What is the famous Cenozoic era. Quaternary period, or anthropogen (2.6 million years ago - to the present). Subsections of the anthropogen, geological changes, climate

The Cenozoic era is the last known to date. This is a new period of life on Earth, which began 67 million years ago and continues to this day.

In the Cenozoic, the transgressions of the sea ceased, the water level rose and stabilized. Modern mountain systems and relief were formed. Animals and plants acquired modern features and spread everywhere on all continents.

The Cenozoic era is divided into the following periods:

• Paleogene;
• Neogene;
• anthropogenic.

Geological changes

At the beginning of the Paleogene period, Cenozoic folding began, that is, the formation of new mountain systems, landscapes, and reliefs. Tectonic processes took place intensively within the Pacific Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

Mountain systems of Cenozoic folding:

1. Andes (in South America);
2. Alps (Europe);
3. Caucasus mountains;
4. Carpathians;
5. Median Ridge (Asia);
6. Partial Himalayas;
7. Mountains of the Cordillera.

As a result of global movements of vertical and horizontal lithospheric plates, they have acquired a form corresponding to the current continents and oceans.

The climate of the Cenozoic era

Weather conditions were favorable, warm climate with periodic rains contributed to the development of life on Earth. In comparison with modern average annual indicators, the temperature of those times was 9 degrees higher. In a hot climate, crocodiles, lizards, turtles adapted to life, which were protected from the scorching sun by developed outer covers.

At the end of the Paleogene period, a gradual decrease in temperature was observed, due to a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmospheric air, an increase in land area due to a drop in sea level. This led to glaciation in Antarctica, starting from the mountain peaks, gradually the entire territory was covered with ice.

Animal world of the Cenozoic era

At the beginning of the era, cloacal, marsupials and the first placental mammals were widespread. They could easily adapt to changes in the external environment and quickly occupied both the water and air environment.

Bony fish settled in the seas and rivers, birds expanded their habitat. New species of foraminifera, mollusks, and echinoderms have formed.

The development of life in the Cenozoic era was not a monotonous process, temperature fluctuations, periods of severe frosts led to the extinction of many species. For example, mammoths, who lived during the glaciation period, could not survive to our times.

Paleogene

In the Cenozoic era, insects made a significant leap in evolution. While developing new areas, they experienced a number of adaptive changes:

• Received a variety of colors, sizes and body shapes;
• received modified limbs;
• species with complete and incomplete metamorphosis appeared.

Huge mammals lived on land. For example, a hornless rhinoceros is an indricotherium. They reached a height of about 5m, and a length of 8m. These are herbivores with massive three-toed limbs, a long neck and a small head - the largest of all mammals that have ever lived on land.

At the beginning of the Cenozoic era, insectivorous animals split into two groups and evolved in two different directions. One group began to lead a predatory lifestyle and became the ancestor of modern predators. The other part fed on plants and gave rise to ungulates.

Life in the Cenozoic in South America and Australia had its own characteristics. These continents were the first to separate from the Gondwana continent, so the evolution here was different. For a long time, the mainland was inhabited by primitive mammals: marsupials and monotremes.

Neogene

In the Neogene period, the first anthropoid apes appeared. After a cold snap and a decrease in forests, some died out, and some adapted to life in an open area. Soon primates evolved to primitive people. This is how it started Anthropogenic period.

The development of the human race was rapid. People begin to use tools to get food, create primitive weapons to protect themselves from predators, build huts, grow plants, tame animals.

The Neogene period of the Cenozoic was favorable for the development of oceanic animals. Especially quickly began to multiply cephalopods - cuttlefish, octopuses, which have survived to this day. Remains of oysters and scallops were found among bivalves. Everywhere there were small crustaceans and echinoderms, sea urchins.

The flora of the Cenozoic era

In the Cenozoic, the dominant place among plants was occupied by angiosperms, the number of species of which increased significantly in the Paleogene and Neogene periods. The spread of angiosperms was of great importance in the evolution of mammals. Primates might not appear at all, since flowering plants serve as the main food for them: fruits, berries.

Conifers developed, but their numbers decreased significantly. The hot climate contributed to the spread of plants in the northern regions. Even beyond the Arctic Circle there were plants from the Magnolia and Beech families.

On the territory of Europe and Asia, camphor cinnamon, figs, plane trees and other plants grew. In the middle of the era, the climate changes, colds come, displacing plants to the south. The center of Europe with a warm and humid environment has become a great place for deciduous forests. Representatives of plants from the Beech (chestnuts, oaks) and Birch (hornbeam, alder, hazel) families grew here. Coniferous forests with pines and yews grew closer to the north.

After the establishment of stable climatic zones, with lower temperatures and periodically changing seasons, the flora has undergone significant changes. Evergreen tropical plants have been replaced by species with falling leaves. In a separate group among the monocots, the Cereal family stood out.

Huge territories were occupied by steppe and forest-steppe zones, the number of forests was sharply reduced, and herbaceous plants mainly developed.

Cenozoic era divided into two periods: Tertiary and Quaternary, which continues to this day. It is believed that the Quaternary period began 500-600 thousand years ago.

At the end of the Tertiary period, an event of the greatest importance took place: the first ape-men appeared on Earth.

Small warm-blooded animals of the Cretaceous period came out victorious in the struggle for life, and their descendants already at the beginning of the Tertiary period occupied a dominant position on Earth. Some of the warm-blooded animals reached enormous sizes. Such, for example, are arsinotherium, titanotherium, massive, clumsy six-horned dinoceras and huge hornless ancestors of rhinos - indricotherium - the largest land mammals that have ever existed.

At the same time, the ancestors of our elephants and small, slightly larger than cats, graceful eogippuses appeared - the ancestors of our horses, which had four fingers on the front and three on the hind legs, equipped with hooves.

The climate of the first half of the Tertiary period in Europe and Asia was still warm; in the forests inhabited by many different animals, palm trees, myrtle trees, yews and giant conifers - sequoias grew.

Among the climbing, "arboreal" animals, we already find the first great apes - amphipithecus and propliopithecus. These were small animals 30-35 centimeters long (not counting the tail). In development, they have gone far from their insectivorous ancestors of the Cretaceous period. However, it took another 35 million years for the first humans to appear, the distant descendants of the Amphipithecus and Propliopithecine.

Particularly significant events in the history of the Earth occurred over the past 18-20 million years, in the second half of the Tertiary period - in the eras that were called the Miocene and Pliocene.

By this time, the number of tropical plants had noticeably decreased in the forests of Western Europe, and trees with leaves falling in winter began to be encountered quite often, but the winters were still very warm. Even in the present northern regions of the USSR it was so warm that, for example, near Tobolsk and even to the north of it, walnuts, maples, ash trees and hornbeams grew.

Among the animals, bears, hyenas, wolves, martens, badgers, and wild boars have already appeared, very similar to modern ones. Of the large mammals, the ancestors of the present elephants lived - mastodons, dinoteria, which had two tusks, like two blades bent down, protruding from the lower jaw, giraffes, rhinos. Many monkeys lived on the trees, and among them were anthropoids - driopithecus, which often descended from the trees and went out to the edges of the forests in search of food. Real birds appeared, and among insects - butterflies and stinging insects. The seas and rivers abounded with animals already largely similar to modern ones.

In the last 6-7 million years, which cover the Pliocene epoch, all the direct ancestors of modern animals appeared.

Gradually, the climate in the northern parts of the Earth became colder. Among the animals, numerous three-toed ancestors of our horse appeared - hipparions, and then real horses. Gradually, mastodons disappeared almost everywhere, and huge flat-headed elephants took their place. Wild camels, a variety of antelopes and deer, saber-toothed tigers and other predators, and of the birds - ostriches, which inhabited at that time the present Azov region, Kuban, and the Crimean coast, became common.

Among the many different species of great apes, australopithecines (which means southern monkeys) appeared, which already spent most of their lives on the ground, and not in trees. Their descendants gradually finally descended to earth and turned into ape-men - Pithecanthropes. Their remains were found on the island of Java. They were already very human-like creatures. There is reason to believe that they used stones and wood as a means of hunting animals; but whether they were familiar with the use of fire is unknown. A little more than a million years separate us from them. During this million years, and according to the calculations of some scientists, even within 600 thousand years, the Earth finally took on its modern form and the first people appeared on it. This is the period in the history of the earth in which we live; it is called Quaternary, or anthropogenic (from the Greek words "anthropos" - a person and "genos" - a kind, birth, i.e., the period of a person's birth).

At the beginning of the Quaternary it was still relatively warm. The animal world was quite different from the modern one. The so-called ancient and southern elephants, Merck's rhinos, wild camels and large horses, various antelopes and deer, trogontheria living in holes, like our marmots, but similar in appearance and size to beavers, huge broad-browed elks were widespread at that time. , and of the birds common in Europe and Asia were ostriches, now surviving only in Africa and South America. But the most outlandish beast in Europe and Asia at that time was the elasmotherium. This animal, the size of a large horse, resembled a rhinoceros, only it had a huge horn on its forehead, and not on its nose. The neck of an elasmotherium was about a meter thick. Some tertiary animals lived out their lives in warm countries (Africa, South America, New Zealand, Australia and Western Europe): saber-toothed tigers, mastodons, hipparions, various marsupials (in Australia) and others.

But millennia passed, the climate approached the modern one, and with it the animal and plant world became more and more similar to the modern one. However, even at the end of the Quaternary period, probably already at the very beginning of the Great Glaciation, the differences in climate and fauna compared to the current situation were still significant.

Imagine that we are in the vicinity of Moscow 100 thousand years ago. After a hot day, the evening coolness blew. On the water meadows of the prehistoric river, herds of long-horned bison and shoals of horses quietly graze; beautifully stand out on the horizon slender silhouettes of giant deer who came to drink. Their proudly raised heads are slightly thrown back under the weight of huge, elk-like horns. There are also hornless, shy females with carelessly frolicking cubs. But suddenly, with the speed of lightning, the deer disappeared, herds of horses rushed and disappeared like an avalanche, rhinos and bison became agitated, huge bulls with bloodshot eyes bowed low their shaggy heads with meter-long horns and ferociously dig the ground with their hooves. Animals noticed the approach of the most terrible predator of that time - the cave lion. Only elephants - trogontheria - slowly shaking their huge heads, remained as if calm, but they also came close to their cubs, ready to protect them at any moment.

So it was on the site of modern Moscow 80-100 thousand years ago, when the first signs of the Great Glaciation already appeared in the North.

Hundreds of bones of these animals were found during the construction of the Moscow Canal.

At that time, other now extinct animals also lived in the territory where the Soviet Union is now - wild camels, markhorned antelopes (Spirocerus), cave hyenas and bears.

Along with these animals, wolves, foxes, hares, martens and others, which differed little from modern ones, were common.

Such was the animal world in the middle of the Quaternary period, just before the beginning of the Great Ice Age of the Earth. But about 100 thousand years ago, the first glaciers shone in the mountains; they slowly began to crawl onto the plains. In place of modern Norway, an ice cap appeared, which began to spread to the sides. The advancing ice buried more and more new territories, displacing the animals and plants that lived there to other places. The icy desert arose in the vast expanses of Europe, Asia and North America. In places, the ice cover reached a thickness of two kilometers. The era of the Great glaciation of the Earth has come. The huge glacier was either shrinking somewhat, or moving south again. For quite a long time he lingered at the latitude of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kalinin. Even 14,300 years ago, as we know, the remains of it were near Leningrad.

Not all animals survived the Ice Age. Many of them could not adapt to the new living conditions and died out (Elasmotherium, wild camels). Others adapted, and as a result of gradual changes gave new species. So trogontherian elephants, for example, turned into mammoths, which became extinct at the end of the Ice Age. Many animals - bison, deer, wolverines and others - were crushed. Some of these animals (bison, giant deer, and others) died out in the post-glacial era, while the rest still live.

During the Ice Age, the most common animals were mammoths, woolly rhinoceros, and now living in the far north, arctic foxes, lemmings (pied), reindeer and others. In those days, as we already know, they lived much further south, even in the Crimea.

By the time the glacier melted, the animal and plant world had become approximately the same as it is now.

Some scientists believe that the Quaternary period had not one, but several glaciations, which were interspersed with warmer interglacial epochs.

Traces of glaciation are also known in the most ancient geological periods, but they have not yet been adequately studied everywhere.

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The Cenozoic era is the era of new life (kainos - new, zoe - life).

The Cenozoic era includes three periods: Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary.

The deposits accumulated during this time bear the corresponding names: the Tertiary system, and the Paleogene and Neogene, are called divisions.

The duration of the era is 67 million years, i.e. approximately equal to the Ordovician.

Cenozoic - the time of Alpine tectogenesis, which, according to the assumption of the Soviet geologist V.A. Obruchev, began to be called neotectonic.

Alpine tectonic movements have shaped the mountains of the Mediterranean, huge ridges and island arcs along the Pacific coast.

Significant differentiated block movements occurred in the Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic folding areas. This process was accompanied by climate change, sharply expressed in the northern hemisphere, where climatic conditions became more severe. Powerful sheet glaciers appeared in these areas.

Cenozoic deposits are rich in oil, gas, peat and building materials. Placer deposits of gold, platinum, wolframite, diamonds, etc. are associated with Quaternary deposits.

Paleogene period.

Cenozoic eta is generally represented by evergreens - tropical ferns, cypresses, myrtles, laurels, etc.

At the end of the Paleogene period, associated with a cooling of the climate, the northern border of tropical and subtropical vegetation shifted to the south, and deciduous plants such as oak, beech, birch, maple, ginkgo and conifers appeared there.

In the fauna of terrestrial vertebrates, placental mammals occupied a dominant position. In the Paleogene, the ancestors of many modern families appeared - carnivores, ungulates, proboscis, rodents, insectivores, cetaceans and primates. Archaic specialized forms (titanotheres, amblipods, and some others) also lived among these species, which died out by the end of the Paleogene without leaving descendants.

In the same period, the processes of separation of the continents took place, on the territory of which certain groups of mammals were predominantly developed. Already at the end of the Cretaceous, Australia finally became isolated, where only monotremes and marsupials developed. At the beginning of the Eocene, South America became isolated, where marsupials, edentulous and lower monkeys began to develop.

In the middle of the Eocene, North America, Africa and Eurasia became isolated. Proboscis, great apes and predators developed in Africa. In North America - tapirs, titanotheres, predators, horses, etc. Sometimes a relationship was established between the continents, and fauna was exchanged.

Of the reptiles in the Paleogene lived crocodiles, turtles and snakes - close to modern forms.

Neogene period.

This name was put into circulation in 1853 by the Australian scientist Gernes, which means “new geological situation”.

The duration of the Neogene is 25 million years. The vast majority of animals and plants of the Neogene still live on Earth today. However, in the Neogene there was a change in the spatial distribution of flora relative to the Paleogene.

Broad-leaved heat-loving forms were pushed aside to the south. By the end of the Neogene, vast expanses of Eurasia were covered with forests, in which spruce, fir, pine, cedar, birch, etc. grew.

Of the vertebrates, terrestrial mammals occupied a dominant position - ancient bears, mastodons, rhinos, dogs, antelopes, bulls, sheep, giraffes, apes, elephants, real horses, etc.

The isolation of the continents contributed to the isolation of specific forms of mammals.

Quaternary period.

The Belgian geologist J. Denoyer in 1829 singled out the youngest deposits under the name of the Quaternary system, almost everywhere overlapping ancient rocks. A.P. Pavlov proposed calling this system anthropogenic, since numerous fragments of fossil man are concentrated in it.

The duration of the Quaternary period and the stratigraphic division of this system remain debatable.

According to the evolution of the mammalian fauna, the time parameters of the Quaternary period are estimated at 1.5 - 2 million years, but paleoclimatic data force us to limit the intervals to 600 - 750 thousand years.

The division of the Quaternary system is carried out into two divisions: the lower - Pleistocene and the upper - Holocene.

A feature of the organic world of the Quaternary period is the appearance of a thinking being - a man.

The alternation in cooling and warming of the climate built a direct relationship in the advance and retreat of glaciers, which led to the movement of animals and plants, which were forced to adapt to changing conditions. Many organic forms have become extinct. Mammoths, Siberian or hairy rhinos, titanotheriums, giant deer, primitive bull, etc. have disappeared.

For the stratigraphy of Quaternary deposits, the main role is played by the bones of terrestrial animals, plant remains, and glacial deposits.

In the Quaternary, a modern soil cover and weathering crust formed, consisting of clays, sands, siltstones, pebbles, breccias, salt-bearing and gypsum-bearing rocks, loam, moloss, loess-like loams and loess. The history of the origin of the latter is not entirely clear, although geologists tend to recognize its glacial-eolian ancestry.

At the beginning of the Quaternary period, there were two large heterogeneous continents in the Northern Hemisphere - Eurasia and North America, the area of ​​​​which was larger than the current one due to higher elevation.

In the southern hemisphere there were South American, African, Australian, Antarctic continents with isolation from each other.

The Quaternary period is characterized by sharp climatic zonality. It has been established that in the history of the Earth, continental deposits occurred repeatedly in the Proterozoic, Devonian and Late Paleozoic on the territory of modern tropics. It was found that the main reason for the appearance of continental glaciations is the migration of the poles. However, this rule falls out of the Mesozoic, where no glacial manifestations were found. The climate is influenced by the position of the Earth in relation to the Sun, depends on the angle of inclination of the earth's axis, the speed of rotation and the shape of the orbit of our planet, and other reasons.

So the water surface reflects 5 times less solar energy than the land surface and 30 times less than the snow surface. Therefore, the sea softens the climate, making it softer and warmer. It has been calculated that a decrease in the average annual temperature in high latitudes by 0.3 0 C is sufficient for the appearance of a glacier. Since ice reflects solar radiation 30 times more intensely than the water surface, the temperature above the glacier that is formed in the future can drop by 25 0 C.

Climate change is also associated with solar radiation itself, because its increase leads to the formation of ozone, which delays the thermal radiation of the Earth, resulting in warming.

So, let's list the main features of the development of the organic world in the Cenozoic era.

The dominant position is occupied by angiosperms flowering higher plants. Of the gymnosperms, conifers are well represented, and of spores, ferns are well represented.

The Cenozoic era is the era of placental mammals that settled on land and adapted to life in air and water.

The ongoing changes and transformations of matter are not random, but obey certain laws, many of which have already been unraveled by humanity.

According to modern concepts, the basis for the development of the globe is the differentiation of the Earth's substance, which begins in the lower mantle. From here, heavy masses, descending, form the core of the Earth, and light ones rise and form the earth's crust and upper mantle.

Geological, geographical and geochemical data make it possible to distinguish two main types of the earth's crust: continental and oceanic. In addition to them, there are also transitional: suboceanic and subcontinental.

There is no single point of view on the origin of the oceanic crust. With greater certainty, one can only speak about the patterns of development of the continental crust, although there is still a lot of incomprehensible here.

At present, it is widely believed that the earth's crust went through several stages of development in succession: pre-geosynclinal, geosynclinal, and post-geosynclinal, which continues to this day.

The study of fossil remains of animals and plants indicates that the organic world of the Earth has continuously developed and evolved, resulting in the emergence of ever more highly organized forms of life. These changes are always associated with changes in the external environment. Academician A.I. Oparin put forward the idea, the essence of which is that the evolution of life on Earth consists of two stages: chemical and biological.

Chemical evolution in time corresponds to the lunar and nuclear stages of the Earth's development. The direction along this path of development led to the appearance of coacervates, and then protobionts.

Yes, it is assumed that biological evolution began with the Archaean. However, we cannot consider the development of representatives of organic matter as a closed system. On the contrary, the development of living organisms is inextricably linked with the development of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, with simultaneous changes in the Earth's lithospheric shell. Here one can clearly see the rigid interconnection and interdependence of these processes, where one component cannot change without other elements changing along with it. How thoroughly or correctly are these processes studied?

It is quite clear that, by studying only the productive part, which manifests itself in organic matter, it is impossible to determine the cause of the qualitative difference in the structural evolution of living organisms within one major period in relation to another, not to mention the nature of the processes that take place in the transition zones. Without studying the structural changes that take place in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and earth's crust, it is hardly possible to accurately understand the cause of the corresponding changes that manifest themselves in the field of organic life.

In the Precambrian, for almost 3 billion years, organisms lived that did not have solid skeletal formations. At first, prokaryotes appeared, and they were replaced by eukaryotes, on the basis of which all other types of plants and animals developed. About 1 billion years ago, the organic world began its development already in a multicellular variant. But, since all Precambrian organisms did not have a skeletal formation, information about the features of their development is limited and approximate.

At the beginning of the Paleozoic (570 million years ago), the first organisms with a solid skeleton appeared on Earth. According to their findings, the direction and features of the evolutionary development of biological forms are well defined, lined up.

Scientists have drawn the following conclusions: the process of evolution is continuous, because throughout the entire historical period, more and more new species, genera, families of living organisms were born.

evolution process irreversible. No species occurs twice. This feature is used in the stratigraphic division of deposits. At the same time, the process of evolution is uneven. Some species appear as a result of gradual and slow changes. The modification of others occurs under the influence of mutations - small spasmodic transformations.

The following should be taken into account here: the evolutionary process is arranged in such a way that the vast species diversity of biological beings at the lower levels of development act as independently acting organizations, while in more complex compounds they can be represented as separate structural elements or organs. Biological nature is testing a lot of options for the selection of material suitable for the production of increasingly complex compounds.

Therefore, in a historical context, the separation of one group from another can occur quickly, but intermediate forms, as a rule, are few in number and have a low probability of finding them in a fossil state. In this case, the transitional links are lost, and the geological record becomes incomplete.

So, it is believed that archaeocyates, as rock-forming organisms, disappeared in the Archean period, but then who is responsible for the formation of horn and bone structures in more complex organisms? It is more logical to assume that these organisms do not disappear, but are integrated and perform local functions in increasingly complex organic compounds.

Then a feature of the evolution of organic matter is the stages of its development, and the main direction is the improvement of life forms. In the course of evolution, the diversity of animals and plants increases, their organization becomes more complicated, adaptability and resilience increase.

But, as mentioned above, the changes that are monitored against the background of the development of organic life on Earth are a derivative of changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and structural changes in the earth's crust. Organic matter acts as a developing substance based on carbon. However, carbon itself is similar to all planetary formations, for example, the solar system, but organic life exists only on Earth. Therefore, there must be a shell around carbon, such as the atmosphere on Earth, in which the production and development of organic material is possible.

The emergence of man as a thinking being is the result of a long evolutionary development of organic matter, its highest form.

With such clarifications, it is possible to analyze the history of the development of the Earth, including organic life, on the basis of combining vast factual material obtained by many generations of researchers. Another thing is also clear - at certain moments there is always a need when it is necessary to perform an operation on a larger-scale generalization and refinement of some initial provisions. Such a need is set as a result of the advanced development of any direction in science, which leads to an inconsistency between the opportunities that accumulate and are available to each individual scientific unit.

Thus, the natural gap that arises among geologists when substantiating the features of the formation of the Earth in the initial or early Archean period can be filled by the scientific potential that quantum physics has at its disposal.

For example, by now, it is not very correct to assume that the Earth was formed as a result of condensation of gas and cosmic dust. It does not specify what specific gas (of meson or baryonic origin?) is in question. It is necessary to explain the composition and origin of dust formations. And this is already the prerogative of the sciences that study the state and features of the development of the microworld.

It is clear that geologists operate with somewhat different concepts, considering the behavior of matter in a macroobject. But, if the method of the stratigraphic approach is adopted in determining the stages of the development of the Earth, then the strict sequence of the development of matter within the microworld is no exception to this rule. It is unlikely that anyone in geology and biogeography will argue that mammals appeared before the formation of a single-celled organism.

Therefore, it is rather difficult to perceive the statement about the presence in the surrounding space of atomic compounds such as hydrogen, oxygen, carbon or other complex combinations of chemical elements of the periodic table, outside the study of the organization of matter in the meson and baryon groups of elementary particles.

This begs the question: why consider the evolution of organic compounds and how can such an approach help in the study of social processes occurring in human society?

It turns out that there is an analogy or repetition of the principles of the development of matter and consciousness. When we study all the variety of processes in the Universe in a cumulative unity, we get more accurate and complete information about the development of life forms, production activities and in individual areas.

Human activity cannot be taken outside the framework of the general process of production carried out in the Nature around us. Carefully tracking the history of the development of organic matter by era, one can obtain the richest material for a comparative analysis of the development of human society over time intervals, whether it be formations, stages or social levels, taken in the form of certain integrals, where the lower and upper boundaries are fixed on the basis of the transition from using one source of energy to another.

It is for this reason that it is necessary to consider the general evolution of matter, starting with the electron, as already having a rest mass, which should also be considered only as the substance of the “means of production” within the initial stage of the development of matter in the form of elementary particles and up to the formation of complex nucleon or atomic compounds.

Before the Earth can be formed, an evolutionary process must take place in the world of particles, which still retain the name elementary. It will be useful to review the scientific frontiers that have emerged in the field of physics.

§ 2. Composition of the microcosm. Brief review of physical theories.

It should immediately be noted that all the arguments in this section are purely phenomenological, review in nature and in no way intrude into the specialized part of physics.

For physicists, the 17th and 18th centuries passed under the sign of gravity, and the 19th century was dominated by electromagnetic forces. The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought in nuclear forces.

Since the middle of the 20th century, a completely new class of forces has come to the fore, which has led to a number of encouraging developments in modern physics. By this time, the list of elementary particles already caused alarm about their growth. Now there are more than 200 particles in this list.

Modern physics is based on the classical laws of the constancy of certain quantities, such as electric charge, for example.

The law of conservation of energy and momentum (a photon that does not have a rest mass has a momentum proportional to its energy, i.e. equal to the particle energy divided by the speed of light), introduced by H. Huygens, D. Bernoulli and I. Newton back in 17th century to describe collisions between microscopic bodies, applies equally to collisions and interactions of subatomic particles.

Conservation laws have also been discovered in the field of elementary particles. This is the law of conservation of baryon number.

baryons- this is the name that refers to heavy particles - a proton or other particles with equal or greater masses.

Stückelberg and Wigner suggested that if there is a quantum, as the smallest unit of electric charge, then there is also a "quantum" of some property of "baryonity". Such a quantum (single baryon number) carries a proton, which is the lightest particle carrying this quantity, guarantees it from decay. All other heavier particles with the ability to decay into a proton (lambda and other particles) must have the same baryon number. Therefore, the baryon number always remains constant. The same law also applies to the lepton group (the so-called light particles such as neutrino, electron, muon, together with their antiparticles, to distinguish them from baryons), it turned out that leptons also have a property called the lepton number. Keeping this number prohibits certain reactions. Thus, the transformation of a negative pion (pi-meson) and a neutrino into two electrons and a proton was not detected.

The second conservation law is associated with the discovery of two kinds of neutrinos, one associated with muons and the other with electrons.

The confidence of physics in the principles of conservation is based on a long and without exception experience.

However, when new areas are explored, it becomes necessary to re-test the stability of these laws.

Some embarrassment with the conservation laws was associated with the already mentioned particles, which I also call strange, such as lambda, sigma, omega, xi particles. It was found that the total strangeness, which is obtained by adding the strangeness of all individual particles, does not change in strong interactions, but is not preserved in weak ones.

Here it is necessary to make some digression for those people for whom the field of physics has a secondary character.

There are the following types of interaction: strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational.

"Strong" interactions are interactions that are responsible for the forces acting between particles in the nucleus of an atom. It is clear that the forces between the particles that interact in such a short period of time must be very large. It is known that the proton and neutron interact through strong and short-range nuclear forces, due to which they are bound in atomic nuclei.

The lightest strongly interacting particle is the pion (pi-meson), whose rest mass is 137 MeV. The list of particles participating in strong interactions ends abruptly at the muon (mu-meson) with a rest mass of 106 MeV.

All particles that participate in strong interactions are combined into groups: meson and baryon. For them, physical quantities are determined that are preserved in strong interactions - quantum numbers. The following quantities are determined: electric charge, atomic mass number, hypercharge, isotopic spin, spin angular momentum, parity, and an intrinsic property exhibited only by mesons with hypercharge equal to 0.

The strong interaction is concentrated in a very short spatial region - 10 -13 cm, which determines the order of magnitude of the diameter of a strongly interacting particle.

The next strongest electromagnetic force is a hundred times weaker than the strong force. Its intensity decreases with increasing distance between the interacting particles. An uncharged particle, a photon, is the carrier of the field of electromagnetic forces. Electromagnetic forces bind electrons with positively charged nuclei, forming atoms, they also bind atoms into molecules and, through diverse manifestations, are ultimately responsible for various chemical and biological phenomena.

The weakest among these interactions is the gravitational interaction. Its strength with respect to the strong interaction is 10 -39 . This interaction acts at large distances and always as a force of attraction.

Now we can compare this picture of the strong interaction with the time scale for "weak" interactions. The best known of these is beta decay or radioactive decay. This process was opened at the beginning of the last century.

The bottom line is this: a neutron (neutral particle) in the nucleus spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron. The question arose: if beta decay can occur with some particles, then why not with all?

It turned out that the law of conservation of energy forbids beta decay for nuclei in which the mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of an electron and a possible daughter nucleus. Therefore, the inherent instability of the neutron gets the opportunity to manifest itself. The mass of the neutron exceeds the total mass of the proton by 780,000 volts. An excess of energy in a given value must be converted into the kinetic energy of the decay products, i.e. take the form of energy of motion. As physicists admit, the situation in this case looked ominous, because it indicated the possibility of violating the law of conservation of energy.

Enrico Fermi, following the ideas of V. Pauli, found out the properties of the missing and invisible particle, calling it neutrino. It is the neutrino that carries away the excess energy in beta decay. It also accounts for an excess of momentum and mechanical moment.

A difficult situation has developed for physicists around the K-meson, due to the violation of the parity principle. It decayed into two pi-mesons, and sometimes into three. But this shouldn't have happened. It turned out that the parity principle was not tested for weak interactions. Another thing turned out: parity nonconservation is a general property of weak interactions.

During the experiments, it was found that a lambda particle born in a high-energy collision decays into two daughter particles (a proton and a pi-meson) in an average of 3 * 10 -10 sec.

Since the average particle size is about 10 -13 Pek.ek. In an energy collision, a lambda particle decays into two daughter particles (a proton and a pi-meson) in an average of 3 not only cm, then the minimum reaction time for a particle moving at the speed of light, less than 10 -23 sec. For the scale of "strong" interactions, this is incredibly long. With an increase of 10 23 times 3 * 10 -10 sec. become a million years.

Physicists measure the rate of a reaction, from which the absolute rate and the rate relative to other reactions are derived. The speed parameters are determined based on the intensity of the reaction. This intensity appears in the equations, which are not only very complex, but, sometimes, are solved within the framework of dubious approximations.

It is known from numerous experiments that nuclear forces fall off sharply at a certain distance. They are felt between particles at distances not exceeding 10 -13 cm. It is also known that during collisions particles move close to the speed of light, i.e. 3*10 10 cm/sec. Under such conditions, the particles are in interaction only for some time. To find this time, one performs the operation of dividing the force radius by the particle velocity. During this time, the light passes the diameter of the particle.

As already mentioned, the intensity of the reaction of weak interactions relative to strong ones is approximately 10 -14 sec.

Comparison with the usual electromagnetic interaction shows how low the intensity of "weak" interactions is. However, physicists say that next to the nuclear forces, the electromagnetic forces look weak, the intensity of which is equal to 0.0073 of the intensity of the strong ones. But, in the “weak”, the intensity of the reaction is 10 12 times less!

The interest here is the fact that physicists operate with peak values ​​that are revealed in the course of reactions between any particles. Yes, fixed values ​​can be singled out, but who manages the reaction regime or do they all have no signs of a controlled process in Nature? And if they are controlled, then how can this process be carried out outside of consciousness?

§ 3. Social physics.

The philosopher Heraclitus is credited with the words: "nothing is permanent, everything is constantly flowing and changing."

Let us take the theory of the Big Bang as a working hypothesis of the formation of the Universe. Let there be a point of indeterminacy, from which there was an emission of energy and matter. It is necessary to immediately clarify that not all physicists accept this point of view. What are the doubts about?

The theoretical instability of the position lies in the fact that there is no exact explanation of the following position: how could something be formed from nothing or “nothing”?

What is the point of uncertainty, and under what circumstances does it form?

Approaches to explaining the origin of the Universe among philosophers and physicists have both some commonality and differences.

So philosophers from ancient times to the present time are trying to find out the primacy of matter or spirit.

Physicists are trying to get to the bottom of the relationship between matter or mass and energy.

The result is the following picture: in philosophy, the mind is present only at the starting point, as a supermind (deity) and again begins to manifest itself only in man. In the rest of the space, the presence of reason is not detected. Where and why does he disappear?

Physicists, using the mathematical apparatus as a tool of the mind, through which specific forms of the relationship between individual objects and subjects of nature are tracked, do not consider the mind itself as an independently acting substance.

When projecting these approaches one onto the other, the following result is revealed: for philosophers, energy falls out of sight, and for physicists, mind.

Consequently, the commonality of positions is revealed only in terms of matter and energy, and in the recognition of a certain starting point at which the initial reaction occurs in the development of everything that exists.

Beyond this point, nothing but mystery exists.

Physicists cannot answer the fundamental question: how did the concentration of energy occur at the “nothingness” point?

Philosophers tend to recognize the existence of a supermind at a given starting point, while physicists tend to recognize energy. In this case, the center of gravity of the question shifts to the plane of clarifying the direct origin of the supermind and energy.

Philosophy, in its current form, as a science of the most general laws of the development of Nature and Society, in fact, is still as discrete as any other branch of knowledge that does not claim to be a center of knowledge of general scientific significance.

The most generalized form of the identity of matter and spirit is given in the dualism of I. Kant, and mass and energy in the general theory of relativity of Einstein. But then it turns out that the mind in absolute terms dissolves in matter, and matter in mind and mass in energy, and energy in mass.

V.I. Lenin gives the following formulation of matter: “ Matter is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them."(V.I. Lenin, PSS, vol. 18, p. 131).

But, already another interpretation in the philosophical dictionary from 1981, where the following definition is given: “ Matter is an objective reality that exists outside and independently of human consciousness and is reflected by it (reference to the previous definition by V.I. Lenin, v.18, p.131). Matter covers an infinite number of really existing objects and systems of the world, is the substantial basis of possible forms and motion. Matter does not exist otherwise than in countless specific forms, various objects and systems. Matter is uncreatable and indestructible, eternal in time and infinite in space, in its structural manifestations, inextricably linked with movement, capable of inextinguishable self-development, which at certain stages, in the presence of favorable conditions, leads to the emergence of life and thinking beings. Consciousness acts as the highest form of reflection inherent in matter …».

Domestic and foreign scientists recognize that the largest scientific revolutions are always directly related to the restructuring of the usual philosophical systems. Past forms of thinking become a brake on the development of science and society. However, it is noted that fundamental sciences are an international category, and public ones are often limited by national boundaries.

Let us assume that there is a cyclical transition of one state into its opposite, i.e. energy is converted into mass and vice versa. Then the Big Bang does not function episodically, but constantly.

Suppose we have the desired point of the explosion, as a result of which the Universe was formed.

Then the question arises: what is actually meant by the concept of "Universe"?

A long time ago, physicists put forward the idea that, like energy, space cannot last indefinitely. So the laws of electromagnetism are not violated up to distances of 7 * 10 -14 cm. and that there are more fundamental quanta of length than 2 * 10 -14 cm. does not exist.

G.I. Naan predicted that the concept of “nothing”, whether it be zero in arithmetic and other branches of mathematics, zero-vector in vector algebra, empty set in set theory, empty class in logic, vacuum (vacuums) in cosmology – “ will play an ever-increasing role in science, and the development of a general doctrine of nothing, no matter how paradoxical this statement may seem, is a very important task within the framework of the topology (and typology) of reality, which has a chance of becoming a new scientific discipline located in the border zone between philosophy and exact sciences and is now, so to speak, at the stage of preliminary design».

The origin of zero has a long history. It took centuries for this invention to be understood and accepted.

Schrödinger emphasized the exceptional role played by zero tensors, acting as the main form of expression of basic physical laws.

The higher the development of science, the stronger the role of "nothing" increases as the equivalent of the original, fundamental, fundamental, primary. Scientists have long believed that the "universe" not only logically, but also physically arises from "nothing", of course, with strict observance of conservation laws.

Here it is necessary to clarify only a very simple thing: what is "nothing"?

Without any tension, two types can be distinguished nothing are spaces with infinite big and endlessly small numerical values ​​and, accordingly, energy potentials. From this assumption, the following conclusion can be drawn: infinitely big space is the bearer of properties potential energy (limiting value - absolute vacuum), and infinitely small, - kinetic(superenergy).

Then, each individual space within its own boundaries, although it represents "something", but in the end creates a local "nothing". Existing separately, such spaces are not able to transform into "something" that would be reflected outside the boundaries of these spaces. Carrying out movement in opposite directions, these spaces near zero create a reaction of interaction with each other.

It turns out that philosophers, like physicists, using the concept of "Universe", consider the sphere interacting space, which extends both towards the space with infinitely large and the space with infinitely small numerical values. Zero plays the role of a screen that separates the different qualities of "something" and "nothing".

Suppose an infinitely large space is uniform in its composition throughout its entire length. But, in any case, the density will be different, for example, as the vertical distribution of water in the ocean. The increase in density will occur in the direction of movement towards 0. Exactly the same picture should be observed in space with infinitesimal values. Then, near 0, a powerful polarization should arise between these spaces, which is capable of causing an interaction reaction between them.

Interacting space is not identical to any of these spaces, but at the same time contains all the hereditary features characteristic of a single space. The reaction of interaction of kinetic energy in a potential medium must proceed in exactly the same way. Then, the rest mass is the result of the interaction between these forms of energy.

But, if the spatial parameters of the interacting space, in a natural order, do not coincide with the parameters of space with a minus or plus of an infinite direction, then exactly the same rule will apply to time.

Therefore, the interacting space can be subjected to the process " extensions" towards plus infinity depending on the magnitude of the total momentum " compression»energy that exists in space with a minus infinite direction.

The radius of the interacting space, due to these reasons, must have strictly defined parameters.

Proponents of the theory of the "Big Bang" use the concept of "era" to define each new qualitative stage.

It is known that the study of any process is accompanied by a division into its constituent parts in order to study the properties of its individual aspects.

Era stands out primary substances.

Without data on the specificity of the formation of matter of a given period, the moment of the "big bang" is sometimes referred to as the "uncertainty point". Therefore, the mechanism of filling the space of the Universe from a certain point or zone looks artificially modeled.

The main role in material space is now played by electrons, muons, baryons, etc.

The temperature of the universe drops sharply from 100 billion degrees Kelvin (10 11 K) at the time of the explosion and after two seconds from the beginning it is 10 billion degrees Kelvin (10 10 K)

The time of this era is determined in 10 seconds.

Then the primary particle should move in space with approximately the same ratio of the speed of movement to the photon as the photon to the alpha particle.

Era nucleosynthesis. In less than 14 seconds from the beginning, the temperature of the universe dropped to 3 billion degrees Kelvin (3*10 9 K).

From now on, when speaking about the temperature of the Universe, they mean the temperature of a photon.

There is an extremely interesting statement in this theory: after the first three minutes, the material from which the stars were supposed to form consisted of 22.28% helium, and the rest hydrogen.

It seems that the moment of formation of the primary nucleon structure, hydrogen, is missed here. Helium is created after hydrogen.

It follows from this that the transition to the stellar era needs to be studied more carefully.

Apparently, stellar formations should be considered as gigantic hydrogen- and helium-based industrial complexes for the creation of the next order of proton compounds, from lithium to uranium. Based on the variety of elements obtained, the formation of solid, liquid and gaseous compounds is possible, i.e. planetary structures and the accompanying "cultural" layer.

Achieving the state of stability of connections between the elements of the substance of matter is a condition for further stages of its development.

The repeatability of percentages of 78 to 22 is observed with subsequent material compounds.

For example, the Earth's atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other elements.

The balance of liquid (78%) and solid (21%) and (1%) ionized states in a person fluctuates in approximately the same ratio. The percentage of water surface to land on Earth is also within the specified parameters.

A stable form of relationship cannot be established by chance.

Most likely, there is some fundamental constant that determines the moment of possibility of transition from one state of matter to another.

Apparently, the determining factor for transformation in the social system where human activity is carried out is also the ratio of 78% to 22%, where the first parameter creates the necessary basis, and the second condition for the implementation of each subsequent stage of transformation in the general process of development of society.

The creation of a fundamentally new quality of production structures, reaching a volume of 22% of the rest of the mass of connections, leads to the moment of the expected start of a radical transformation in the social system.

If the transformation has taken place, then the next movement of the created state of matter from 22% to 78%, etc. is assumed. The cyclic repetition of these processes makes it possible to predict the beginning of the moment of each major transformation in the development of matter.

Now the process of development is subjected to the substance with which the direct connection is made, in this case, the means of production (R).

The development of this form of matter will last until the moment when the production and reproduction of its individual representatives can be carried out independently.

The created type of any form of matter will always be a condition for the development of another, with a natural modification of the concept of means of production, etc.

Here we can trace the consistent nature of the development of social systems in the Universe.

For example, in a social system where the active side of creation is represented by a biological subject, and the passive side is represented by an indefinite concept of “means of production”, which has gone from the primary state: a stick, a stone, to the creation of artificial intelligence.

Now the state of affairs is such that the block of material sciences has accumulated gigantic theoretical and experimental material, which needs appropriate social processing. Eminent physicists are trying to break into a new scientific reality.

Interesting research P.A.M. Dirac of the University of Cambridge. The concept of “spinor space” is associated with the name of this scientist. He also belongs to the leadership in the development of the theory of the behavior of the electron in atoms. This theory gave an unexpected and side result: the prediction of a new particle - the positron. It was discovered a few years after Dirac's prediction. In addition, antiprotons and antineutrons were discovered based on this theory.

Later, a detailed inventory was made in the whole of elementary particle physics. It turned out that almost all particles have their prototype in the form of an antiparticle. The only exceptions are a few, such as the photon and pi-meson, for which the particle and antiparticle coincide. Based on the theory of Dirac, and its subsequent generalizations, it follows that each reaction of a particle corresponds to a reaction involving an antiparticle.

Especially valuable in Dirac's studies is the indication of the evolution of physical processes in nature. In his works, the process of modification of the general physical theory was traced, i.e. how it has developed in the past and what should be expected of it in the future.

However, Dirac, describing the problems of physics and mathematics, doubts the appearance of a large-scale idea, although most scientists tend to just this option.

Another point is also interesting: Dirac, being an outstanding scientist in the field of physics and mathematics, turns into a weak philosopher when he tries to make generalizations of general scientific significance. He argues that determinism, as the main method of classifying physical processes, is becoming a thing of the past, and probability is coming to the forefront. On the example of Dirac, the following is clearly seen: the absence of philosophers of the corresponding rank leads not only to an increase in the shortage of ideas, but to the limited conclusions in the field of theoretical physics.

W. Heisenberg, in his "Introduction to the Unified Field Theory", gives a retrospective of the efforts of various researchers in their attempts to understand the physical structure of the Universe and find some common unit of measurement for the processes, phenomena, and regularities occurring in it.

The scientist puts forward the theory of matrices. This theory is in close proximity to the solution of the problem of general scientific significance. The position of the scientist is especially interesting when considering the asymptotic properties of two and four-point functions near 0.

Enrico Fermi substantiated the existence of an energy carrier that does not leave a track on an emulsion film that records events in a bubble chamber.

The Russian academician G. Shipov, who studies inertial effects based on the idea of ​​"Ritchie torsion fields", divides all physical theories into fundamental ones (Newton's gravitational theory and the Coulomb theory of electromagnetic interaction), fundamental constructive and purely constructive theories.

Such a statement of fact follows from the fact that quantum mechanics has not yet created a theory of a fundamental nature.

In experimental studies, physicists use the method of organizing elastic collisions and determine the internal structure of the microcosm by emitted particles.

But, this is a purely mechanical approach to fixing ongoing events. These events can only be considered in the context of identifying the nomenclature of particles up to a limited limit.

Modern particle accelerators with a potential of, say, 30 GeV., make it possible to split the proton up to 10 -15 . Some physicists believe that in order to establish the internal structure, it is necessary to get to the level of 10 -38 . Movement in this direction, with the energy possibilities that experimental physicists have at their disposal, may resemble dust blowing off the surface of a diamond.

In order to approximately understand the entire degree of complexity of the ongoing processes in the microcosm, for an ordinary person, by the principle of analogy, it is enough to imagine a proton in the form of a poppy seed and around it, at a distance of approximately 150 meters, a ten times smaller particle, an electron, rotates. From an ordinary point of view, this is an unthinkable phenomenon. What, in this case, should be the force of attraction?

The physical form of energy is not homogeneous in its composition and content, but its contours must be determined at the very point of uncertainty. How to carry out the detection operation?

Let us consider the horizons of the groups of the most known states of matter and energy, which are subject to investigation in the interacting space.

Physicists single out a group of leptons, which includes x-bosons, quarks, neutrinos, photons, as well as an electron and a muon.

It is not clear why energy carriers that do not have a fixed rest mass, such as a neutrino and a photon, are combined in one group with an electron and a muon?

Reactions occurring within the framework of the weak (the classical representative of this interaction is the neutrino), strong, electromagnetic and gravitational interactions are distinguished.

In this case, we have a movement directed along the abscissa axis, the implementation of which is possible on the basis of weak interaction and along the ordinate axis, along the line of strong interaction.

The same Dirac speaks of the possibility of turning the spin by 180°.

A very dubious choice. Nature should have a more universal scheme with the freedom to choose movement with a direction along a parabola directed outward and inward relative to 0. With angular expansion or vice versa narrowing, patterns come into action, arising from the need to move along the y-axis and abscissa. Therefore, during an elastic collision or other external influences, there is an inclusion or switching from one direction of rotation to another.

The admission of such an assumption suggests that, starting with x-bosons, quarks and neutrinos, there should be a complication of the properties of motion in each subsequent organization of matter. For the same photon, in addition to the bipolar isospin responsible for the movement along the abscissa axis in the forward and reverse directions, a pole pair must be formed that can organize movement in any direction along the abscissa axis. For example, a pion, a K-meson, or a tau-meson can already have a multi-pole and multi-layer isospin.

Let's select a sector in the form of a cone from the point of uncertainty to its end with a step of 1 0 and perform its asymmetric alignment along one of the faces. (see fig. No. 2)

Let's consider this scheme in more detail.

Which organization of matter, in a transformed form, is at point A can be tracked as a result of projection from the points of stable and intermediate formations onto the circumference of the cone ACD.

Then the inner circles m 1 m 11 , n 1 n 11 and f 1 f 11 indicate a structural energy difference that exists at point A, i.e. indicates the inhomogeneity of energy in an infinitely small space.

This means that the role of point A is to designate the center of mass and energy of the interacting space, where the indefinite integrals intersect with plus and minus signs infinity.

At point C, energy is represented by strong, electromagnetic, gravitational interactions, i.e. reflects the existence of forms of energy in mass or matter, and point A, on the contrary, of matter in energy.

Einstein points to the existence of zero or preferential directions. It can be assumed that the faces AB and AC may well perform the functions of these directions. Like graphite rods in a thermal neutron atomic reactor, which serve as moderators for fast neutrons, the above directions can be a kind of rods that perform many functions in the interacting space.

Then the junction of spaces with minus infinitesimal and infinitely large directions exists not in the form of a point, but in the form multipath configurations centered at point A.

The displacement of the energy concentration center located in an infinitely small space or point A in the direction of any of the rays will cause corresponding changes in the location in space of the faces AB and AC, which will cause a corresponding perturbation in the organization of matter located in an infinitely large space, i.e. between these edges. Thus, compression may occur near the inner face AB, and rarefaction will occur relative to the outer face, and vice versa, creating the preconditions for the formation of torsion fields. Exactly the same picture will be created with respect to the AC face and others.

The Big Bang theory implies a stationary location of the point of uncertainty, while in reality, it, in all likelihood, has " floating" character. The value of the displacement interval will cause the need to move the substance to a new position interbeam space. In other words, center of gravity and energy The interacting space does not have a stationary location and is in constant motion. Apparently, it is precisely in the manifestation of this effect that the nature of torsion fields lies.

Further. One should expect at each point on the face AC or AB, through which any planes with a certain organization of matter pass, the presence of not one, but several forms of isotopic spins with different directions of motion. In this case, there should be spin poles through which rotation trajectories with different directions of motion pass.

But then the processes that can be observed and studied in the ABC cone will reflect nothing more than the transformation of energy into matter or mass, and the ASD cone will reflect the return path from mass to energy.

Point C should serve as a recognition that there is an upper "dead" point of the interacting space, in which energy is absorbed into the mass.

Within the lepton group horizon bounded by the Am 1 m 11 D cone, say for a neutrino, the dominant form of rotation is oriented toward the ability to move along parabolas directed outward from A to C and inward from C to A. Essentially, the neutrino is , a kind of express transport that delivers energy from point A to the space located between points B and C, necessary for the formation of various material compounds and vice versa. Moving from point A to point C, a neutrino can discard the corresponding energy quanta in strictly defined horizons along the ordinate axis, which become a necessary condition for organizing the process of converting energy into matter, deployed relative to the abscissa axis.

Physicists have established that the electron is the first stable particle, with a rest mass of 0.5 MeV, i.e. having a spin with horizontal stabilization properties. But, if the neutrino is a classic representative of absolute parallelism, then the electron creates a coefficient of curvature of the physical space equal to 0.5 MeV.

From the point of view of social physics, i.e. nature, endowed with consciousness, the electron is a complex organization of the creative plan. The presence of productive forces is represented in the electron, where rest mass acts as " means of production”, i.e. endowed with a certain property, and is not a carrier of information of an impersonal nature. The technical improvement of the rest mass further leads to the creation of the muon and other meson and baryon compounds. As a stable material structure, the electron participates in all production processes occurring in the interacting space. All event information is recorded in the intellectual center of the electron - the back and is not lost in time and space. Therefore, the electron should be considered an objective "historian" of the development of the interacting space. At the same time, the interval of development of an electron to a muon should be considered a production process. But then we have a huge variety of electrons with a corresponding set of properties.

The value of the angular isotopic spin of the electron sets a fixed boundary of horizontal stabilization and introduces a ban on participation in reactions in the underlying layers of the substance of the Am 1 m 11 D cone. boundaries of truncated cones mnn 1 m 1 , nff 1 n 1 , fBCf 1 .

Here it must be said that the substance located in these cones must come into contact with the side surface with an infinitesimal space near the corresponding faces. Passing through zero directions, the substance is able to transform, acquiring the properties of superfluidity or superdensity, with subsequent movement to point A. This means that the principle of circulation of the mutual transformation of energy into substance and vice versa must operate both within the entire interacting space and in its individual horizons. Naturally, there is a ban on the arbitrary nature of transformation processes.

Thus, the proton cannot enter the horizon of the meson group (mnn 1 m 1), as a stable organization of matter from the horizon nff 1 n 1, since it has a more complex isospin scheme.

Therefore, during an elastic collision of protons, one of them is a source of transformation of kinetic energy into potential energy with the formation of particles with different spin moments.

The resulting mass of particles in the area of ​​impact does not necessarily determine the internal structure of, for example, one of the protons. By attracting energy to the impact zone, an ordinary reaction occurs with the formation of the corresponding nomenclature of particles. For, just as a neutrino carries away excess energy during the decay of a neutron, in the same way it can bring it into any reaction zone as a compensating equivalent for the natural error in the kinetic energy of motion that arises as a result of a sharp transition to a static state.

During the decay of a nucleon, a single proton or neutron, apparently, can acquire signs relatively weak interaction in the horizon nff 1 n 1 along the inward parabola, i.e. towards point A.

Of interest is the nomenclature of complex nucleon compounds, starting with hydrogen. So, beyond Uranus or the 92nd element of the periodic table, unstable compounds such as Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium, Curium, Berkelium, etc. have been discovered.

Subject to constant decay, these compounds are the source of relatively weak interactions in the environment of nucleon compounds. Exactly the same picture should be observed in the baryon, meson groups.

The role of these states is necessary for the inverse transformation of mass into energy, translating the general process of interactions into a permanent one.

The most interesting particle in elementary particle physics is the muon (mu-meson), which was discovered in 1936 in photographs of cosmic rays taken in a cloud chamber. It was discovered by C.D. Anderson and S.H. Neddermeyer of the California Institute of Technology and independently by C.D. Street of Harvard University.

The rest mass of a muon is 106 MeV. The pi-meson is considered the ancestor of the muon, with a lifetime of about 25 * 10 -9 sec. (2.5 billion fractions of a second), which decays into a muon and a neutrino. The muon itself has a relatively long life - 2.2 million fractions of a second.

However, is the assumption of physicists that the pion is older than the muon correct?

Based on the principle of the sequence of horizontal stabilization, the formation of a muon must occur before the pion, since the rest mass of the latter is already 137 MeV.

The following is not entirely clear here: why was a particle with the properties of an electron (muon) attributed to the meson group? Indeed, in fact, this particle is dual core electron.

Then the decay of a pion means that in the reaction zone one of the electrons undergoes mutation, i.e. is converted to a two-nuclear state, and the excess energy is carried away by neutrinos.

However, it is assumed that a muon is formed from a pion. Obviously, the conclusions of physicists regarding the origin of many particles, including the muon, are based on observations that follow from the still dominant method of organizing high-energy collisions (proton-proton, pion-proton, etc.), rather than given conditions their evolutionary connection. In this case, only one side of the process is taken, which takes into account only the reverse direction of the transformation of matter from mass into energy, while it is necessary to consider all the processes occurring in nature in their total unity.

It should be noted that there is a repetition of phenomena in nature, but in more complex variations. For example, the diagram of the force fields of the mu-meson surprisingly resembles a cell that is in the process of division.

(See pic 3)

Diagram of muon force fields Diagram of a cell in the division stage

Even a cursory comparative analysis makes it possible to establish a striking similarity between the fission processes. This circumstance gives reason to believe that the muon is the ancestor of fissile matter.

The period of development of matter from an electron to a muon should be considered a production process. Then, the mechanism of cell division, which is carried out in a slow mode, should show a similar principle of development of a production reaction in an electronic environment.

A similar picture associated with division arises in human society during the transition of the production subsystem to the use of each new energy source, but with an order of magnitude lagging behind the subsystems of metabolic processes and political. We will consider this point in more detail below.

Now let's go back to spirit or mind. This substance contains all the information that is and accumulates within the interacting space. How and with the help of what is its local and general processing carried out? Suppose that at point A, superintelligence is concentrated without any materiality and superenergy without any mass.

The only universal tool is a number that has a different real content. The intersection of any numerical value is accompanied by an entrance to a certain localized space, which also implies strictly designated information parameters. The working mode of consciousness is designed in such a way that any combination of digital values ​​allows you to build events in the temporal and spatial coordinate system for infinitely small and infinitely large values ​​both separately and simultaneously.

Whatever the size of the interacting space, its boundaries will always be within reach of the number. A quasi-digital method of processing, systematization, classification and transmission of information, both between individual subjects and within the entire Universe, is the prerogative of the corresponding type of mind. Number is the working tool of the mind. It is no coincidence that mathematics is considered the queen of sciences.

Laplace refers to the words: any science can be considered a science only insofar as it uses mathematics.

But, as far as the spatio-temporal indicators of any object or subject of Nature become more complicated, the structure of the mathematical apparatus becomes more complicated, i.e. state data is in full correspondence mode with each other. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the correspondence of mathematical tools in strict dependence on the state of organization of matter in the Universe. Otherwise, there will be an incorrect attempt to combine mathematical tools that are different in content and purpose.

Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the properties of consciousness are in direct relationship with the organization of matter, which is represented in the interacting space. Outside of consciousness, it is impossible to organize a single production action. In the creative process, consciousness has a rather complex configuration and an ambiguous location address.

Then, the function of intellectual force (Q) can be assigned to an infinitely small space, and the function of labor force (P) to an infinitely large one. The zone of interacting space will be the means of production (R). Any transformation in the system (R), as a result of the interaction of different organization of matter that exists in infinitely small and infinitely large spaces, will be of a conscious nature.

§ four. Two types of human production: biological subject and social subject.

In the current ideas of modern man about himself, there is not the slightest doubt that it is he who is the creator of his own development. Is it really? Maybe he represents a much more complex material organization than it seems to him? Let's try to understand this issue more thoroughly.

In the animal world, organisms directly meet each other, sorting out their relationships, while in the social sphere, where human activity takes place, all this takes place in a slightly different form. Here the social organism is presented not as a single whole, but as a symbiosis of subjects that differ in their state. But this is the natural form of its existence. It is impossible to separate these subjects, since the whole organism is destroyed in this case. Naturally, each part has a relative freedom of existence, but this only makes it difficult to understand the general patterns of development of society.

Using the conclusion of K. Marx that the driving force behind the development of society is the labor force, we will try to shift a little further away from one, taken separately, to the totality of productive forces. The structure of these forces, the features of their relationship with each other, the general direction of movement, the purpose of their origin, the mechanism of functioning, the meaning and meaning of their activity - this is the circle of questions that, in this regard, should be investigated.

According to V. Dahl (see Dictionary of the Great Russian language), - “ force is the source, the beginning, the main (unknown) reason for any action, movement, aspiration, compulsion, any material change in space, or, the beginning of the changeability of world phenomena. Force is an abstract concept of the general property of matter, bodies, which does not explain anything, but collects only all phenomena under one general concept and name.».

If every beginning of the variability of world phenomena had no purpose, then it would hardly be possible to expect any material change. The reason remains unknown

AT Paleogene the climate was warm and humid, as a result of which tropical and subtropical plants became widespread. Representatives of the marsupial subclass were widespread here.

The class of insects developed intensively. Among them, highly organized species arose that contributed to cross-pollination of flowering plants and fed on plant nectar. The number of reptiles has decreased. Birds and mammals lived on land and in the air, fish lived in the water, as well as mammals that re-adapted to life in the water. During the Neogene period, many genera of currently known birds appeared.

AT quaternary period there was a repeated displacement of the ice of the Arctic Ocean to the south and back, which was accompanied by cooling and the movement of many heat-loving plants to the south. With the retreat of the ice, they moved to their former places. This re-migration (from lat. migratio - relocation) of plants led to the mixing of populations, the extinction of species not adapted to changing conditions, and contributed to the emergence of other, adapted species.

human evolution

By the beginning of the Quaternary period, human evolution is accelerating. The methods of manufacturing tools and their use are being significantly improved. People begin to change the environment, learn to create favorable conditions for themselves. The increase in the number and wide distribution of people began to influence the flora and fauna. Hunting by primitive people leads to a gradual reduction in the number of wild herbivores. The extermination of large herbivores has led to a sharp decrease in the number of cave lions, bears and other large predatory animals that feed on them. Trees were cut down and many forests turned into pastures.

Currently, the Cenozoic era continues on Earth. This stage of the development of our planet is relatively short when compared with the previous ones, for example, the Proterozoic or Archean. While it is only 65.5 million years.

The geological processes that took place during the Cenozoic shaped the modern appearance of the oceans and continents. Gradually, the climate changed and, as a result, the flora in one or another part of the planet. The previous era - the Mesozoic - ended with the so-called Cretaceous catastrophe, which led to the extinction of many animal species. The beginning of a new era was marked by the fact that the empty ecological niches began to be filled again. The development of life in the Cenozoic era took place rapidly both on land and in water and in the air. The dominant position was occupied by mammals. Finally, human ancestors appeared. People turned out to be very "promising" creatures: despite repeated climate changes, they not only survived, but also evolved, settling all over the planet. Over time, human activity has become another factor in the transformation of the Earth.

Cenozoic era: periods

Previously, the Cenozoic (“era of new life”) was usually divided into two main periods: Tertiary and Quaternary. Now there is another classification. The very first stage of the Cenozoic is the Paleogene ("ancient formation"). It began about 65.5 million years ago and lasted 42 million years. The Paleogene is divided into three sub-periods (Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene).

The next stage is the Neogene ("new formation"). This epoch began 23 million years ago, and its duration was approximately 21 million years. The Neogene period is divided into Miocene and Pliocene. It is important to note that the emergence of human ancestors dates back to the end of the Pliocene (although at that time they did not even resemble modern people). Somewhere 2-1.8 million years ago, the Anthropogenic, or Quaternary period began. It continues to this day. Throughout the Anthropogen, human development took place (and is happening). The sub-periods of this stage are the Pleistocene (epoch of glaciation) and Holocene (post-glacial epoch).

Climatic conditions of the Paleogene

The long period of the Paleogene opens the Cenozoic era. The climate of the Paleocene and Eocene was mild. At the equator, the average temperature reached 28 °C. In the North Sea area, the temperature was not much lower (22-26 °C).

On the territory of Svalbard and Greenland, evidence was found that plants characteristic of modern subtropics felt quite comfortable there. Traces of subtropical vegetation have also been found in Antarctica. There were no glaciers or icebergs in the Eocene yet. There were areas on Earth that did not lack moisture, regions with a variable humid climate and arid regions.

During the Oligocene period, it became sharply colder. At the poles, the average temperature dropped to 5°C. The formation of glaciers began, which later formed the Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Paleogene flora

The Cenozoic era is the time of the widespread domination of angiosperms and gymnosperms (conifers). The latter grew only in high latitudes. The equator was dominated by rainforests, which were based on palm trees, ficuses and various representatives of sandalwood. The farther from the sea, the drier the climate became: in the depths of the continents savannahs and woodlands spread.

In the middle latitudes, moisture-loving tropical and temperate plants (tree ferns, breadfruit, sandalwood, banana trees) were common. Closer to high latitudes, the species composition became completely different. These places are characterized by typical subtropical flora: myrtle, chestnut, laurel, cypress, oak, thuja, sequoia, araucaria. Plant life in the Cenozoic era (in particular, in the Paleogene era) flourished even beyond the Arctic Circle: in the Arctic, Northern Europe and America, the predominance of coniferous-broad-leaved deciduous forests was noted. But there were also subtropical plants listed above. The polar night was not an obstacle to their growth and development.

Paleogene fauna

The Cenozoic era provided the fauna with a unique chance. The animal world has changed dramatically: the dinosaurs were replaced by primitive small mammals that live mainly in forests and swamps. There are fewer reptiles and amphibians. Various proboscis animals predominated, including indicotheres (similar to rhinoceroses), tapir and pig-like animals.

As a rule, many of them were adapted to spend part of the time in the water. During the Paleogene period, the ancestors of horses, various rodents, and later predators (creodonts) also appear. Toothless birds nest on the tops of trees, predatory diatryms live in the savannas - birds that cannot fly.

Great variety of insects. As for the marine fauna, the flowering of cephalopods and bivalves, corals begins; primitive crayfish, cetaceans appear. The ocean at this time belongs to bony fish.

Neogene climate

The Cenozoic era continues. The climate in the Neogene era remains relatively warm and rather humid. But the cooling, which began in the Oligocene, makes its own adjustments: the glaciers no longer melt, the humidity drops, and the continental climate intensifies. By the end of the Neogene, the zonality approached modern (the same can be said about the outlines of the oceans and continents, as well as about the topography of the earth's surface). The Pliocene marked the beginning of another cold snap.

Neogene, Cenozoic era: plants

At the equator and in the tropical zones, either savannahs or moist forests still prevail. The temperate and high latitudes could boast of the greatest diversity of flora: deciduous forests, mostly evergreen, were widespread here. As the air drier, new species appeared, from which the modern flora of the Mediterranean gradually developed (olive, plane trees, walnut, boxwood, southern pine and cedar). In the north, evergreens no longer survived. On the other hand, coniferous-deciduous forests showed a wealth of species - from sequoia to chestnut. At the end of the Neogene, such landscape forms as taiga, tundra and forest-steppe appeared. Again, this was due to the cold. North America and Northern Eurasia became taiga regions. In temperate latitudes with an arid climate, steppes were formed. Where there used to be savannahs, semi-deserts and deserts arose.

Neogene fauna

It would seem that the Cenozoic era is not so long (in comparison with others): flora and fauna, however, have changed a lot since the beginning of the Paleogene. Placentals became the dominant mammals. At first, the anchitherian and then the hipparion fauna developed. Both are named after characteristic representatives. Anchiterium is the ancestor of the horse, a small animal with three fingers on each limb. Hipparion is, in fact, a horse, but still three-toed. There is no need to think that only relatives of horses and simply ungulates (deer, giraffes, camels, pigs) belonged to the indicated faunas. In fact, among their representatives were predators (hyenas, lions), and rodents, and even ostriches: life in the Cenozoic era was fantastically diverse.

The spread of these animals was facilitated by an increase in the area of ​​savannahs and steppes.

At the end of the Neogene, human ancestors appeared in the forests.

Anthropogenic climate

This period is characterized by alternation of glaciations and warmings. When the glaciers advanced, their lower boundaries reached 40 degrees north latitude. The largest glaciers of that time were concentrated in Scandinavia, the Alps, North America, Eastern Siberia, the Subpolar and Northern Urals.

In parallel with the glaciations, the sea attacked the land, although not as powerful as in the Paleogene. Interglacial periods were characterized by a mild climate and regression (drying of the seas). Now the next interglacial period is underway, which should end no later than in 1000 years. After it, another glaciation will occur, which will last about 20 thousand years. But it is not known whether this will actually happen, since human intervention in natural processes has provoked climate warming. It is time to think whether the Cenozoic era will end in a global ecological catastrophe?

Flora and fauna of Anthropogen

The onset of glaciers forced heat-loving plants to shift south. True, mountain ranges interfered with this. As a result, many species have not survived to this day. During the glaciations, there were three main types of landscapes: taiga, tundra and forest-steppe with their characteristic plants. Tropical and subtropical belts were greatly narrowed and shifted, but still remained. In the interglacial periods, broad-leaved forests dominated the Earth.

As for the fauna, the supremacy still belonged (and belongs) to mammals. Massive, woolly animals (mammoths, woolly rhinos, megaloceros) have become the hallmark of the ice ages. Along with them there were bears, wolves, deer, lynxes. All animals as a result of cooling and warming were forced to migrate. The primitive and the unadapted were dying out.

Primates also continued their development. The improvement of the hunting skills of human ancestors can explain the extinction of a number of game animals: giant sloths, horses of North America, mammoths.

Results

It is not known when the Cenozoic era, the periods of which we examined above, will end. Sixty-five million years by the standards of the universe is quite a bit. However, during this time, continents, oceans and mountain ranges managed to form. Many species of plants and animals have died out or evolved under the pressure of circumstances. Mammals have taken the place of dinosaurs. And the most promising of the mammals turned out to be man, and the last period of the Cenozoic - the anthropogen - is associated mainly with the activities of people. It is possible that it depends on us how and when the Cenozoic era will end - the most dynamic and shortest of the earth's eras.