What event happened on February 19, 1861. Who abolished serfdom in Russia? When did it happen? Russia in the era of Alexander II. Domestic policy

Alexander II

Contrary to the existing erroneous opinion that the overwhelming majority of the population of pre-reform Russia was in serfdom, in fact, the percentage of serfs to the entire population of the empire remained almost unchanged at 45% from the second revision to the eighth (that is, from before), and by the 10th revision ( ) this share fell to 37%. According to the 1859 census, 23.1 million people (of both sexes) out of 62.5 million people inhabiting the Russian Empire were in serfdom. Of the 65 provinces and regions that existed in the Russian Empire in 1858, in the three above-mentioned Baltic provinces, in the Land of the Black Sea Army, in the Primorsky region, the Semipalatinsk region and the region of the Siberian Kyrgyz, in the Derbent province (with the Caspian region) and the Erivan province there were no serfs at all; in another 4 administrative units (Arkhangelsk and Shemakha provinces, Transbaikal and Yakutsk regions) there were also no serfs, with the exception of several dozen courtyard people (servants). In the remaining 52 provinces and regions, the share of serfs in the population ranged from 1.17% (Bessarabian region) to 69.07% (Smolensk province).

Causes

In 1861, a reform was carried out in Russia that abolished serfdom and marked the beginning of the capitalist formation in the country. The main reason for this reform was: the crisis of the serfdom system, peasant unrest, which especially intensified during the Crimean War. In addition, serfdom hampered the development of the state and the formation of a new class - the bourgeoisie, which had limited rights and could not participate in government. Many landowners believed that the liberation of the peasants would bring positive results in the development of agriculture. An equally significant role in the abolition of serfdom was played by the moral aspect - in the middle of the 19th century, “slavery” existed in Russia.

Preparation of reform

The government program was outlined in a rescript from Emperor Alexander II on November 20 (December 2) to the Vilna Governor-General V. I. Nazimov. It provided: the destruction of personal dependence peasants while maintaining all the land in the ownership of the landowners; provision peasants a certain amount of land, for which they will be required to pay rent or serve corvee, and over time - the right to buy out peasant estates (a residential building and outbuildings). To prepare peasant reforms, provincial committees were formed, within which a struggle began for measures and forms of concessions between liberal and reactionary landowners. The fear of an all-Russian peasant revolt forced the government to change the government program of peasant reform, the projects of which were repeatedly changed in connection with the rise or decline of the peasant movement. In December, a new peasant reform program was adopted: providing peasants the possibility of purchasing land and creating peasant public administration bodies. To review projects of provincial committees and develop peasant reform, Editorial Commissions were created in March. The project drawn up by the Editorial Commissions at the end differed from that proposed by the provincial committees in increasing land allotments and reducing duties. This caused discontent among the local nobility, and in the project the allotments were slightly reduced and duties increased. This direction in changing the project was preserved both when it was considered in the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs at the end, and when it was discussed in the State Council at the beginning.

On February 19 (March 3, New Art.) in St. Petersburg, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom, which consisted of 17 legislative acts.

The main provisions of the peasant reform

The main act - “General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom” - contained the main conditions of the peasant reform:

• peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property;
• The landowners retained ownership of all the lands that belonged to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with “sedentary estates” and field allotment for use.
• For the use of allotment land, peasants had to serve corvee or pay quitrent and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years.
• The size of the field allotment and duties had to be recorded in the statutory charters of 1861, which were drawn up by the landowners for each estate and verified by the peace intermediaries.
• Peasants were given the right to buy out an estate and, by agreement with the landowner, a field allotment; until this was done, they were called temporarily obligated peasants.
• the structure, rights and responsibilities of the peasant public administration bodies (rural and volost) courts were also determined.

Four “Local Regulations” determined the size of land plots and duties for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. From the land that was in the use of peasants before February 19, 1861, sections could be made if the peasants' per capita allotments exceeded the maximum size established for the given area, or if the landowners, while maintaining the existing peasant allotment, had less than 1/3 of the total land of the estate left.

Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landowners, as well as upon receipt of a gift allotment. If peasants had smaller plots of land for use, the landowner was obliged to either cut off the missing land or reduce duties. For the highest shower allotment, a quitrent was set from 8 to 12 rubles. per year or corvee - 40 men's and 30 women's working days per year. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties were reduced, but not proportionally. The rest of the “Local Provisions” basically repeated the “Great Russian Provisions”, but taking into account the specifics of their regions. The features of the Peasant Reform for certain categories of peasants and specific areas were determined by the “Additional Rules” - “On the arrangement of peasants settled on the estates of small landowners, and on benefits to these owners”, “On people assigned to private mining factories of the Ministry of Finance”, “On peasants and workers serving work at Perm private mining factories and salt mines”, “About peasants serving work in landowner factories”, “About peasants and courtyard people in the Land of the Don Army”, “About peasants and courtyard people in the Stavropol province”, “ About peasants and courtyard people in Siberia”, “About people who emerged from serfdom in the Bessarabian region”.

The “Regulations on the Settlement of Household People” provided for their release without land, but for 2 years they remained completely dependent on the landowner.

The “Regulations on Redemption” determined the procedure for peasants buying land from landowners, organizing the redemption operation, and the rights and obligations of peasant owners. The redemption of a field plot depended on an agreement with the landowner, who could oblige the peasants to buy the land at his request. The price of land was determined by quitrent, capitalized at 6% per annum. In case of redemption by voluntary agreement, the peasants had to make an additional payment to the landowner. The landowner received the main amount from the state, to which the peasants had to repay it annually for 49 years with redemption payments.

The “Manifesto” and “Regulations” were published from March 7 to April 2 (in St. Petersburg and Moscow - March 5). Fearing the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the conditions of the reform, the government took a number of precautions (relocation of troops, sending members of the imperial retinue to places, appeal of the Synod, etc.). The peasantry, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky uprising of 1861 and the Kandeyevsky uprising of 1861.

The implementation of the Peasant Reform began with the drawing up of statutory charters, which was mostly completed by the middle of the year. On January 1, 1863, peasants refused to sign about 60% of the charters. The purchase price of land significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in some areas by 2-3 times. As a result of this, in a number of regions they were extremely keen to receive gift plots, and in some provinces (Saratov, Samara, Ekaterinoslav, Voronezh, etc.) a significant number of peasant gift-givers appeared.

Under the influence of the Polish uprising of 1863, changes occurred in the conditions of the Peasant Reform in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine: the law of 1863 introduced compulsory redemption; redemption payments decreased by 20%; peasants who were dispossessed of land from 1857 to 1861 received their allotments in full, those dispossessed of land earlier - partially.

The peasants' transition to ransom lasted for several decades. K remained in a temporarily obligated relationship with 15%. But in a number of provinces there were still many of them (Kursk 160 thousand, 44%; Nizhny Novgorod 119 thousand, 35%; Tula 114 thousand, 31%; Kostroma 87 thousand, 31%). The transition to ransom proceeded faster in the black earth provinces, where voluntary transactions prevailed over compulsory ransom. Landowners who had large debts, more often than others, sought to speed up the redemption and enter into voluntary transactions.

The abolition of serfdom also affected appanage peasants, who, by the “Regulations of June 26, 1863,” were transferred to the category of peasant owners through compulsory redemption under the terms of the “Regulations of February 19.” In general, their plots were significantly smaller than those of the landowner peasants.

The law of November 24, 1866 began the reform of state peasants. They retained all the lands in their use. According to the law of June 12, 1886, state peasants were transferred to redemption.

The peasant reform of 1861 entailed the abolition of serfdom in the national outskirts of the Russian Empire.

On October 13, 1864, a decree was issued on the abolition of serfdom in the Tiflis province; a year later it was extended, with some changes, to the Kutaisi province, and in 1866 to Megrelia. In Abkhazia, serfdom was abolished in 1870, in Svaneti - in 1871. The conditions of the reform here retained the remnants of serfdom to a greater extent than under the “Regulations of February 19”. In Armenia and Azerbaijan, peasant reform was carried out in 1870-83 and was no less enslaving in nature than in Georgia. In Bessarabia, the bulk of the peasant population was made up of legally free landless peasants - tsarans, who, according to the “Regulations of July 14, 1868,” were allocated land for permanent use in exchange for services. The redemption of this land was carried out with some derogations on the basis of the “Redemption Regulations” of February 19, 1861.

Literature

• Zakharova L. G. Autocracy and the abolition of serfdom in Russia, 1856-1861. M., 1984.

Links

• The most merciful Manifesto of February 19, 1861, On the abolition of serfdom (Christian reading. St. Petersburg, 1861. Part 1). On the site Heritage of Holy Rus'
• Agrarian reforms and development of the rural economy of Russia - article by Doctor of Economics. Adukova

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Servants who do not have a master do not become free people because of this - lackeyness is in their soul.

G. Heine

The date of the abolition of serfdom in Russia is December 19, 1861. This is a significant event, since the beginning of 1861 turned out to be extremely tense for the Russian Empire. Alexander 2 was even forced to put the army on high alert. The reason for this was not a possible war, but a growing boom in peasant discontent.

Several years before 1861, the tsarist government began to consider legislation to abolish serfdom. The Emperor understood that there was no longer room to delay. His advisers unanimously said that the country was on the verge of an explosion of a peasant war. On March 30, 1859, a meeting between noble nobles and the emperor took place. At this meeting, the nobles said that it was better for the liberation of the peasants to come from above, otherwise it would follow from below.

Reform February 19, 1861

As a result, the date for the abolition of serfdom in Russia was determined - February 19, 1861. What did this reform give to the peasants, did they become free? This question can be answered unequivocally, the reform of 1861 made life much worse for peasants. Of course, the tsar’s manitsest, which he signed in order to free ordinary people, endowed the peasants with rights that they never possessed. Now the landowner did not have the right to exchange a peasant for a dog, beat him, forbid him to marry, trade, or engage in fishing. But the problem for the peasants was the land.

Land question

To resolve the land issue, the state convened world mediators, who were sent to the localities and dealt with the division of land there. The overwhelming majority of the work of these intermediaries consisted in the fact that they announced to the peasants that on all controversial issues with the land they must negotiate with the landowner. This agreement had to be drawn up in writing. The reform of 1861 gave landowners the right, when determining land plots, to take away the so-called “surplus” from peasants. As a result, the peasants were left with only 3.5 dessiatines (1) of land per auditor's soul (2). Before the land reform there were 3.8 dessiatines. At the same time, the landowners took the best land from the peasants, leaving only infertile lands.

The most paradoxical thing about the reform of 1861 is that the date of the abolition of serfdom is known exactly, but everything else is very vague. Yes, the manifesto formally allocated land to the peasants, but in fact the land remained in the possession of the landowner. The peasant received only the right to buy that plot of land, who was assigned to him by the landowner. But at the same time, the landowners themselves were given the right to independently determine whether or not to allow the sale of land.

Redemption of land

No less strange was the amount at which the peasants had to buy the land. This amount was calculated based on the rent that the landowner received. For example, the richest nobleman of those years, P.P. Shuvalov. received a quitrent of 23 thousand rubles a year. This means that the peasants, in order to buy the land, had to pay the landowner as much money as was necessary for the landowner to put it in the bank and annually receive those same 23 thousand rubles in interest. As a result, on average, one audit soul had to pay 166.66 rubles for tithes. Since the families were large, on average across the country one family had to pay 500 rubles to buy out a plot of land. It was an unaffordable amount.

The state came to the “aid” of the peasants. The State Bank paid the landowner 75-80% of the required amount. The rest was paid by the peasants. At the same time, they were obliged to settle accounts with the state and pay the required interest within 49 years. On average across the country, the bank paid the landowner 400 rubles for one plot of land. At the same time, the peasants gave the bank money for 49 years in the amount of almost 1,200 rubles. The state practically tripled its money.

The date of the abolition of serfdom is an important stage in the development of Russia, but it did not give a positive result. Only by the end of 1861, uprisings broke out in 1,176 estates in the country. By 1880, 34 Russian provinces were engulfed in peasant uprisings.

Only after the first revolution in 1907 did the government cancel the land purchase. Land began to be provided free of charge.

1 – one dessiatine is equal to 1.09 hectares.

2 – auditor soul – the male population of the country (women were not entitled to land).

MANIFESTO

February 19, 1861

by God's grace We, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Tsar of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, and so on, and so on, and so on. We announce to all our loyal subjects.

by God's providence And sacred law succession to the throne Having been called to the ancestral All-Russian throne, in accordance with this calling, we made a vow in our hearts to embrace with our royal love and care all our loyal subjects of every rank and status, from those who nobly wield a sword in defense of the Fatherland to those who modestly work with a craft tool, from those undergoing the highest public service until he makes a furrow in the field with a plow or plow.

... We are convinced that the matter of changing the situation of serfs for the better is for us the testament of our predecessors and the lot given to us through the course of events by the hand of providence. … We provided the nobility itself with at his own call, to make assumptions about the new structure of life of the peasants, and the nobles were to limit their rights to the peasants and raise the difficulties of transformation not without reducing its benefits. …IN provincial committees, in the person of their members, invested with the trust of the entire noble society of each province, The nobility voluntarily renounced the right to personality of serfs. In these committees, after collecting the necessary information, assumptions have been drawn up about a new household arrangement people in serfdom and their relationship to the landowners.

...Calling on God for help , we decided to give this matter executive action.

By virtue of these new provisions, serfs will receive in due time full rights of free rural inhabitants.

Landowners, retaining ownership of all lands belonging to them, provide to peasants for established duties, for permanent use their estate settlement and moreover, to ensure their daily life and fulfillment their responsibilities before the government, defined in the regulations amount of field land and other lands.

Using the sim land allotment, peasants are obliged to fulfill this in favor of landowners, certain duties are specified in the regulations. In this state, which is transitional, peasants are called temporary workers .

At the same time, they are given right to redeem their estate settlement, and with the consent of the landowners they can acquire ownership field lands and other lands allocated to them for permanent use. With such acquisition of ownership of a certain amount of land, peasants will be released from responsibilities to the landowners on the purchased land and enter into a decisive state free peasant owners.

On these main principles the drafted provisions are determined future device peasants and courtyard people, the order of public peasant management is established and indicated in detail bestowed peasants and courtyard people rights and responsibilities assigned to them in relation to the government and landowners.

... Like a new device, due to the inevitable complexity of the changes it requires, cannot be produced suddenly, but this will take time, approximately at least two years, then during this time, in aversion to confusion and for the sake of public and private benefit , the order existing to this day on the landowners' estates must be preserved until now, when, after proper preparations have been made, a new order will be inaugurated.

To achieve this correctly, we considered it good to command:

Open a provincial government in each province presence on peasant affairs. … Appoint peace mediators in the counties....Educate on landowners' estates worldly administrations. ... Compile, verify and approve for each rural society or estate charter, in which the amount of land provided to peasants for permanent use will be calculated, based on the local situation, and the amount of duties due from them in favor of the landowner, both for the land and for other benefits from it.

These statutory charters shall be carried out as they are approved for each estate, and finally put into effect for all estates during two years from the date of publication of this manifesto. Before the expiration of this period, peasants and courtyard people remain in the same obedience to the landowners and unquestioningly fulfill their previous duties. Landowners maintain control over order on their estates, with the right of trial and reprisal, until the formation of volosts and the opening of volost courts.

Paying attention to the inevitable difficulties of the transformation undertaken, We first of all We place our trust in the all-good providence of God protecting Russia .

We rely on the common sense of our people. When the government's idea of ​​abolishing serfdom spread between not prepared for it peasants, private misunderstandings arose. Some thought about freedom and forgot about responsibilities. But general common sense has not wavered in the conviction that and by natural reasoning freely enjoying the benefits of society must mutually serve the benefit of society by performing certain duties, and according to Christian law " every soul must obey the powers that be” (Rom. XIII, 1), give everyone their due, and especially to whom it is due, a lesson, a tribute, fear, honor; that rights legally acquired by landowners cannot be taken from them without decent compensation or voluntary concession; that it would be contrary to all justice to use land from the landowners and not bear the corresponding duties for it.

And now we expect with hope that the serfs with a new future opening up for them will understand and with gratitude will accept important donation made by the noble nobility to improve their lives. They'll come to their senses, that, receiving for themselves a more solid basis of property and greater freedom to dispose of their household, they become obligated before society and before ourselves, supplement the beneficence of the new law with the faithful, well-intentioned and diligent use of the rights granted to them. The most beneficial law cannot make people prosperous if they do not take the trouble to arrange their own well-being under the protection of the law. Contentment is acquired and increased only by unremitting labor, prudent use of forces and means, strict frugality and generally an honest life in the fear of God.

Performers of preparatory actions for the new structure of peasant life and the very introduction to this structure will use vigilant care so that this is done with a correct, calm movement, observing the convenience of the time, so that the attention of farmers is not diverted from their necessary agricultural pursuits. Let them carefully cultivate the land and collect its fruits, so that later from a well-filled granary they can take seeds for sowing on land for permanent use or on land acquired as property.

Sign yourself with the sign of the cross, Orthodox people, and call upon us God’s blessing on your free labor, the guarantee of your home well-being and public good.

Given in St. Petersburg, on the nineteenth day of February, in the year from the birth of Christ one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one, the seventh of our reign.

Date: 06/11/2007.14 Kb - http://refhist.ru/history/history_of_the_domestic_…

History of domestic law (tasks)
Task No. 5.

On February 19, 1861, Tsar Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the liberation of peasants from serfdom and a set of laws about cancellation serfdom.

However, for two years, essentially the same serfdom was maintained..

"For using land allotment, peasants obliged to fulfill in favor of the landowners defined in the provisions of conscription. In this state, which is transitional, the peasants are called temporarily obliged.

From the moment the Manifesto was published, the peasants received personal freedom.

The landowners lost the rights that previously belonged to them:
- interfere with personal life peasants,
- resettle them to other areas,
-- sell to other persons with or without land.

The landowners retained the rights:
- land ownership
– the right to determine the size of the allotment
- - right of supervision for behavior peasants

STATUTORY CHARTERS.

The allocation of land was made in accordance with local regulations, in which for different regions of the country(chernozem, steppe, non-chernozem) were determined high and low limits the amount of land provided to peasants. These provisions were recorded in Statutory charters, which indicated what land the peasants received. To regulate relations between landowners and peasants on the proposal of the governors were appointed locally mediators from among the noble landowners . Statutory charters compiled by landowners or peace mediators.

After this, their content is mandatory was brought to the attention appropriate peasant gathering. The charter came into force after the peasants were informed with her text, and when the world mediator recognized its contents comply with the requirements of the law. The consent of the peasants to the conditions stipulated by the charter was not necessary. But it was more profitable for the landowner to achieve such consent, because in this case, with subsequent redemption he received the so-called land from the peasants additional payment.

In the country as a whole, peasants received less land than they had previously cultivated for themselves. During the allotment, the landowners cut off sections from this land (peasant estate), especially large ones in the black earth regions. The peasants were not only disadvantaged in the size of their land; they usually got uncomfortable for processing plots, since the best land remained with the landowners.

REDUCTION PAYMENTS.

Temporarily obliged peasant received land not owned, but only for use. For use he had to pay duties corvée or quitrent, which differed little from his previous serf duties. Thus, peasants paid not only for land, but also for your personal liberation.

Go to state land owner the peasant could only after redemption payments for the “granted” land. Redemption price significantly exceeded the actual value of the land. Many peasants could not buy the land for decades. Government concerned "The Agrarian Question" opened a Peasant Bank so that peasants could take out a loan to pay ransom payments. The bank issued special Bonds, on each of which you can read that the repayment of loans was supposed to end in 1932.

But by this time, as we know, circumstances had changed greatly.

October 25, 1917 Council of People's Commissars issued Decree on land from which it followed that the land was nationalized, and peasants had the right to use all (including landowner) land. They immediately divided it among themselves, but then the Civil War began, food appropriation, food detachments, etc. The peasants began to live well only with the introduction of the New Economic Policy. But nothing lasts forever under the sun.

In 1929, collectivization began, and by 1932, former serfs were united into collective farms (kolkhozes), and state Soviet farms (sovkhozes) were organized on free lands. Since the land was nationalized, collective and state farms received land not as their own, but for “eternal use.” In private ownership, each of them had only an estate (house) and a personal plot (garden).

Russia in the era of Alexander II. Domestic policy.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War demonstrated to the whole society the inconsistency with the requirements of the time of that socio-political system and those economic relations that Nicholas I tried to preserve. After his death, his son Alexander II (1855 - 1881) ascended the throne. His reign became the era of a series of bourgeois reforms aimed at eliminating Russia's backwardness from Western countries and returning it to the status of a great power. This time was called the Age of Great Reforms. They affected the most important aspects of state life - the judicial system, the army, and local governments. But the most pressing issue was the solution to the peasant question. The main reform was the abolition of serfdom.

Abolition of serfdom. 1861.

Causes:

· Foreign policy- the defeat in the Crimean War showed all the shortcomings of the regime, the military and technical backwardness of the country, which created the threat of Russia turning into a minor power.

· Economic- The feudal economic system is in crisis. It can exist for quite a long time, but free labor is more productive than forced labor. Serfdom dictated an extremely slow pace of development for the country. Serfdom hindered development:

- Agriculture– the peasants are not interested in working better, using technology. Landowner farms are inefficient.

- industry– there is not enough free labor, since 35% of the population is in serfdom and cannot freely dispose of their working hands.

- trade– the purchasing power of the population remains low, and the economy remains subsistence.

· Social- there is a sharp increase in peasant uprisings (1857 - 192 protests, 1858 - 528, 1859 - 938), government troops are used to suppress some uprisings. A new major uprising is brewing.

· Political– the need to abolish serfdom was understood by the tsar, landowners, and officials. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it spontaneously begins to be abolished from below” (speech in 1856 by the Tsar to the Moscow nobility).

· Moral– serfdom is a relic; it has not existed in Europe for a long time; it is too similar to slavery and is humiliating for humans.

Thus, serfdom must be abolished; the question was how to do it. The reform was preceded by a lot of preparatory work. The majority of the nobles, according to the secret report of the Third Department, still opposed the liberation of the peasants; free labor was beneficial for them. The government essentially resorted to direct violence against its social support for the sake of national long-term interests. This explains the development of the reform at the first stage in the strictest secrecy.

Stages:

I. January 1857- creation of a secret (unofficial) committee to discuss measures for improving the life of landowner peasants under the chairmanship of Alexander II. But his work was sluggish and ineffective (the need for the liberation of the peasants was recognized, personal freedom - without ransom).

II. November 1857- a rescript (instruction) was signed and sent throughout the country addressed to the Vilna governor Nazimov, who announced the beginning of the gradual liberation of the peasants and ordered the creation of noble committees to make proposals and amendments to the reform project. This was a cunning tactical move, since the discussion of the reform included the nobility, which made it irreversible.

III. From February 1858- the secret committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. The reform is being discussed openly. During 1858, noble committees were created in 47 provinces. Projects differ from each other and are often contradictory. Main points of controversy:

Liberate peasants with or without land.

Free the peasants with or without ransom.

If you release with land, then what will be the ransom for the land?

Whether or not peasants should continue to bear feudal duties.

When should the reform be carried out?

As a result, all projects can be divided into three groups:

1. pro-peasant– release with land and free of charge.

2. pro-noble- freed without land, and personal freedom - for a ransom.

3. moderate- release with land, but for a ransom... this is exactly the project that was implemented.

IV. in March 1859- editorial commissions were established under the Main Committee to review materials prepared by provincial committees and draft the law (chairman Rostovtsev, then Panin). The work was completed in October 1860. The drafting commissions carried out painstaking work aimed at developing a reform program that, on the one hand, satisfied the bulk of landowners, and on the other, did not provoke peasant protests.

VI. February 19, 1861- Alexander II signed the main documents on the reform - “Manifesto proclaiming the abolition of serfdom” and “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.”

VII. March 5, 1861- the documents were made public (it took 2 weeks to prepare troops to suppress possible peasant uprisings). The manifesto was read in churches after mass. At the divorce ceremony in the Mikhailovsky Manege, Alexander II himself read it to the troops.

Main provisions of the reform:

1. The peasants received personal freedom. They ceased to be serfs, the property of landowners - from now on they could not be sold, bought, given, or resettled at the owner's request. Peasants received a number of civil rights:

Conclude property transactions on your own behalf, that is, dispose of property.

Open commercial and industrial enterprises.

Move to another class.

Marry without the landowner's permission.

Choose a place of residence.

Enter the service and educational institutions.

But the peasants remained an unequal class, since duties in favor of the state remained - recruitment, poll taxes, corporal punishment, and their own court were preserved. The peasants began to be called rural inhabitants.

2. Providing land to peasants. In the summer of 1861, the institute of peace intermediaries was created, to whom the government entrusted the performance of various administrative functions for carrying out the reform. They

They approved charters that determined further relationships between peasants and landowners.

Redemption acts were certified.

They led the demarcation of peasant and landowner lands.

They monitored the activities of peasant self-government bodies.

Peace mediators were appointed by the Senate from local nobles - landowners and were subject only to the law.

The landowner was considered the owner of all the land. According to the reform, peasants were freed with a land plot, the size of which depended on the fertility of the soil and the agreement between the village assembly and the landowner. The entire territory of the country was divided into 3 zones - chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe. For the first two, a “higher” maximum size of the allotment was established, more than which the landowner would not give land, and a “lower” minimum size - less than which he could not give. If the peasants had more land than the maximum, then it was cut off in favor of the landowner (cuts). Especially many (up to 40%) peasants lost land in the black earth provinces, where it was valuable.

In general, peasants received 20% less land than they had before the reform. This led to the economic dependence of the peasants on the landowners - the peasants rented the missing land from the landowners. A problem arose - peasants' land shortage. The allocation of land was mandatory - the landowner was obliged to give an allotment, and the peasant was obliged to take it.

Redemption operation.

Peasants had to pay for the land ransom

The peasants paid 20% of the ransom to the landowner themselves. Until this moment they were considered temporarily obliged and bore the same duties in favor of the landowner - corvee and quitrent, their size could not be increased. The peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption in 1881.

80% of the ransom for the peasants was immediately paid to the landowner by the state (5% was issued in securities and redemption certificates, which were accepted by the Treasury as payment for payments - 902 million rubles were issued, of which 316 were offset against the payment of their debts to the banks). And then the peasants had to return this money within 49 years at 6% per annum. This was treated as a long-term loan. The ransom was based not on the market value of the land, but on feudal duties. The cost of the land was estimated at 544 million rubles, and by 1907 the peasants paid 4 times more. Redemption payments were abolished in 1906.

When carrying out a redemption operation, the landowner dealt not with individual peasants, but with the community. The land was transferred not to the peasant owner, but to the community, and the community distributed it fairly. While redemption payments were being made, the peasant could not refuse the allotment and move from the village without the consent of the village assembly (it gave consent reluctantly, so they had to pay for those who left).

Thus, the peasants paid more for the land than it was actually worth.

As a result, the peasants did not receive the freedom they expected. In 1861 - 1370 peasant uprisings. Troops were used to suppress. The most dramatic events:

In the village Abyss Kazan province. Led by Anton Petrov, who interpreted the Manifesto in his own way, 91 people were killed.

In the village of Kandeevka, Penza province, 19 people died.

In 1863-65, an agrarian reform was carried out in the appanage and state villages - under more favorable conditions - larger plots and less ransom.

Historical significance of the reform.

1. after the abolition of serfdom in Russia, capitalism began to establish itself, as conditions were created for its rapid development (free labor appeared, interest in the results of labor, and the purchasing power of the population increased).

2. this reform entailed other bourgeois changes that were necessary.

3. great moral significance, since serfdom was ended

4. carried out in the interests of landowners

5. the agrarian question was not resolved, since landownership, land scarcity, and the peasant community remained.

Zemstvo reform. 1864.

Judicial reform. 1864.

It is considered the most consistent bourgeois reform.

20 November 1864 A decree on judicial reform and new judicial statutes were promulgated. They introduced common judicial institutions for all classes.

A unified judicial system was created on principles new to Russia:

All-class.

Publicity of proceedings.

Competitiveness.

Protection of the rights of defendants.

Independence of judges from the administration.

Institutions that were completely new to Russia were introduced:

-jury trial- appointed by zemstvo provincial assemblies and city dumas from among respected people on the basis of property qualifications, literacy qualifications and residence (except for priests, military personnel and public school teachers). They established innocence or guilt.

- advocacy– sworn attorneys had to defend the accused in court.

--prosecutor's office– presented evidence against the accused.

The judicial system included 4 stages:

1. magistrate's Court– simplified legal system. One judge dealt with both criminal and civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles (punishment - a fine of up to 300 rubles, arrest for up to 6 months, imprisonment for up to a year).

2. district Court- general trial with a jury. The main court within the province. His decisions were considered final.

3. court chambers- considered appeals and served as a court of first instance for political and government cases.

4. Senate- the highest court, could overturn decisions of other courts.

In addition, consistories were preserved - courts for the clergy, military courts - for the military, the Supreme Criminal Court - for members of the State Council, senators, ministers, generals, volost courts - for the peasants.

Thus, Russia received a new progressive court. During the investigation, the defects of the existing system began to be revealed (the workers who participated in the Morozov strike were released, Vera Zasulich was released)

Urban reform. 1870.

According to the reform, city dumas (legislative bodies) and city councils (executive bodies) were created under the chairmanship of the mayor. Elections were held in three electoral assemblies based on property qualifications (large taxpayers, smaller ones, everyone else). They were elected for 4 years, the head was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs.

Resolved business issues:

Urban improvement - lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, construction of embankments, bridges.

Public education and health care.

Public charity.

Care for the development of trade and industry

City taxation

Costs of maintaining the fire department, police, prisons, barracks.

By 1892, self-government had been introduced in 621 out of 707 cities.

1. - enlistment of enlisted personnel. Instead of conscription, universal military service was introduced for all classes. Men became liable for military service from the age of 20. The terms of service have changed: instead of 25 years, 6 years in the army (9 years in reserve) and 7 years in the navy (3 years in reserve). The length of service depended on education. Those who graduated from primary school served for 3 years, gymnasium – 1.5 years, university graduates – 6 months. There is an interest in getting an education.

This system made it possible to quickly increase the army and navy in case of war. The size of the army decreased, but the military potential remained. There were numerous benefits (the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner, unfitness for service due to health reasons, the clergy, the peoples of Central Asia, Kazakhstan were exempted).

2. officer training. New military schools were created - higher and non-commissioned officers, the Academy of the General Staff. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools were created. New regulations have appeared.

3. rearmament. Construction of a steam fleet is underway. New small arms and artillery are being created.

The country is divided into 15 military districts.

Results:

Due to the introduction of a new recruitment system, the size of the army decreased by 2 times, and its combat effectiveness increased.

The cost of maintaining the army has decreased.

The war of 1877–1878 already demonstrated high fighting qualities.

The meaning of bourgeois reforms:

1. accelerated the country's transition to capitalist relations.

2. made the image of power in the eyes of the people more attractive.

3. were inconsistent, retained many remnants of feudalism.

Related information.

On March 3, 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom and received the nickname “Liberator” for this. But the reform did not become popular; on the contrary, it was the cause of mass unrest and the death of the emperor.

Landowner initiative

Large feudal landowners were involved in preparing the reform. Why did they suddenly agree to compromise? At the beginning of his reign, Alexander gave a speech to the Moscow nobility, in which he voiced one simple thought: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for it to begin to be abolished from below by itself.”
His fears were not in vain. In the first quarter of the 19th century, 651 peasant unrest were registered, in the second quarter of this century - already 1089 unrest, and in the last decade (1851 - 1860) - 1010, with 852 unrest occurring in 1856-1860.

The landowners provided Alexander with more than a hundred projects for future reform. Those of them who owned estates in non-black earth provinces were ready to release the peasants and give them plots. But the state had to buy this land from them. The landowners of the black earth strip wanted to keep as much land as possible in their hands.
But the final draft of the reform was drawn up under the control of the state in a specially formed Secret Committee.

Forged will

After the abolition of serfdom, rumors spread almost immediately among the peasants that the decree read to him was a fake, and the landowners hid the real manifesto of the tsar. Where did these rumors come from? The fact is that the peasants were given “freedom,” that is, personal freedom. But they did not receive ownership of the land.
The landowner still remained the owner of the land, and the peasant was only its user. To become the full owner of the plot, the peasant had to buy it from the master.

The liberated peasant still remained tied to the land, only now he was held not by the landowner, but by the community, from which it was difficult to leave - everyone was “shackled by one chain.” For community members, for example, it was not profitable for wealthy peasants to stand out and run independent farms.

Redemptions and cuts

On what conditions did the peasants part with their slave status? The most pressing issue was, of course, the question of land. Complete dispossession of peasants was an economically unprofitable and socially dangerous measure. The entire territory of European Russia was divided into 3 stripes - non-chernozem, chernozem and steppe. In non-black earth regions, the size of the plots was larger, but in the black earth, fertile regions, landowners parted with their land very reluctantly. The peasants had to bear their previous duties - corvee and quitrent, only now this was considered payment for the land provided to them. Such peasants were called temporarily obliged.

Since 1883, all temporarily obliged peasants were obliged to buy back their plot from the landowner, and at a price much higher than the market price. The peasant was obliged to immediately pay the landowner 20% of the redemption amount, and the remaining 80% was contributed by the state. The peasants had to repay it annually over 49 years in equal redemption payments.
The distribution of land in individual estates also took place in the interests of the landowners. Allotments were fenced off by landowners from lands that were vital in the economy: forests, rivers, pastures. So the communities had to rent these lands for a high fee.

Step towards capitalism

Many modern historians write about the shortcomings of the 1861 reform. For example, Pyotr Andreevich Zayonchkovsky says that the terms of the ransom were extortionate. Soviet historians clearly agree that it was the contradictory and compromise nature of the reform that ultimately led to the revolution of 1917.
But, nevertheless, after the signing of the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, the life of peasants in Russia changed for the better. At least they stopped buying and selling them, like animals or things. Liberated peasants joined the labor market and began working in factories. This entailed the formation of new capitalist relations in the country's economy and its modernization.

And finally, the liberation of the peasants was one of the first reforms in a whole series prepared and carried out by the associates of Alexander II. Historian B.G. Litvak wrote: “... such a huge social act as the abolition of serfdom could not pass without leaving a trace for the entire state organism.” The changes affected almost all spheres of life: the economy, the socio-political sphere, local government, the army and navy.

Russia and America

It is generally accepted that the Russian Empire was a very backward state in social terms, because until the second half of the 19th century there remained the disgusting custom of selling people at auction like cattle, and the landowners did not suffer any serious punishment for the murder of their serfs. But we should not forget that at this very time, on the other side of the world, in the USA, there was a war between north and south, and one of the reasons for it was the problem of slavery. Only through a military conflict in which hundreds of thousands of people died.

Indeed, one can find many similarities between an American slave and a serf: they did not have the same control over their lives, they were sold, separated from their families; personal life was controlled.
The difference lay in the very nature of the societies that gave rise to slavery and serfdom. In Russia, serf labor was cheap, and estates were unproductive. Attaching peasants to the land was a political rather than an economic phenomenon. The plantations of the American South have always been commercial, and their main principle was economic efficiency.