signs of mental and physical dependence.

.Drug addiction of the 1st degree: mental dependence is formed. Looking for a pleasurable drug, but not yet physically addicted, and stopping the drug does not yet cause painful sensations. Thoughts about taking drugs become obsessive. The drug becomes a "medicine" that relieves emotional stress in conflict situations - characterological and pathocharacterological traits are transformed. The main direction of this transformation is from the sthenic type to the asthenic and apathetic type. There is an increase in social maladaptation. A person loses his former positive orientations, he loses a sense of responsibility, duty, and the ability to empathize.

.Drug addiction of the last, 3rd degree: complete - physical and mental degradation.

It is believed that stopping when taking drugs is possible only in the first two stages. Studies have shown that only 20% of teens who use drugs cross the dangerous line and become hardened drug addicts.

In addition, adolescents who used drugs, but did not become drug addicts, still acquire stable psychological complexes: opposing themselves to public morality, to the traditions that exist in the adult world.

Motives for addiction

A favorable background for the development of child and adolescent drug addiction is stable reaction complexes, the main of which is the reaction of emancipation (the desire to break free from the usual framework (family, learning environment, etc.)).

The reaction of the formation of sexual desire also causes drug addiction in adolescence. Some adolescents realize sexual impressions through sexual hallucinations. Smoking hashish, according to minors, increases sexual potency.

For the first use of the drug by minors, according to the results of several studies, the following motives are characteristic:

% - the desire to be like everyone else (complex of teenage conformity), 19% - the desire to experience new experiences (curiosity), 12% - the search for the fantastic, 10% - the desire to forget, disconnect from troubles.

In addition, the motives for drug use by adolescents should also include such as the desire to relax, have fun, the desire to look "cool". Sometimes drugs are taken "for courage" or to not confirm the status of the "ugly duckling" among peers. There are cases of forced drug use, when specifically teenagers are “put on the needle” in order to then be forced to commit crimes.

One of the significant reasons for adolescents to turn to drugs is infantilism - the inability to make decisions, the desire to follow a simpler path. Unlike animals and children, a maturing and adult person, to one degree or another, owns his desires. Self-control is not only a volitional function, but also a skill acquired by the assimilation of social and moral norms, education. Contributes to self-control knowledge of the consequences of drug abuse, value orientations, personal, social goals, the prospect of achieving which is more significant (and the comparison for the individual is available) than momentary pleasure. The ratio of desire for pleasure and self-control in adolescents is such that the adolescent is vulnerable. This is the danger of drug addiction, and the greater the younger the age.

Clearly, this pattern emerges in cases of the so-called deviant personality. These are young people of a certain type of behavior, appearance and personality characteristics. The behavior is generally deviant: neglect of work and study, episodes of theft, vandalism, petty hooliganism; the use of intoxicants is only a component of this series. Be sure to follow the youth fashion, passion for rock or pop music (or any other direction). Group time is a must. Existence in the "system" is the most striking feature. It should be borne in mind that group existence is a stage in the development of a child, falling at the age of 8-12 years.

In the future, the complication of mental activity, the formation of one's own interests lead to individualized relationships with peers, personal friends and buddies appear. Group life at the age of 14-15 can be considered as an indicator of mental retardation, a low level of development. Indeed, in groups consisting of young men aged 16-20, there are features of children's groups: focus on gaming entertainment activities, non-target activity, ease of affective induction. The relationship is essentially impersonal, the composition of the group is random. The level of mental development is also indicated by the primitive nature of affects and a tendency to destructive actions. The group expressed an alienated, often hostile attitude towards adults. Young people, at first glance, are very similar. Such an impression is produced, of course, by the same type of hairstyles, clothes, demeanor. However, the main thing is the insufficiency of individual facial expressions and the stereotypical learned form of communication with adults. The latter, in turn, is a reflection of the group pattern of behavior. A detailed study reveals the insufficiency of personal motivation for behavior - it is dictated by the group. In their stories, young people use practically only plural pronouns, even when it comes to neutral situations that are not related to misconduct (outside of an attempt to avoid responsibility). An attempt to establish a type of personality, a certain permanent set of traits that is involved in abuse with a greater frequency than others, is also difficult to implement because consumption begins at an age when the personality is in an unbalanced, rather amorphous state.

L.E. Lichko highlights the reaction of imitation, A.A. Kolomeets believes that a high risk is created by the incomplete formation of motivations and moral values, increased sensitivity to environmental influences. V.V. Guldan shows that danger threatens those adolescents who are characterized by dependence on the situation, passive behavior in it. This extensive psychological study did not support the use of intoxicants to avoid difficulties and overcome problems.

Mechanisms of drug addiction formation

The mechanisms of formation of drug dependence are divided into two groups - biological and psychological. Biologists are trying to explain that this disease is associated with a change in metabolism, and psychologists say that drug addiction is caused by disturbances in the normal development of the personality. I think it's more correct to think that these are two parallel processes that take place simultaneously. So in some cases, biological mechanisms prevail, and in others - psychological. Observations have shown that at different stages of the formation of drug dependence, some mechanisms will play a particularly important role. This, for example, may be biological mechanisms in the last stage of addiction, when narcotic drugs are taken only to prevent withdrawal (poor health in the absence of narcotic substances).

Biological mechanisms:

Describing the process of formation of drug addiction, supporters of the biological approach point to changes in the synthesis of the breakdown of neurotransmitters, which occurs as a result of the entry of narcotic drugs into the body. According to them, the action of narcotic drugs is associated with such mediators as norepinephrine, dopamine and endorphins, with each type of drug associated with a specific mediator or group of mediators. So, for example, opiates have the ability to bind to endorphin receptors in the brain. Therefore, opiates that come from the outside can replace those opiates that the brain itself produces. As a result of these actions, the intake of such substances becomes necessary for the normal functioning of the body.

Studies have shown that all psychotropic substances have a systemic effect on the human brain. Ongoing research into the neuronal processes of drug addiction has focused on several areas of the brain, namely the mesolimbic dopamine system, the gray matter of the midbrain aqueduct, and the locus ceruleus. It is generally accepted that these areas play an important role in the development of addiction to drugs, but there is no direct evidence that they are equally involved in all forms of psychotropic substance abuse.

The gray matter of the midbrain aqueduct and locus ceruleus, which are located in the anterior pons at the bottom of the fourth ventricle, are involved in the formation of physical dependence on psychotropic drugs, as well as on opiate withdrawal. In turn, the positive reinforcing properties of opiates, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, and cannabinoids are primarily reflected in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is located in the ventral midbrain, and the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which is located in ventral forebrain. Such a network of neurons, in most cases, is called a "vicious circle". Activation of the VTA-NAc pathway by narcotic drugs can change the motivation for actions, as well as the response to physical activity and stress. The neuroanatomical localizations of withdrawal and addiction syndromes are different in nature. Direct stimulation of the locus ceruleus with opiates begins to induce withdrawal symptoms with the administration of naloxone, not with compulsive self-administration of opiates, or in other words, with the use of opiates by an addict. Alternatively, stimulation of the VTA-NAc pathway by a psychotropic drug will cause an irresistible desire to take the drug, but will not induce withdrawal symptoms upon drug cessation.

One of the most important reasons for the biological formation of alcohol and drug dependence is the genetic predisposition of individuals.

Conducted observations and studies on children have shown that the main role in the transmission of predisposition to alcohol is made by the father of the child. Children whose father was an alcoholic are 4-6 times more likely to become alcoholics than children who had healthy parents. So, in children whose father was an alcoholic, an excessive expansion of the zone of general activity of monoamine oxidase (MAO) was found - an enzyme that takes part in the metabolism of dopamine. MAO in such children appears in the plasma of the cell, and also metabolizes those amines that are not normally affected. The main reason for the formation of alcoholism is that when alcohol is taken, MAO activity is normalized.

Studies of the human genome made it possible to conclude that the risk of alcohol dependence may be associated with the genes that encode dopamine receptors of the second and fourth types (DRD2 and DRD4), as well as with the serotonin transporter gene - 5HTTLPR. The DRD4 gene is associated with such a factor as “novelty seeking”. This factor characterizes such individual characteristics of a person as irritability, impulsiveness, a tendency to violate any rules that interfere with the achievement of the goal. The longer the alleles of the DRD4 gene were, the higher the scores received by the subjects on such an indicator as “novelty search”. Also, this indicator in adults affects the combination of the 5HTTLPR and DRD4 genes, and studies have shown that the same combination of genes affects the level of orientation activity in infants. Also, the DRD2 gene affects the "search for novelty" in childhood, while the total effect of these two genes is more pronounced than each separately.

Combinations of the 5HTTLPR, DRD2 genes and the human androgen receptor gene are involved in the formation and development of symptoms of childhood behavioral disorders, which are characterized by disobedience and violation of existing social norms of society. In individuals with various addictions, scores on “novelty search” are in most cases higher than in healthy people, in addition, carriers of the long DRD4 allele are very common among addicts. Ongoing studies have shown that drug addicts have found a relationship between DRD2 genotypes and “novelty seeking”, in addition, also with the third type of dopamine receptor gene (DRD3 genotype) and “sensation seeking”. Dopamine receptors of the second type in most cases are associated with the abuse of narcotic drugs. Carrying one of the alleles of the DRD2 gene directly leads to drug addiction and alcoholism, on the one hand, and to a decrease in the functions of dopamine receptors in the striatum, on the other.

But it cannot be said with certainty that the link between dopamine metabolism and addiction formation is mediated by “novelty seeking.” Most likely, drug and alcohol abuse share a common neural substrate that provides positive reinforcement, namely the mesolimbic division of the brain's dopamine system. The opiate system, which has a modulating effect on the dopamine system, most likely makes a general contribution to the “search for novelty” factor and the emergence of various addictions. As a result of the research, links were found between antisocial traits in alcohol addicts and the 5HTTLPR genes, as well as serotonin 1b and 2a receptors. In addition, the antisocial behavior of alcohol addicts is associated with a polymorphism of the gene that encodes MAO-A. The MAO-A enzyme is directly involved in the destruction of dopamine and serotonin and, in turn, limits their activity.

Many researchers believe that the main reason for the formation of dependence is insufficient synthesis of catecholamines in the brain, as a result of acquired or congenital pathology. Catecholamines are those neurotransmitters in the brain that are associated with the "pleasure system", that is, they are responsible for the emergence of such feelings as joy, pleasure and satisfaction. Thus, a situation is created in which, in order to get pleasure, a person needs a rather strong stimulus that will increase the synthesis of catecholamines, or the intake of a substance of the same or similar structure from the outside.

Analyzing the available data, it can be said with certainty that in medicine addiction to narcotic substances is considered as a disease characterized by withdrawal syndrome in cases of cancellation or reduction of doses of narcotic drugs taken. Also, such a disease is characterized by a change in the metabolism and mental status of the individual. In its development, such a disease goes through several stages. In clinical practice, it is customary to distinguish various types of drug addiction in accordance with the drugs used, namely, morphinism, cocainism, opiomania, etc.

The main mechanisms for the formation of such addictions is a change in metabolism, as a result of the incorporation of narcotic drugs into the metabolism of the body. There is an opinion that each narcotic drug has its own mediator, which such a drug will replace. The reasons for the formation of drug dependence are not as well understood as the mechanisms themselves. The main reasons for the formation of drug addiction are associated with metabolic disorders, which are genetically determined. An example is the genetic component of alcoholism.

Long-term use of narcotic drugs leads to the depletion of neurotransmitter stores, as drugs provoke an increased release of them. Hence, when there are no narcotic drugs, with the normal passage of an electrical impulse, a deficiency of neurotransmitters occurs. This, in turn, leads to insufficient excitation of the reinforcement system, while the person feels a significant decline in physical and emotional strength, and the mood worsens. Therefore, when a person begins to take psychoactive drugs, the individual's condition improves, and in the earliest stages of alcoholism and drug addiction, such an improvement is not only subjective, but also objective. But at the same time, a vicious circle is formed quite quickly - immediately after taking narcotic drugs, the neurotransmitter is released much faster and in fairly large quantities, while the destruction of the mediator occurs also quickly, and the individual's condition worsens.

We can assume that the formation of physical dependence begins with the onset of increased synthesis of catecholamines. This happens due to the fact that with frequent and constant use of narcotic substances, a rather large lack of neurotransmitters occurs. The body immediately reacts to such an event by increasing the synthesis of the substances it needs. Every time alcohol or a drug enters the body, dopamine is released and, at the same time, its excessive destruction occurs. This pattern indicates an accelerated turnover of dopamine. In the event that the intake of narcotic drugs is stopped, the increased synthesis of neurotransmitters is preserved, due to the fact that the enzyme system has rebuilt to a new regime, and enhanced release is not carried out. And as a result of such actions, dopamine begins to accumulate in the blood and in the brain. A high level of dopamine causes the main symptoms of withdrawal syndrome, and as a result, blood pressure rises, autonomic disorders, insomnia, anxiety, fear, etc. appear.

Psychological mechanisms

alcohol drug addiction

It is assumed that the mechanisms of formation of psychological dependence are associated with the effect of narcotic drugs on the reinforcement system, which is located in the brain stem. Such a system takes part in the regulation of motivations, as well as the emotional state. It will work with the direct participation of neurotransmitters from the catecholamine group, and primarily with the participation of dopamine. Alcohol and narcotic substances chemically activate such a system, despite the fact that its excitation is much higher than normal, which in turn defines positive emotional reactions.

Psychoanalytically oriented researchers focus on the unconscious and its influence on the personality, its role in the formation of dependent or addictive behavior. It is important to note that all psychoanalysts do not make a deep distinction between chemical (alcoholism, drug addiction, etc.) and emotional (workaholism, sexaholism, anorexia, etc.) addictions. They assume that the underlying mechanisms of their formation are the same.

From the point of view of psychoanalysis, addiction is a latent suicide, that is, it is an attempt to commit suicide, stretched out in time. The psychoactive substance is used as a means of self-destruction. Suicide itself is an attempt to escape from illness, psychosis, or the desire to overcome internal contradictions. Great attention is paid to early development as the basis for choosing just such a way of solving personal problems. In this case, either they talk about the predominance of the death drive in the personality of the addict (neo-Freudianism), or about a destroyed, lost or unformed object (the school of object relations). However, in both cases, special emphasis is placed on the development of the individual in the first year of life and his fixation in the oral stage.

Another aspect that psychoanalysts pay attention to is identity. Difficulties in forming one's own identity, its violations can become an additional risk factor for the formation of addiction.

Reinforcement of learning plays an important role in the formation of addiction. The addict's behavior pattern is not abnormal, although he is clearly self-harming. A scheme with an inappropriate way of reinforcing a narcotic substance works here. It is the reinforcement effect that explains, for example, the more frequent intravenous use of heroin than the smoking of opium, which is less dangerous, more pleasant, but not as instantaneous. Reinforcement forms whole patterns of behavior necessary to get the drug. In this case, even long-maintained social behavior can be interrupted. In addition, actions leading to success are more easily repeated due to the subjective experience of success than actions leading to failure. Reward motivates action to be repeated, punishment to failure. This mechanism of behavior is formed in ontogenesis largely as a result of the modern system of education and upbringing. The drug helps the fearful to get rid of fear and insecurity. This positive impact increases the need for drugs, the desire for their repeated use, at the same time, it leads to the rejection of frustrated unsuccessful social actions. It should be noted that if in medicine the mechanisms of the formation of drug addiction (at the biochemical level) are much better studied, and the causes are somewhat worse, then in psychology everything is exactly the opposite: the causes of drug addiction are well studied, but the mechanisms of its formation are poorly studied.

All psychological causes of addiction can be divided into two categories:

the influence of the environment (that is, all external factors);

features of the structure of the personality of a person who has become addicted.

We can say that the most important factor in the external environment is civilization. On the one hand, it opens access to narcotic drugs, and, on the other hand, regulates their use. With the development of civilization, the human environment has also changed. More and more technology is entering people's lives, which leads to the replacement of the natural habitat with an artificial one, and this, in turn, leads to changes in the psychophysical conditions of life. The consequences of these changes are very difficult to predict. It is likely that they can lead to an increase in cases of maladaptive behavior, an increase in the number of mental disorders and diseases. In addition, the pace of change is getting faster every year, which greatly affects people.

Over the past few years, very drastic changes have been taking place in our society, and with them it is becoming difficult for people to assess the situation, especially for young people. Against this background, there is a rapid narcotization of society, which once again proves the influence of macrosocial factors on the risk of drug addiction. N. S. Kurek in his studies also notes that during the years of social instability, the number of drug addictions and mental illness increases dramatically.

As a result of drastic changes in society, the destruction of social institutions begins, of which, perhaps, the most important is the family. The disintegration of the family is not only a consequence of social processes, but also the cause of the future state of society, since the family is most responsible for the socialization of the child. The weakening of the institution of the family can also cause the formation of deviant behavior, including drug addiction.

It is important to note that the transition from adolescence to adolescence is a critical time for drug initiation. It is at this time that almost half of all those who have ever taken drugs get acquainted with drugs, and before the age of 20, almost 9/10 of all those who have tried them at least once manage to get acquainted with drugs. In general, if a person has not experienced drug use before the age of 20, then the likelihood of this is sharply reduced. Even less risk of involvement in occasional or regular consumption.

Another important factor in the formation of drug addiction is the value of health. According to sociologists, the public value of health is quite high: out of 10 life values, “health” is the third, after “work” and “family”. However, health is valued as a means to achieve life goals and material benefits, and not as a means to live as long and fully as possible. A relatively high health rating does not mean mandatory self-preservation behavior. This can be demonstrated by the data of our study: 97% of the respondents said that they were aware of the dangers of drugs, but 30% indicated that they had experience of using drugs in the past, and 10% indicated that they were currently using drugs.

Another possible cause of drug addiction is the child's under- or overprotection by the parents. In the case of hypo-custody, parents have little or no interest in their child. Such children have low self-esteem, inferiority complexes, they experience a sense of revenge and hatred towards adults. Rejection, coldness, lack of warmth and affection on the part of parents first injure the child, and then harden him, push him to search for a “different life”, another society. Very often, such children turn to psychoactive substances or try to commit suicide, because they cannot understand the reasons for the cold attitude of their parents.

In the case of overprotection, the child is constantly looked after, he is given too much attention, denied independence. The life of an over-protected child is completely controlled by his parents, and when he begins to grow up, such over-care becomes a burden to him. The child is trying to gain independence in any way possible, so he deliberately goes into conflict with the family, defiantly violates the norms of behavior prescribed for him. For such a child, drugs may be the only aspect of life over which, as it seems to him, he has complete control. Another consequence of overprotection is infantilism. An infantile child easily falls under the influence of more experienced comrades, it is easy to persuade him to try drugs or incite him to some trick. Another variant of hyper-custody is a universal favorite, an object of universal worship and admiration, an only child in a large family. Such a child is accustomed to permissiveness, unlimited power over adults who will never punish or scold him. Very often, such children are demonstrative, they try to make a strong impression on others, they are characterized by a desire to be the best, which in turn can lead to drug addiction or alcoholism (for example, if you want to overdrink everyone or try everything). Another factor provoking the development of dependence may be the influence of the living environment and the availability of access to narcotic substances. For adolescents, when introducing drugs and alcohol, the example of peers is of the greatest importance. An important factor may also be the fashion for drug use (for example, the fashion for ecstasy in house club culture).

Individuals at increased risk of drug addiction are characterized by personality traits such as emotional coldness, self-centeredness, low self-control, and hostility. They have anxiety, stress caused by unwanted restrictions or prohibitions: the individual resists pressure from outside, wants to freely follow his desires and overcome the feeling of emptiness and separation from other people. They have expressed hedonic motivation, a penchant for hobbies, success, a rich and interesting life.

It can be said that practically all drug addiction researchers (regardless of the approach in which they work) agree that the causes of drug addiction are rooted in abnormal development in childhood. Doctors focus on genetic and physiological disorders, while psychologists focus on communication and adaptation disorders, as well as the influence of the social environment. Apparently, developmental disorders in childhood play a decisive role in the formation of any form of maladaptive behavior, including drug addiction. At the same time, the ever-increasing social instability intensifies these violations and negative trends in the development of the individual. This is probably related to the growth of drug addiction in our country in the last decade.

Bibliography:

1. Encyclopedia of narcotic drugs drugs, addiction, treatment of drug addiction (#"justify">. AORTA.RU medical encyclopedia (#"justify">. Fromm E. Man for himself // Fromm E. Psychoanalysis and ethics. M .: AST -LTD, 1998, pp. 21 - 256

Jaspers K. General psychopathology. - M.: Practice, 1997

Pyatnitskaya I.N. Addictions: A Guide for Physicians. M.: Medicine, 1994

Kozlov A.A., Rokhlina M.L. "Drug" personality // Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry 2000 No. 7, p. 23-27.

Biological mechanisms

One of the most important reasons for the biological formation of alcohol and drug dependence is the genetic predisposition of individuals.

Markers were identified that characterized a person's predisposition to alcoholism. One of these markers is the activity of the enzyme dopamir betahydroxylase, which is involved in the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine. Individuals who are at high biological risk have genetically determined low dopamine activity, and those with low biological risk have very high activity of this enzyme.

Currently, there is no generally accepted unified concept (theory) of the pathogenesis of drug addiction and substance abuse. Despite the huge number of publications on this problem, mainly due to the "social order" of the direction of these studies, achievements in the field of biological narcology are quite modest. Most of them are devoted to the study of the mechanism of action of alcohol, narcotic and toxic substances on the body in model experiments on animals, research in vitro, as well as psychophysiological studies of the consequences of the abuse of drugs and, to a lesser extent, substance abuse in humans.

Drug addiction of any kind inevitably affects the emotional and affective sphere of human life. More precisely, the emergence and formation of drug addiction at the very first stages of its development is associated with the effect of the drug on the emotionally positive centers of the brain. In turn, emotional shifts caused by the influence of a narcotic substance form a goal reflex, according to I.P. Pavlov, which consists in the search for another emotionally positive reinforcement of the individual's behavior. With each new reinforcement, the functional system created in the brain is more and more stabilized, leading to the development of a stable pathological state "according to N.P. Bekhtereva.

In relation to animals, we can conditionally speak about the manifestations of emotions in the implementation of complex forms of their behavior, such as searching for and obtaining food, sexual behavior, and protection from attack. Obviously, these complex forms of behavior do indeed have an emotional connotation, since their external manifestations (fear, rage, an attack on the victim even by a well-fed animal) can be reproduced in an experiment when the corresponding emotional centers of the brain are irritated in a waking animal. It is equally possible to speak about emotionally colored or emotionally expressed human behavior. There is no doubt that emotions often determine actions, since everyone knows this from their own experience, from the experience of all mankind.

In the 1950s, new possibilities appeared for studying the neurophysiological mechanisms of emotions using self-irritation of brain structures with electric current in animals (rats, cats, monkeys). Depending on the location of the electrodes, the animal (more often the rat) self-stimulated certain areas of the brain, called start zones, with a frequency of up to 5,000 stimuli per hour and up to 200,000 stimulations per 20 hours of continuous experiment, after which, as a rule, complete exhaustion set in. The stimulation of the brain was carried out by him, even if, on the way to contact, he had to overcome serious obstacles, for example, a slatted floor, through which suprathreshold values of electric current were passed. During the session of self-irritation, the animal refused to eat, did not react to the appearance of foreign objects, noise, and flashes of light in the chamber. Male rats did not pay any attention to the appearance of females in the chamber. In other words, self-irritation became the main meaning of the animal's life.

On the contrary, even a single irritation of the centers of negative emotions (stop zones) caused a sharply negative reaction. The animal tried to avoid approaching the contacts, and at conditions where an animal, such as a monkey, was deprived of the opportunity to avoid irritation due to rigid fixation in a special apparatus, it he became asthenic, refused to eat, his hair fell out, he developed functional disorders of the cardiovascular activity, dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract.

The agonism of drugs and self-stimulation of emotionally positive centers allows us to draw a number of conclusions.

Firstly, the mechanism of addiction and addiction to drugs is based on the fact that drugs, by modulating the functions of positive reinforcement, contribute to the creation of a functional system of behavior aimed at one goal - the desire to repeat the euphoric effect again. In this sense, continuous pressing on the contact, which includes a circuit of self-stimulation, or on the contact, which provides intravenous administration of a dose of the drug, are phenomena of the same order.

Secondly, both the electrical stimulus and the narcotic appear to act on the same neuronal elements, and their action is provided by the same neurotransmitter or non-iromodulatory systems that function in the normal brain, not spurred on by the action of electrical stimulation or the drug. [Bilibin D.P., Dvornikov V.E., 1991]. Therefore, it is important to understand and understand how these systems work and why a situation is possible when, instead of normal emotional arousal, narcotic euphoria occurs, which extremely quickly forms a model of a stable pathological state that is difficult to destroy.

The nature of addictive behavior is quite complex. Addiction is a multifactorial phenomenon. Factors contributing (determining) the formation of addictive behavior: biological(influence of genotype, endocrine system, puberty and neurophysiological features), social(influence of family socialization, media, religion, education, availability of alcohol and drugs, youth subculture, national and ethno-cultural characteristics of alcohol consumption, etc.), psychological(influence of deformation of the personality structure, character, individual psychological characteristics).

To the number biological models , explaining the causes and mechanisms of the use of narcotic substances, belongs to the theory of optimal excitation (K. M. Caroll, M. Zukerman), the theory of the motivational field of D. V. Kolesov. Neurophysiological models dependence formation: the concept of reward (I. P. Anokhina), the concept of activation optimum (E. V. Melnik).

Psychological models dependence formation: “shifting the motive to the goal” (B. S. Bratus), the concept of Ts. P. Korolenko, the concept of the dependent personality of V. D. Mendelevich, the evolutionary approach B |. Weinhold (stages of development of addiction).

Psychodynamic approach to dependence: dependence as a result of the influence of infantile traumatization (L. Bourbo), dependence as a manifestation of the characterological structure of the personality (S. Johnson's approach to the typology of characters), the relationship between primary and secondary dependence - A. Yanov's approach (dependence as a defense against primary pain) , dependence as a means of overcoming intrapersonal conflict (H. Kohut).

social models dependence formation: E. Satterland's theory of differential communication (dependent behavior is transmitted and supplemented by learning theory), the concept of differential reinforcement.

In the area of social group influence the formation of drug addiction is noted by the studies of Ya. I. Gilinsky, L. E. Keselman, A. E. Lichko, V. S. Bitensky. Scientists point out that a group with harmful behavior, through the mechanism of identification of alienation, contributes to the formation of the values of a drug addict subculture in a teenager, thereby changing the general direction of socialization. Depending on the orientation of the group, the clothes, hairstyles, and manners of the young man change.

Recently gained great popularity biopsychosocial models (The Bio-Psycho-Social Concept) which include the above factors: biological, psychological, social. At biopsychosocial approach drug use is seen as a universal characteristic of human behavior. The desire to use drugs is innate, characteristic of every person, aimed at obtaining the substances necessary for the body. In addition, drug use is associated with the experimental nature of human activities, especially during adolescence. Therefore, the use of drugs becomes one of the ways of knowing the world.

The predisposition to addictive behavior manifests itself in accordance with the dynamics of the development of the child's psyche.

The first , sensorimotor, or sensory-motor stage Substance initiation can begin in early childhood and continue until about 7 years of age in children whose mothers suffered from chronic alcoholism even before birth. Such children are characterized by a slowdown in development, which is manifested in the later ability to hold their heads, stand, walk; hypertonicity is determined in the muscles.

Second , emotional stage (7–12 years). At this age, the first attempts to consume surfactants come, and at the same time, the intensity of emotional breakdowns increases. The child is characterized by weak volitional control, low self-esteem, aggressiveness, lack of ability to empathize with others.

Third , ideational, or rational, stage (12–14 years old). The actions of adolescents are aimed at finding and establishing new forms of contacts with their peers, in which cruelty, sexual promiscuity, deceit, and leaving home become characteristic. In neglected adolescents, at this stage, group use of PAS begins.

Fourth , reflexive stage (14–16 years old). In adolescents, the image of the future is blurred, and interest in death increases. In relation to adults - pronounced protest reactions, in relation to peers - association not in a company, but stable, often criminogenic groups.

At the reflexive stage, it remains possible to provide assistance not with medication, but with pedagogical, psychotherapeutic means.

Fifth , nosological stage - the onset of the disease. It may coincide with the beginning of adolescence, when a person is practically approaching maturity: self-consciousness, reflective consciousness, temperament, and character are formed.

Simultaneously with the recognition of the importance of the influence of the properties of drugs on the body of the subject, the environment and sociocultural factors, the emphasis is on violations in the individual development, personality structure and psychodynamics of the addict, that is, in his domestic issues.

So, the mechanisms of formation of dependence on surfactants on psychological level accepted as part of personal theories of drug addiction, where the main attention of scientists is riveted to the study of individual psychological risk factors onset of addiction in adolescence , as the most vulnerable for the emergence of cravings for the use of surfactants due to the heterogeneity of the course of developmental processes and inclinations to the emergence of conflict situations.

The main risk factors for initiation to the use of psychoactive substances in adolescents in various personal areas are identified, which are presented in Table. one.

In fact, described by different authors individual psychological risk factors substance initiation among adolescents overlaps in many ways. They are probably the most significant and represent a kind of nucleus, which in turn can become purpose psychoprophylactic corrective influence.

Effects of psychoactive substances on the central nervous system. The main mechanisms of the formation of dependence on psychoactive substances Biological mechanisms of the formation of dependence on psychoactive substances

Biological mechanisms

Report a typo

Text to be sent to our editors:

Your comment (optional):