FIRED STONE MATERIALS

Protection of stone materials from destruction

The main reasons for the destruction of natural stone materials in structures are: freezing of water in pores and cracks, causing internal stresses; frequent changes in temperature and humidity, causing the appearance of microcracks in the material; dissolving action of water and lowering of strength at water saturation; chemical corrosion occurring under the action of gases contained in the atmosphere (SO 2 , CO 2 , etc.) and substances dissolved in ground or sea water.

Structural protection open parts of structures (plinths, cornices, belts, pillars, parapets) are reduced to giving them a shape that facilitates water drainage. This is also facilitated by the smooth polished surface of the cladding and profiled parts.

For porous stone materials that are not polished, use chemical protection, for example, by impregnating the surface layer with sealing compounds and applying hydrophobizing (water-repellent) compounds to the front surface. Kremnefluorization(or fluatation) is used to increase the resistance of external cladding and other materials obtained from carbonate rocks. When limestone is impregnated with a solution of fluate (a salt of fluorosilicic acid), a chemical reaction occurs

2СаСО 3 + MgSiF6 = 2CaF 2 + MgF 2 + SiO 2 + 2CO 2

The resulting water-insoluble substances CaF 2 , MgF 2 and SiO 2 are deposited in the pores and compact the front layer of the stone. As a result, its water absorption decreases and frost resistance increases; stone cladding is less polluted with dust.

Non-carbonate porous stone materials are pre-treated with aqueous solutions of calcium salts (for example, CaCl 2), and then impregnated with fluates.

Hydrophobization, i.e. impregnation with hydrophobic compounds (for example, organosilicon liquids) reduces the penetration of moisture into a porous stone, in particular with capillary suction. To protect the stone from corrosion, film-forming polymeric materials are used - transparent and colored. The surface of the stone is also impregnated with monomer, followed by its polymerization.

Ceramic (from the Greek "keramos" - clay) is called artificial stone materials and products obtained by high-temperature firing of clays with mineral additives.

Classification of ceramic products. According to the structure of the shard, they distinguish: a) dense products with a sintered shard (the material that makes up ceramic products after firing is called a ceramic shard in ceramic technology) and water absorption of less than 5% (floor tiles and facade cladding, clinker bricks); b) porous products with water absorption of more than 5% (wall tiles, interior wall cladding tiles).

According to their purpose, ceramic products are distinguished: for walls (brick and ceramic stones); facade cladding (facing bricks and stones); tiles for interior wall and floor cladding; roofing (tiles); sanitary equipment (faience products); roads and underground utilities (road bricks, pipes, etc.); thermal insulation (light brick, shaped products); acid-resistant products (brick, tiles, pipes, etc.); refractories; aggregates for lightweight concrete (claydite, agloporite).

Raw materials for the production of ceramic products. The main raw material for the production of building ceramic products is clay raw materials, used in pure form, and more often in a mixture with additives - thinning, plasticizing, pore-forming, fluxes, etc.

The main properties of clays as raw materials for the production of ceramics: plasticity and cohesiveness of clay dough, the ability to harden when dried and go into an irreversible stone-like state when fired.

Plastic clay is provided by the content of lamellar clay particles in them with a size of 0.005 mm or less. The presence between these particles of thin layers of water due to the action of molecular and capillary forces ensures the connectivity of the particles and their ability to slide relative to each other without loss of connectivity.

When dried, clay dough loses water and shrinks in volume. This process is called air shrinkage(2-12% by volume). In this case, the clay hardens, but when water is added, it again goes into a plastic state. When fired at a temperature of about 1000 ° C, the ceramic mass irrevocably loses its plastic properties and, due to the formation of new minerals, acquires a stone-like state, water resistance and strength. At the same time, further compaction and shrinkage of the material occurs, which is called fire shrinkage(2-8%). The ability of clays to compact during firing and form a stone-like shard is called clay sintering. Depending on the firing temperature, a porous (about 1000 °C) or sintered (more than 1100 °C) shard is obtained.

The main types of ceramic products- these are wall products, facing materials and products, ceramic materials and products for special purposes.

Wall products. The group of wall ceramic materials includes bricks (single, thickened, modular sizes) and stones produced by semi-dry pressing or plastic molding, as well as large-sized blocks and panels. Single ceramic brick has the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with smooth edges, straight edges and corners with dimensions of 250´120´65 mm; thickened - dimensions 250´120´88 mm. Brick can be produced solid (without voids and with technological voids in the amount of not more than 13%) and hollow (with a vertical or horizontal arrangement of voids), and stones - only hollow. The density of bricks and stones, depending on the presence and number of voids, ranges from 1400 to
1900 kg / m 3, thermal conductivity - from 0.4 to 0.8 W / (m × ºС). According to these indicators, hollow bricks and stones, as well as porous-hollow bricks (burnable additives are introduced into the composition of the ceramic mass) belong to the group of effective wall ceramic products. Moreover, these types of bricks and stones are divided into conditionally effective, which improve the thermal properties of walls, and effective, which allow to significantly reduce the thickness of the walls.

Brand of stones strength determined depending on the values ​​of the compressive strength, and for brick - and taking into account the flexural strength. Grades for the strength of solid bricks, as well as hollow bricks and stones with a vertical arrangement of voids - 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250 and 300, and with horizontal voids - 25, 35, 50, 100. Grades of brick and stones by frost resistance – F 15, F 25, F 35, F 50. Water absorption should not be less than 8% for solid bricks, and less than 6% for hollow products. Weight bricks in the dried state should not be more than 4.3 kg, stones - no more than 16 kg.

These products are used for laying external and internal walls, laying foundations (made of solid bricks).

Facing materials and products. Distinguish: facade cladding products - brick and ceramic facial stones (they are laid in the wall of the building in dressing with ordinary ones, they differ from the latter in increased physical and mechanical properties and improved appearance); ceramic products for interior cladding - tiles for interior wall cladding (used in bathrooms, kitchens, baths, laundries, metro stations, etc.); floor tiles. The value of the main, in addition to size and appearance normalized indicator for ceramic tiles - water absorption- is important when choosing a material for facing rooms with a wet regime and floor tiles. Under normal operating conditions (indoors), this parameter does not have a noticeable effect on the consumer properties of ceramic tiles. A completely different situation develops when using tiles outdoors: frost resistance ceramic products directly depends on water absorption. It is considered that tiles with a water absorption of less than 3% are suitable for outdoor use (porch, balcony, etc.) or in unheated rooms. Ceramic tiles to improve appearance and create additional protection cover glaze.

Ceramic granite belongs to the same class of finishing materials as ceramic tiles, but differs from it in increased mechanical characteristics (strength, hardness and wear resistance), as well as a texture that imitates natural stone. This set of properties is achieved as a result of the use of a mixture of clays and mineral additives, similar in composition to the porcelain mass. Tiles molded from this mixture under high (up to 50 MPa) pressure are subjected to high-temperature firing (over 1200 °C), which leads to sintering of the mass and provides an extremely hard and dense shard, practically devoid of pores and voids. This allows you to do without applying a protective layer of glaze to the surface of the tile.

Ceramic tiles and porcelain stoneware are produced in sizes: from 15´15 to 40´40 and 30´60 cm. The thickness of facing tiles is usually 5; 6 mm; floor tiles and porcelain stoneware - 8.5; 12; 15 mm.

Ceramic materials and products for special purposes. They produce bricks and ceramic stones for laying and lining industrial chimneys and furnaces; trapezoidal stones for underground collectors; road clinker bricks for paving streets and roads, floors, embankment cladding, etc.; clay tiles - the oldest type of roofing materials; ceramic pipes: sewer (with a dense shard) and drainage (with a porous shard); heat-insulating ceramic products - cellular ceramics, expanded clay; refractory materials (made in the form of bricks, blocks, slabs from various raw materials using a technology close to ceramic).

Ceramic vases, pots, tea sets, candlesticks, plates, whistles and even musical instruments - all this can be created independently.

To learn how to make ceramics with your own hands, the main thing is desire. Before becoming a ceramist, try to mold the simplest knick-knack out of clay, and you will understand whether it is worth spending money on buying equipment for work. If something didn’t work out, it doesn’t matter, soak the marriage and make a new figure out of it, before baking, the product can be modified endlessly.

What is ceramics made of and where to get materials for work

Ceramics is fired clay, which is the main material in the work of a ceramist. Unlike, natural is of natural origin, it is mined from the bowels of the earth without subjecting it to chemical and other types of processing.

Experienced craftsmen, in order to save money, extract and prepare raw materials on their own. This process includes several stages and hardly deserves attention if you are just starting out and living in the city.

Clay for the manufacture of ceramics must be oily and free of pebbles and other debris, otherwise the craft will crack during the baking process. The finished mass is stored under certain humidity conditions.

Natural clay is different types:

• White - the most common, initially has a grayish tint, and after heat treatment it acquires a pleasant shade of ivory.
• Red - contains iron oxide, which gives the raw material a greenish tone. The main color of the raw material is brown, after firing the products become red. It lends itself well to modeling, does not crumble, ideal for sculptures and large items.
• Porcelain is gray when raw and white when baked.
• Blue - more often used in cosmetology and traditional medicine.
• Black or dark brown ceramic body - the hardest clay, acquiring an ivory hue after kilning.

Also clays for ceramics classified by temperature processing into low-melting, medium-melting, refractory.

It is most convenient to buy ready-made pottery clay, focusing on the fraction size, color after firing at different temperatures, and other characteristics and quality indicators. The cost depends on the manufacturer, packaging, texture. There are ready-made masses with additives for investing in various tasks - modeling, molding, potter's wheel.

In addition to clay, glazes and enamels are needed to cover products, pigments to give hand-made ceramics the desired shade, special additives to improve properties and heat treatment.

Used to glue parts slip mass- a kind of glue made from diluted clay. If you simply connect the elements, they can fall off when heated. All this is sold in specialized stores for ceramists.

Methods for the manufacture of ceramic products

There are several ways to turn the clay mass into a beautiful ceramic product.

modeling- the most affordable way to make ceramic products with your own hands at home. Souvenirs, sculptures, dishes, toys or other crafts are molded by hand, as if from plasticine, helping themselves with special stacks or improvised devices.

Pottery requires a rotating circle. With the help of this ancient craft, even today they create vases, jugs, pots, plates, cups.

warm-up- the easiest option for making ceramics for beginners. In the work, a plaster mold is used, in which soft clay is laid out, and after hardening, a figured product is removed. Gypsum molds are attractive because they absorb excess moisture, helping the clay product to harden and dry.

Casting- here they also use forms, but of a different plan. Diluted clay is poured into molds, blanks are dried, removed and painted.

Clay crafts gain strength only after firing - processing in pottery kilns at a temperature of 900 to 1300 degrees. Finished souvenirs are covered with acrylic paints or special vitreous glaze for ceramics. In the case of glazes, another firing is required after staining.

If you want to get a natural shade, milking is used - an unpainted baked ceramic figurine is covered with milk in several layers and baked again at lower temperatures.

Pottery kiln - types and preferences

Previously, kilns for firing ceramics were forges dug in the ground and heated exclusively with firewood. Modern pottery kilns are gas, electric and wood-burning. The latter, as a rule, are made by hand, they are suitable for use in private households. In the conditions of an apartment, it is most convenient to work with electric furnaces; for large volumes, you can choose a gas furnace.

In the metal case of such furnaces, a refractory brick or other material is hidden that retains heat and is not afraid of heating. Ventilation holes are provided to remove moisture, the process of firing ceramics is controlled by a software controller. Electric pottery kilns are not cheap. The price depends on the manufacturer, volume, power.

On sale there are models with vertical and horizontal loading and hood. According to the type of location of the heating element, pottery kilns are divided into muffle and chamber. AT muffle it is located around a container made of refractory material (muffle). In chamber heaters, the heater is located inside, which reduces heat loss and makes the equipment more economical.

If you try a little, you can make a ceramic kiln at home with your own hands, taking refractory bricks as a basis and something for the case, for example, an old washing machine.

Baking is the most important process that does not forgive mistakes. Sometimes even experienced craftsmen see a worthless marriage instead of the expected masterpiece. Products are never taken out immediately, they must cool in the oven.

How to choose a potter's wheel

Pottery wheels are needed for sculpting round objects, so this tool is not necessary to buy right away. If you are just learning ceramics, start with sculpting or punching. Circles come with manual, foot and electric control.

The most popular types of natural stone are granite, dolomite, sandstone, limestone, natural boulders.

Granite is one of the most expensive and durable materials. Its only drawback is the difficulty of processing, so it is simply not suitable for the manufacture of many decorative elements.

Dolomite also belongs to durable materials, has beautiful color shades and an unusual surface relief. This type of material is suitable for almost everything. Before using it, you should check if there are any cracks on the stone. Surfaces lined with stone, even with minor microcracks, will gradually begin to collapse under the influence of water and frost. Microcracks, as a rule, have dolomite taken from the upper horizon.

Sandstone is not inferior in strength to dolomite, but in terms of color it is more monotonous and less interesting. Therefore, it is undesirable to use it in large quantities, otherwise the composition will be monotonous. In design, it is usually diluted with other stones, such as red or pink dolomite.

Limestone is very soft to work with. Even the most intricate design can be made from it. But it is less durable and more soft, so they should not lay out the floor, limestone is not suitable for paving paths. It is also not suitable for rock gardens, as it will quickly turn into sand in an alpine hill.

Limestone, if no microcracks are found in it, is suitable for wall cladding. Despite the fact that it is quite soft, limestone structures stand untouched by time for hundreds of years.

Natural boulders are mainly used in the creation of alpine slides, the Japanese garden, as well as in the design of picturesque compositions, for retaining walls. There is a whole art of painting with stones ( rice. ten).

Rocky gardens are a decorative horizontal composition in which stones serve as a background, and plants are given appropriate places among them. Paths and terraces are paved with stones. Such gardens are decorated with fountains, waterfalls, cascades and other architectural structures in the form of arches, arbors, benches, etc. Reservoirs here are decorated with natural boulders and river pebbles. Slopes and walls are strengthened with masonry, making inserts in the form of stone bowls in which various alpine plants are planted. You can build such a garden on a personal plot with any relief.

Ceramics is called medium-sized products, pots, vases, various decorations. Translated from ancient Greek, “ceramics” means all crafts made from clay, including sculptures, household items, and even buildings. It is hard to imagine that a simple brick is the most typical ceramics. In fired form, clay is a fairly common and simple building material, it comes in various varieties. Clay is soft and pliable, you can sculpt anything from it. A thin layer of clay can be bent at a right angle.

Pottery in the garden is non-functional and functional. Non-functional ceramic items serve simply as a decoration of the site. These can be free-standing figures, such as frogs, snails, gnomes, and so on, as well as abstract elements - ceramic boulders, picturesquely placed on the site, etc.

Functional are ceramic decorations that perform some specific household function. These can be design elements of fountains, streams, which at the same time are a crane or a channel; facing of the fountain, pool, pond; lamps decorated with ceramic elements, for example in the form of sculpture; pots, vases for plants; all kinds of supporting walls, sides, finishing of stairs.

The disadvantage of ceramics is that not every ceramic thing is able to withstand the Russian climate. Therefore, before buying a product, first of all, decide whether you need ceramics on the site only for the summer period or all year round. Summer ceramic decorations are brought indoors for the winter. For ceramics, moisture is mainly destructive. Therefore, if you place the product even in a cold but dry place at the beginning of autumn, before the onset of the rainy season, where there is no danger of water getting on it, the ceramics will safely overwinter.

The durability of ceramic products depends on two factors: the ability to absorb water and resistance to freezing and thawing.

Ceramics, being a porous material, can absorb moisture. When frozen, the water remaining in the pores expands and turns into ice crystals, which occupy more space than water drops; in this case, the product is destroyed from the inside and crumbles.

Some types of ceramics are able to withstand several freeze-thaw cycles. As a rule, the manufacturer gives a guarantee for 500 freeze-thaw cycles. Taking into account that in the conditions of our country about 7 frosts occur in one winter, such ceramics will last more than 70 years, and the guarantee, accordingly, is given for this period.

The following materials are suitable for winter, divided into 3 groups:

1. Porcelain (specially fired white clay) is the best, strongest and most expensive material. It practically does not absorb water, so it does not burst during sudden temperature changes. A porcelain thing is about three times more expensive than a similar thing made of terracotta.

2. High-temperature ceramics (from any clay) can be of different types: stone mass, jasper mass, high-temperature terracotta and fireclay. It is inferior in strength and price only to porcelain. Clay is fired at high temperatures (1250–2000°C). This process is similar to the process that occurs in the mouth of a volcano, from where lava then flows out and, when cooled, turns into a stone mass. High-temperature ceramics practically does not collapse under the influence of temperatures and has almost zero water absorption, so water and frost - the main enemies of ceramics - are not dangerous to it.

3. Terracotta and fireclay (fired red clay with special impregnation). Roasting takes place at low temperatures (less than 1250 ° C), therefore, compared with the two previous types, these materials are less durable and cheaper. The usual red brick is terracotta. The material is very porous and absorbs a large amount of moisture, but also gives it away easily. Therefore, brick walls are strong enough and can withstand temperature changes for a certain period of time. In order to make terracotta and fireclay resistant to defrosting, they are impregnated with a special substance. But in a container made of impregnated material, plants do not grow well, as their roots do not have enough air. To prevent this from happening, inserts are made in terracotta products from ordinary low-temperature ceramics, which, after destruction, are replaced with a new one.

Terracotta products look very beautiful on a green lawn. Chamotte is a terracotta mass to which crumbs of baked clay are added. Initially, this material was used exclusively for the manufacture of furnaces. But artists loved him for his plasticity. If professionalism is required for modeling terracotta products, then anyone can work with fireclay.

For summer, all types of ceramics will fit, including low-temperature fireclay and terracotta without impregnation, as well as faience, the cheapest and most fragile material. Today faience is fired only at low temperatures.

Recently, mulching has become increasingly popular in garden design. Previously, it was used in connection with agrotechnical reasons, today mulch has also become an element of decor. What is mulching and why is it needed?

Mulch comes from the English word mulch and translates as "bedding in grassy formations." Today, mulching is called covering the surface of the earth with various materials in order to create favorable conditions for plant growth.

Mulching reduces the evaporation of moisture from the soil, regulates temperature, and protects the soil from destruction. When watering, water is not splashed with dirty drops in all directions, and after drying, the soil is not covered with an ugly crust with cracks. Mulch prevents weed seeds from getting into the ground and the seeds already in the soil from germinating. Mulch - such as peat, bark, sawdust, leaves, grass or finely broken twigs - is a natural material; over time, it is processed by soil microorganisms and becomes an excellent organic fertilizer for the plants themselves. And most importantly, ornamental plants look great against the background of mulch; it becomes a kind of design element and looks much better compared to bare, unplanted land.

In the wild, all herbaceous plants are naturally mulched: in the forest, this is fallen leaves, needles, in open areas - last year's turf. In nature, you will not find open, unoccupied plots of land. It can be covered not only with organic material, but also with stones and sand. On the site, the mulch also does not have to be organic.

Inorganic mulch should look beautiful. Film or materials such as lutrasil or geotextiles, used mainly in industrial crop production, in nurseries for growing vegetable crops, are not suitable as it.

Mulch made from artificial materials has its pros and cons compared to organic. It is not processed by the microflora of the soil and therefore constantly retains its original volume, does not serve as a shelter for harmful insects and slugs. With excessive moisture, it does not become moldy, unlike natural mulch. It looks very aesthetically pleasing and modern and is able to decorate any, even the most inconspicuous corner.

Mulch does not accumulate moisture, as it has a porous system. It is difficult to completely remove it from the soil when reorganizing the site. Inorganic mulch is not sold everywhere and not always. What type of mulch you choose for your site is up to you.

The first ceramic products appeared long before people learned how to smelt metal. Ancient pots and jugs that archaeologists find to this day are proof of this. It is worth noting that the ceramic material has unique properties that make it simply indispensable in some areas. Let's take a look at the features of ceramics with you, talk about its production and characteristics.

General information

Get ceramic products by sintering clay and mixtures with organic additives. Sometimes oxides of inorganic compounds are used. The first such products appeared 5,000 years ago. During this time, the production technology has improved significantly, and today high-strength ceramic products are available to us. They are used in construction for facade cladding, floors, walls, etc.

There are ceramic products with a dense and porous shard. The key difference between the two is that the dense shard is waterproof. These are porcelain products, floor tiles, etc. Porous shard - tiles, drainage pipes and more.

History of occurrence

The word "ceramics" in Greek means "clay". Naturally, some kind of mixture was used to make any product. The necessary materials were added to it, depending on what needed to be obtained in the end. At first, by hand, and somewhat later on a special machine, a special shape was given to a clay product. Subsequently, ceramic products are fired in kilns at high temperatures.

Many countries used their own. This applies to pottery masses, painting and glazing. Egypt is considered the first state that has achieved significant development of this industry. It was the production of ceramics there that was established in the first place. Products were made of rough and poorly mixed clay, but later the technology improved. Today, yellow clay bricks are found that were allegedly used in the construction of the pyramids of Memphis.

The advent of porcelain

For a long time in China they used such material as jade. It was beautiful, but rather fragile and difficult to handle. After many years of searching, a solution was found. Porcelain is easier to manufacture. However, even here there were nuances. For example, mica and tsvaoka, which were found in "porcelain stones", were ground into a fine powder and stored for more than 10 years. This was done in order to make the material as flexible as possible. The first porcelain items in China were tall and elongated vessels. They had a polished surface and a blue or dark green color. The latter were the most valued.

Today it is believed that China is the state where porcelain was most widely distributed. This is true, although it was also popular in Europe, but it appeared there later, and its production developed longer.

Main types of ceramics

Currently, clay products have a wide classification. So, pottery objects can be divided into two main groups:

• unglazed ceramics (terracotta and pottery);
• glazed (majolica, chamotte).

Terracotta is Italian for "baked earth". Products are made of colored clay and have a porous structure. Terracotta is used to make vases, dishes, as well as toys and tiles.

Pottery, on the other hand, is more difficult to process. In order to make it waterproof, polishing is necessary. Further, the product is subjected to staining. To do this, it is left in a hot oven in smoke until it cools completely. Today, many types of ceramics, in particular pottery, are extremely popular. It is used in everyday life for storing milk, bulk materials or as a decor.

As for the second type - glazed ceramics, porcelain and faience are the most popular here. The first is more expensive and labor-intensive in production, the second is practical and cheap. They differ from each other in that porcelain products contain less clay and more special additives. In addition, porcelain is translucent in the light, unlike earthenware.

About refractories

Products made from clay mixtures are refractory. Depending on the purpose, they can withstand temperatures from 1,300 to 2,000 degrees Celsius, and even higher. A special kiln for firing ceramics is used. are mostly used in the metallurgical process. There they are used to design blast furnaces and units.

It is quite logical to say that with increasing temperature, the strength of the refractory is not lost, but, on the contrary, increases. This is achieved due to the presence of refractory oxides, silicates and borides in the composition. They are used almost everywhere where high-temperature processes take place. Very often they are found molded, that is, in the form of a specific product, for example, a brick. Rarely, it is necessary to use unshaped refractories in powder form.

Ceramics in construction

The same applies to ceramic tiles, which, despite the appearance of polymers, are not losing ground. It is still used for equipping rooms with high humidity and temperature. Expanded clay occupies the first place among facing materials.

Over the past few years, the production of hollow ceramic blocks and bricks has increased by 4%. Their production requires minimal changes in brick plants and factories, while the costs pay off in the first year of sales. Abroad, hollow ceramics has long taken a leading position and is sold much better than ordinary bricks.

Special ceramic materials

These products include sanitary and sewer pipes. The first are divided into three large groups:

• from hard faience (porous shard);
• sanitary porcelain (sintered shard);
• semi-porcelain (half-baked shard).

The main requirements put forward for sanitary ware are resistance to mechanical damage, heat resistance. The recipe must be followed in strict order, the same applies to technology. Only professional and high quality raw materials are used. Sanitary products include sinks, toilet bowls, bathtubs, radiators, etc. A sure way to check the quality of a product is to lightly tap on the case. The sound should be clear and free of rattles. This indicates firing at the correct temperature and no cracks.

As for the sewer pipes, they must have a dense sintered shard. are issued with a diameter of 150-600 mm. Usually glazed both inside and out. Such products are characterized by high resistance to aggressive environments and stray electric current. They are moderately priced, making them more affordable.

Physical and chemical properties of ceramics

As noted above, all products can be divided into two broad groups: dense and porous. Dense have a water absorption coefficient of less than 5%, porous - 5% or more. The last group includes the following products: clay bricks (porous and hollow), hollow facing tiles, roof tiles. Dense ceramic products - road bricks and floor tiles. In the sanitary industry, both porous and dense ceramics are found.

Speaking about the physicochemical properties, it is impossible not to note the key disadvantage of ceramics. It consists in increased fragility compared to other materials. Nevertheless, high availability and versatility make this material one of the most popular in many industries and even in everyday life. Modern technologies make it possible to obtain a smooth surface immediately after firing. If it is required to achieve a certain color, then iron or cobalt oxides are added.

Features of the microstructure

When heated, the ceramics gradually turns into a liquid state. It is distinguished by a large number of simple and complex compounds. On cooling, crystallization occurs. It manifests itself in the precipitation of pure crystals, which increase in size. When the mass hardens, a microconglomerate is formed in the structure. In it, mullite grains are cemented by a hardened mass. It is worth paying your attention that the oxygen atoms form a kind of matrix. It contains small metal atoms that are replaced in the voids between them. Consequently, ionic bonds predominate in the microstructure and somewhat less covalent bonds. Chemical stability and stability are achieved through the presence of strong and durable chemical compounds.

As noted above, the use of ceramic materials is limited. This is due to the fact that the crystals are imperfect. Crystal lattices have many defects: atomic-sized pores, deformations, etc. All this significantly impairs strength. However, there are some nuances here. For example, if the technology is observed during the manufacture of a particular type of ceramic, it is quite possible to achieve good results in strength. For this, it is extremely important to observe the temperature regime and the duration of the firing of the product.

Characteristics and properties of clay

Clay is a sedimentary rock that, regardless of composition and structure, when mixed with water, forms a plastic material. After firing - a stone-like body. Usually the mixture is dense, mostly consists of aluminosilicates. Quite often, rocks such as quartz, spar, as well as hydroxides and carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and titanium compounds are also found in clays.

Kaolins are the purest clays known today. Almost entirely composed of kaolinite. After firing, they become white. The plasticity required for processing is achieved due to the presence of fine grains of clay matter (0.005 mm) in the structure. Naturally, the more in the composition of such a substance, the higher the plasticity, and vice versa.

The main ceramic properties of clays include:

• plasticity - deformation without breaking the integrity;
• connectivity;
• air and fire shrinkage;
• fire resistance.

Today, various thinning and enriching additives are used, which allow changing the properties of the material in one direction or another. This leads to the fact that ceramic products become even more in demand and affordable.

Technological scheme of production

The characteristics of ceramic materials indicate the possibility of using clays in various industries. This led to the fact that there was a great demand, and consequently, the supply increased. Production plants in most cases work according to the same scheme:

• extraction of raw materials;
• preparation;
• shaping and drying;
• firing and release of the product.

To minimize costs, factories are usually built in the immediate vicinity of the clay deposit. Mining is carried out in an open way, that is, with an excavator. The next step is to prepare the mass. Raw materials are enriched, crushed and mixed until a homogeneous mass. The formation of the future ceramic product is carried out by wet and dry methods. In the first case, the mass is moistened up to 25%, and in the second - no more than 12%.

Previously, natural drying was often used. However, the result depended largely on the weather. Therefore, in rain or cold, the plant stands still. Therefore, special dryers (gas) are used. The most critical step is firing. It is extremely important to comply with the technology, which is quite complex. Much also depends on the cooling of the ceramics. A sharp temperature drop is not allowed, which can lead to a curvature of the plane. Only then can you sell ceramic materials. The production technology, as you can see, is not simple, it consists of several stages. Each of them must be followed. If this does not happen, then on the shelves of the store we can meet marriage.

A little about the disadvantages of ceramics

As already mentioned, the composition of ceramic materials is imperfect. In particular, this affects the strength of the clay product. Any mechanical damage can manifest itself as a chip, crack, etc. This is the key disadvantage. But there are other factors that hinder the widespread dissemination of the material we are considering. One of them is high cost. For example, ceramic tiles for the roof of a country house are an excellent solution from an aesthetic point of view, but such a pleasure will be very expensive.

At the same time, its appearance will last no more than 5 years with proper care. In the future, fading occurs, the appearance of moss on the surface, etc. Along with this, fragility and brittleness lead to the fact that any mechanical damage can lead to leakage of the roof, and few people will like it. Of course, modern ceramic material looks very impressive, which is achieved due to the wide texture of colors and high quality workmanship. But it is still expensive, which often makes you think about the appropriateness of such a choice.

Summing up

We have considered the basic properties of ceramic materials. Based on all of the above, we can conclude that such products have some uniqueness. It lies in the fact that in the absence of mechanical damage, they will last a very, very long time. In addition, ceramic material for casting liquid metal in factories is also indispensable, because it can withstand high temperatures.

As for everyday life, ceramics are very useful here. Special dishes for cooking in the oven, although they have changed their appearance over the years, are still made from this material. Porcelain, despite its high cost, has an elegant look and is simply pleasing to the eye. This also applies to faience, which, if properly executed, is difficult to distinguish from porcelain.

In any case, a ceramic material must be used. This is primarily due to the large reserves of natural clay. There is really a lot of it, and every year more and more new quarries for the extraction of this natural resource are being developed. The second important factor is environmental friendliness. Previously, people did not have the opportunity to use any harmful additives to improve the strength characteristics of the product. Today the situation has changed, albeit not too critically. Ceramic tiles, unlike synthetic materials, are not harmful to health. This also applies to ceramic dishes, which, compared to plastic, especially if the latter is heated, do no harm at all.

It is an alloy of siliceous sand and other components with additives of coloring oxides. As a result of the remelting of quartz sand, feldspar, soda with metal oxides at a temperature of 1400°C - 1600°C, a homogeneous mass is obtained, which is molded by injection molding at a temperature of 1000°C. The manufacturing technology of glass mosaic is such that it becomes much stronger than glass, although the chemical composition is exactly the same. This happens for two reasons:

1. after pouring the glass mass into molds, it is subjected to high-temperature firing up to 800ºС,
2. the minimum module size is 2x2 cm.

To avoid cracks caused by thermal stresses, the molded mosaic is fired in the so-called tunnel kilns, where it is cooled to room temperature, moving along the conveyor at a constant speed.

Glass mosaic has a wide range of applications: walls and floors in kitchens, swimming pools, bathrooms, as well as furniture surfaces, fireplaces, building facades. The richness of the color palette provides ample opportunities for creating decorative panels, patterns and ornaments.

Now glass is the most affordable facing material of all types of mosaics. It is glass that has the largest number of advantages over other materials:

• high strength;
• chemical resistance - resistant to chemicals and many inorganic and organic acids found in most detergents;
• zero water absorption, so this mosaic can be used in rooms with any humidity and pool bowls;
• excellent heat resistance, resistance to temperature extremes (from + 15ºС to +145 ºС), which allows the use of mosaics for facing the fireplace from the outside (but not from the inside, where the temperature can be much higher);
• frost resistance (the ability to withstand at least 100 cycles of transition from sub-zero temperatures (-30 ºС) to positive ones without loss of quality), therefore, the mosaic is suitable for facing outdoor freezing pools in which water is left for the winter, and external walls;
• resistance to ultraviolet radiation - the colors of the product do not fade under prolonged exposure to light.
• low slip. This means that a person will be able to hold on even on a wet inclined plane lined with mosaics.
• a choice of 3000 colors and an unlimited number of their combinations.

ceramic mosaic

Ceramic mosaic is made from pieces of ceramic tiles of different shades of a huge range of colors, which allows you to create almost any pattern. Ceramic material for mosaic tiles is obtained from a mixture containing kaolin or clay. Also, various additives in the form of chamotte, quartz flour and flux are added to this mixture, which accelerate the sintering of water-insoluble materials. Thus, ceramic mosaic is an environmentally friendly and safe material. The surface of the mosaic is covered with glaze, which can result in both a smooth (polished) surface and a matte (rough) one, which can contain all kinds of “special effects” - craquelures (small cracks on the surface), stains, blotches of a different color, imitations of an uneven surface.

The surface lined with ceramic mosaics will be more embossed than those finished with glass. Mosaic elements can have many shapes: square, rectangle, circle, pebble shape. Such a variety of forms allows designers to embody any, even the most unusual and bold idea in the interior.

Ceramic mosaic is stronger than glass, which is combined with resistance to abrasive wear and an original appearance. It is suitable for cladding various surfaces, including swimming pools, building facades, walls and floors of bathrooms, kitchens.

Ceramic mosaic has a number of advantages:

• This is a high strength material. A properly laid mosaic panel can withstand a weight that will be 20 times more than concrete or cement can withstand.
• High fire resistance and fire resistance. Ceramic mosaic does not burn and protects the lined surface from fire. In addition, when heated, it does not emit harmful substances. All this makes it a suitable material for lining stoves and fireplaces.
• Water resistance. This property of ceramic mosaic allows it to be used in rooms with high humidity or constant contact with water.
• Wear resistance. Therefore, ceramic mosaic is used for facing floors and stairs.
• Ceramic mosaic does not fade in the sun.
• Resistant to aggressive environments, chemicals.
• It is known that microbes cannot exist on a ceramic mosaic for a long time.

Ceramic mosaic goes well with many other decoration materials. Looks especially good with porcelain stoneware and ceramic tiles. A ceramic mosaic panel will give a magnificent look to any room.

stone mosaic

Stone mosaics are made from a variety of stone types, ranging from onyx, jasper, tuff, amethyst, lapis lazuli to slate, travertine, serpentine, malachite, etc. The color of natural material is unique, the play of structures is unusual, so each mosaic image is unique. The stone can be left polished, polished, or it can be “aged” - then the color will be more muted and the edges smoother.

Elements of very different shapes are produced - from round to irregular. This is an almost ideal material for finishing the facades of houses, interiors of offices, shops, bars, restaurants. The natural origin of stone, durability, beauty, variety of forms - allow it to be extremely widely used in landscape design (paths, platforms, retaining walls, curbs, garden benches are made). Often used sea, river, lake pebbles, as well as various boulders.

Natural stone is always exclusive, as it has the energy of nature. Natural stone is used in the decoration of walls and floors, the manufacture of fireplaces, columns, countertops, mirror frames, vases, candlesticks, ornaments and sculptures, window sills, cornices, skirting boards, railings, coffee tables, bar counters. An excellent addition to the interior can be a picturesque mosaic made of natural stone, embodying story paintings, landscapes or still lifes.

marble mosaic

Marble is a crystalline rock formed as a result of recrystallization of limestone or dolomite. The color and pattern of marble depend on the combination of rocks and the direction of sawing the stone.

Marble mosaic can be used for interior decoration of the floor and walls in the room. It will help to create a unique coziness with smooth overflows of warm tones of polished stone and, better than any other interior details, will emphasize the refined taste of the owner. Or it can be used to decorate exterior walls, creating unique façade designs that can help make your home or office stand out from the gray buildings. The use of marble mosaic always gives the interior a touch of stability, constancy, solidity. A wide range of color shades of marble allows you to create a variety of compositions based on the selection of materials similar in color and tone.

Mosaic made of artificial stone

Artificial stone is a unique material based on acrylic resins, made from environmentally friendly materials. Its coloring imitates the original structure of natural minerals. Artificial stone is a reliable material that is protected from temperature extremes, moisture and ultraviolet radiation. Mosaic made of acrylic stone is a rhythmic pattern, which at the same time resembles the surface of a stone box, and a colored stained-glass window, and a complex woven pattern, as if woven from many shreds. During production, particles of natural minerals are added to the artificial stone, due to which such materials have a truly unique structure, which is original for each element of the mosaic. Products made of such acrylic stone, in the depths of which play solar modulations, retain an excellent appearance for many years.

metal mosaic

Metal mosaic can be steel or golden color, depending on the metal used in the production. The manufacturing technology of such a mosaic varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. Most often, not clay tiles are used as a substrate, but rubber plates up to 4 mm thick. A metal steel layer is attached to them from above. Due to the elastic rubber backing, metal mosaic elements are more flexible than those made of ceramic or glass, which greatly expands the range of applications for such a mosaic for facing surfaces of complex shapes. In addition to standard, square, elements of a different shape with different textured surfaces are offered. Oval, hexagonal, rectangular, diamond-shaped and square elements allow you to lay out an intricate carpet on the wall or on the floor.

The surface is made polished, matte, with notches of various types and, finally, covered with a thin layer of brass or bronze. For decorating bathrooms, showers and pools, a special series of metal mosaics is produced, in which stainless steel is used. To give the surface of the elements of a metal mosaic of various shades, bronze or brass is applied to it, however, such a mosaic is not recommended to be placed on the floor, as it is highly susceptible to abrasion.

Mosaic of precious metals

Golden mosaic is an indisputable sign of luxury. It consists of 585-carat gold foil sandwiched between thin plates of special glass. There are collections with yellow, white gold or platinum.

Production is completely manual. The golden mosaic is made in a handicraft way using the most ancient technology. Production begins with the traditional blowing of very thin transparent glass vessels (0.2-1 mm thick). The large "bubble" thus obtained is called soffione. This glass is cut into squares about 10x10 cm in size. Such golden mosaic plates are called "cartelline". A metal sheet of yellow or white gold is placed on a thin plate of the cartelline gold mosaic. A sheet is a thin foil obtained by beating metal by hand. A hot mass of thicker glass is poured onto a thin plate with foil. Thus, both glass layers are tightly connected and form a golden "pancake". After that, the golden "pancakes" are sent to the kiln for hardening.

A thin piece of glass can be colored, a thick plate of gold mosaic can be green, blue or transparent (crystal base). Cutting into cubes of gold mosaic is carried out manually. Obviously, the price of such material is considerable. Therefore, most often the golden mosaic is used individually, making inserts. Gold mosaic can be used for both walls and floors.