Broadman's brain map. The main fields of the cerebral cortex according to Brodmann. An excerpt characterizing Brodmann's Cytoarchitectonic fields
Concepts of the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres:
The theory of localizationism - each field of the cortex and each section of the cerebral hemispheres perform strictly defined functions.
The theory of equipotentialism - there are no areas of the cortex and parts of the cerebral hemispheres that perform specific functions. Functions are evenly distributed over the cerebral cortex.
The theory of dynamic localization of functions (according to I.P. Pavlov) - functions may not have a clear link to structures and may be dynamically performed by various departments of the cerebral hemispheres.
The theory of flexible and rigid links in the organization of cerebral systems for ensuring activity (according to N.P. Bekhtereva).
1861 - the scientist Broca discovered in the lower third of the frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere the motor center of speech, the defeat of which leads to the loss of the ability to speak.
1870 - Fries discovered in the frontal lobe the localization of the motor function of the anterior central lobe, the defeat of which causes paralysis.
1874 - psychiatrist Vershke showed that lesions of the posterior third of the temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere impair understanding of speech, but the ability to speak remains.
Modern representations of the localization of functions in the cortex:
a) primary (projection) zones.
b) secondary zones (signal processing)
c) associative (tertiary) zones (zones of overlap of primary zones).
The primary zone is the zone of projection sensory pathways in the CBP. It goes along 3 neurons (1 - in the spinal ganglion, 2 - brain stem, 3 - thalamus). Here the sensation is formed in accordance with the modality of the stimulus that we perceive. It is formed in the form of an image.
The secondary zones surround the primary zone and here the stimulus is identified based on comparison with traces of past experience (stored in memory).
The tertiary zone is formed by overlap zones of secondary zones belonging to different analyzers or sensor systems. The 2nd and 3rd layers of the CBP have reached the greatest development in these zones. These zones are characterized by the presence of polysensory neurons that respond to various stimuli. These zones establish inter-analyzer links that make it possible to evaluate the entire set of properties of objects. The following properties belong to these zones: tosia - the ability to recognize objects (pathology - agnosia), praxia - an acquired memorized motor skill. The defeat of the associative zones is accompanied by a loss of the ability to perform learned movements - apraxia.
telencephalon functions.
The telencephalon is divided into the frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes. Each share is divided into small sections. The limbic lobe is distinguished: these are areas of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes surrounding the diencephalon. In the depths of the Sylvian furrow, in the depths of the hemisphere lies an island and it is covered by the edges of the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes. It is associated with innervation of internal organs. The frontal lobe is associated with the performance of voluntary movements, with the coordination of the motor mechanisms of speech, language communication, creative or critical thinking.
The motor functions of the regulation of voluntary movements are laid down in the anterior central gyrus (field 4 according to Broadman). In this gyrus there is a representation of body parts (homunkumos). It is for this gyrus that the development of the 5th layer is characteristic, where large pyramidal cells are located. They give rise to descending pyramidal pathways that lead to motor neurons in the gray matter of the SC. The paths cross, the motor commands of the cortex are transmitted to the anterior horns (motor neurons). Each hemisphere is responsible for the movement of the opposite side of the body. The defeat of the first neuron is accompanied by central paralysis on the opposite side of the body, but muscle tone is preserved. The defeat of the second neuron also leads to paralysis, but muscle atrophy and the absence of spinal reflexes will be observed.
The premotor zone is located in the 4th field. It is connected with the extrapyramidal system. Zone 8 is responsible for oculomotor reactions. The anterior frontal lobe is associated with creative thinking. The defeat of this department is caused by drastic personality changes (there is no initiative, no desire to achieve goals, they are in a state of childish satisfaction, there are no problems, they are only interested in everyday trifles and cannot make plans for the future, they lose critical self-esteem, make stupid jokes, such of people, behavioral processes are disturbed when the frontal lobe is removed).
The speech motor center is located in the frontal lobe of the 44th field. When the zone is irritated, the pronunciation of sounds occurs, but not words.
The parietal lobe is associated with somatic sensitivity, with memory related to speech, learning, and simple orientation. Sensitive functions are presented in the posterior central gyrus (fields 1, 2, 3). Transection of the zhth zone leads to the loss of different types of sensitivity.
Further allocate 5 and 7 fields. They make it possible to evaluate the weight, surface properties, dimensions and shapes of the object. The lower parietal lobe is associated with speech comprehension (Wernicke's centre). The parietal lobe conveys a sense of 3D space and perception of body schema. The defeat is accompanied by agnosia. Patients lose the ability to understand letters and numbers, the perception of the body scheme is disturbed. With a complete violation of the body scheme, patients completely deny that one half of the body belongs to the other.
The temporal lobe is associated with the perception of auditory sensations and is involved in the sound control of speech. She has a role in the evaluation of space and she participates in memory. The primary zone is the 41st field, the 42nd field is the secondary zone, where the perceived sounds are evaluated, and the 22nd field is involved in the function of understanding words and, if it is damaged, there is a loss of the ability to understand words. The temporal lobe determines vestibular sensitivity, irritation of the posterior temporal lobe causes dizziness. With irritation of other parts of the temporal lobe, patients hear voices that were in the past, acoustic and visual hallucinations occur. When the temporal lobe is damaged, a misinterpretation of the world occurs. The temporal lobe is responsible for dreams.
The occipital lobe is associated with visual function. Along the spur groove is the primary visual zone (field 17). The identification of the object is carried out by the 18th field surrounding the 17th field. The 19th field, bordering the parietal lobe, takes part in assessing the meaning of what is seen. The visual cortex, organized in a columnar fashion, consists of vertical columns. They contain simple cells that respond to point light stimuli, and complex cells that perceive vertical, horizontal and triangular images. The inner granular layer contains simple cells and the complex cells in the outer granular layer. Complex cells are concentrated in 18-19 fields.
The limbic lobe includes the subcallosal region, cingulate gyrus, isthmus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampal sliver, and amygdala. It receives information from the sense of smell (the analyzer in the 34th field), the taste analyzer in the 43rd field. In general, this share is responsible for the behavioral reactions of the body in response to irritation of the external environment, but in accordance with the state of the internal environment. These reactions are aimed at preserving the individual. The amygdala is responsible for the preservation of the individual, the septum and the hippocampus are responsible for the preservation of the species. Irritation of the tonsils causes chewing, swallowing, etc. Damage to the tonsils - the animal becomes obedient ... Irritation of the septum causes sexual (parental) behavior. Transection of the hippocampus is accompanied by fits of rage.
Criteria for classifying different cortical fields:
Cytoarchitectonic
Myeloarchitectonic
Angioarchitectonic
Chemoarchitectonic
Functional
The severity of the layers in different departments of the CBP is different. Based on this, Brodman identified 11 zones and 52 fields.
The 1st zone - motor - is represented by the central gyrus and the frontal zone in front of it - 4, 6, 8, 9 Brodmann's fields. When it is irritated - various motor reactions; when it is destroyed - violations of motor functions
2nd zone - sensitive - areas of the cerebral cortex behind the central sulcus (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 Brodmann fields). When this zone is irritated, sensations arise, when it is destroyed, loss of skin, proprio-, interosensitivity occurs. The 1st and 2nd zones are closely related to each other functionally. In the motor zone, there are many afferent neurons that receive impulses from receptors - these are motosensory zones. In the sensitive area, there are many motor elements - these are sensorimotor zones - are responsible for the occurrence of pain.
3rd zone - visual zone - occipital region of the cerebral cortex (17, 18, 19 Brodmann fields). With the destruction of the 17th field - loss of visual sensations (cortical blindness). when the 17th field is destroyed, the vision of the environment falls out, which is projected onto the corresponding parts of the retina. With the defeat of the 18th field of Brodmann, the functions associated with the recognition of a visual image suffer and the perception of writing is disturbed. With the defeat of the 19th field of Brodmann, various visual hallucinations occur, visual memory and other visual functions suffer.
4th - auditory zone - temporal region of the cerebral cortex (22, 41, 42 Brodmann fields). If 42 fields are damaged, the function of sound recognition is impaired. When the 22nd field is destroyed, auditory hallucinations, impaired auditory orienting reactions, and musical deafness occur. With the destruction of 41 fields - cortical deafness.
The 5th zone - olfactory - is located in the piriform gyrus (11 Brodmann's field).
6th zone - taste - 43 Brodman's field.
The 7th zone - the motor speech zone - in most people (right-handed) is located in the left hemisphere.
This zone consists of 3 departments.
Broca's motor speech center - located in the lower part of the frontal gyri - is the motor center of the muscles of the tongue.
The sensory center of Wernicke - located in the temporal zone - is associated with the perception of oral speech. .
The center of perception of written speech is located in the visual zone of the cerebral cortex.
Korbinian Brodman published maps of the cytoarchitectonic fields of the cortex large hemispheres brain brain. Brodman was the first to create maps of the crust. Subsequently, O. Vogt and C. Vogt (1919-1920), taking into account the fiber structure, described 150 myeloarchitectonic regions in the cerebral cortex. At the Institute of the Brain of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (now the Scientific Center for Neurology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences), I. N. Filimonov and S. A. Sarkisov created maps of the cerebral cortex, including 47 cytoarchitectonic fields.Brodmann fields
- Fields 3, 1 and 2 - somatosensory area, primary zone. They are located in the postcentral gyrus. In connection with the generality of functions, the term " fields 3, 1 and 2» (front to back)
- Field 4 - motor area. Located within the precentral gyrus
- Field 5 - secondary somatosensory zone. Located within the superior parietal lobule
- Field 6 - premotor cortex and additional motor cortex (secondary motor zone). It is located in the anterior sections of the precentral and posterior sections of the superior and middle frontal gyri.
- Field 7 - tertiary zone. Located in the upper parts of the parietal lobe between the postcentral gyrus and the occipital lobe
- Field 8 - located in the posterior sections of the upper and middle frontal gyri. Includes the center of voluntary movements eyes
- Field 9 - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- Field 10 - anterior prefrontal cortex
- Field 11 - olfactory area
- Field 12 -
- Field 13 -
- Field 14 -
- Field 15 -
- Field 16 -
- Field 17 - nuclear zone of the visual analyzer - visual area, primary zone
- Field 18 - the nuclear zone of the visual analyzer - the center of perception of written speech, the secondary zone
- Field 19 - nuclear zone of the visual analyzer, secondary zone (assessment of the value of what was seen)
- Field 20 - inferior temporal gyrus (center of the vestibular analyzer, complex pattern recognition)
- Field 21 - middle temporal gyrus (center of the vestibular analyzer)
- Field 22 - sound analyzer nuclear zone
- Field 23 -
- Field 24 - error detector
- Field 25 -
- Field 26 -
- Field 27 -
- Field 28 - projection fields and associative zone of the olfactory system
- Field 29 -
- Field 30 -
- Field 31 -
- Field 32 - dorsal zone of the anterior cingulate cortex. Receptor area of emotional experiences.
- Field 33 -
- Field 34 -
- Field 35 -
- Field 36 -
- Field 37 - Acoustic-gnostic sensory center of speech. This field controls the labor processes of speech, is responsible for the understanding of speech. Face Recognition Center.
- Field 38 -
- Field 39 - angular gyrus, part of Wernicke's area (center of the visual analyzer of written speech)
- Field 40 - marginal gyrus, part of Wernicke's zone (motor analyzer of complex professional, labor and everyday skills)
- Field 41 - sound analyzer nuclear zone, primary zone
- Field 42 - sound analyzer core zone, secondary zone
- Field 43 - taste area
- Field 44 - Center Brock
- Field 45 - triangular part of the Brodmann field (musical motor center)
- Field 46 - motor analyzer of the combined rotation of the head and eyes in different directions
- Field 47 - the nuclear zone of singing, its speech motor component
- Field 48 -
- Field 49 -
- Field 50 -
- Field 51 -
- Field 52 - the nuclear zone of the auditory analyzer, which is responsible for the spatial perception of sounds and speech
Cytoarchitectonic Brodmann fields
Lateral surface of the brain with numbered Brodmann fields.
Central part of the brain with numbered Brodmann fields.
Brodmann fields- departments of the cerebral cortex, differing in their cytoarchitectonics (structure at the cellular level). There are 52 Brodmann cytoarchitectonic fields.
Brodmann fields
- Fields 3, 1 and 2 - somatosensory area, primary zone. They are located in the postcentral gyrus. In connection with the generality of functions, the term " fields 3, 1 and 2» (front to back)
- Field 4 - motor area. Located within the precentral gyrus
- Field 5 - secondary somatosensory zone. Located within the superior parietal lobule
- Field 6 - premotor cortex and supplementary motor cortex (secondary motor area). It is located in the anterior sections of the precentral and posterior sections of the superior and middle frontal gyri.
- Field 7 - tertiary zone. Located in the upper parietal lobe between the postcentral gyrus and the occipital lobe
- Field 8 - located in the posterior sections of the upper and middle frontal gyri. Includes the center of voluntary eye movements
- Field 9 - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
- Field 10 - anterior prefrontal cortex
- Field 11 - olfactory area
- Field 12 -
- Field 13 -
- Field 14 -
- Field 15 -
- Field 16 -
- Field 17 - nuclear zone of the visual analyzer - visual area, primary zone
- Field 18 - the nuclear zone of the visual analyzer - the center of perception of written speech, the secondary zone
- Field 19 - nuclear zone of the visual analyzer, secondary zone
- Field 20 - inferior temporal gyrus (center of the vestibular analyzer)
- Field 21 - middle temporal gyrus (center of the vestibular analyzer)
- Field 22 - sound analyzer nuclear zone
- Field 23 -
- Field 24 - error detector
- Field 25 -
- Field 26 -
- Field 27 -
- Field 28 - projection fields and associative zone of the olfactory system
- Field 29 -
- Field 30 -
- Field 31 -
- Field 32 - dorsal zone of the anterior cingulate cortex
- Field 33 -
- Field 34 -
- Field 35 -
- Field 36 -
- Field 37 - tertiary zone
- Field 38 -
- Field 39 - angular gyrus, part of Wernicke's area (center of the visual analyzer of written speech)
- Field 40 - marginal gyrus, part of Wernicke's zone (motor analyzer of complex professional, labor and everyday skills)
- Field 41 - sound analyzer nuclear zone, primary zone
- Field 42 - sound analyzer core zone, secondary zone
- Field 43 - taste area
- Field 44 - Broca Center
- Field 45 - triangular part of the Brodmann field (musical motor center)
- Field 46 - motor analyzer of the combined rotation of the head and eyes in different directions
- Field 47 -
- Field 48 -
- Field 49 -
- Field 50 -
- Field 51 -
- Field 52 -
Notes
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Many scientists participated in the analysis of the structure of the cortex (Economo, Betz, Vogt, Bailey, and others). Their maps of cortical fields differ in the number of fields, the absence of clear boundary lines, and great individual variability. The most recognized are the maps of K. Brodman, who identified 52 fields on the surface of the hemispheric cortex ( , ).
I.P. Pavlov believed that the cerebral cortex can be represented as a collection of centers of various analyzers. It is believed that the center consists of a nucleus, which has a certain localization in the cortex, between which there are scattered elements belonging to different analyzers. This allows us to speak about the dynamic localization of functions in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. At the same time, the functions of the cortical fields are associated with the opposite half of the human body, because. all the paths connecting them necessarily cross. IP Pavlov divided all analyzer centers into two signal systems.
TO THE FIRST SIGNAL SYSTEM (SI) he attributed those centers that perceive signals from the external or internal environment in the form of sensations, impressions, ideas ( except for speech and words). These centers are present in both animals and humans. They are located in both hemispheres, given from birth and are not restored when destroyed. These include (Fig. 26, 27):
1, 2, 3
- cores of general sensitivity (temperature, pain, tactile and proprioceptive).
4, 6
- the core of the motor analyzer. It has developed cells 5
layer of the cortex that innervates the muscles of the opposite half of the body. The muscles of the body are projected onto the anterior central gyrus (motor field) and the near-central lobule, as it were, upside down (motor homunculus).
8
- premotor field.
46
- Combined head and eye rotation. This nucleus receives impulses from the receptors of the muscles of the eyeball and from representation in the cortex of the retina (from field 17).
5, 7
- stereognosy. The receptors of the upper limb are projected into this center to recognize objects by touch.
40
- praxia. The implementation of all complex combined movements acquired as a result of practical activities, mainly professional.
41, 42, 52
- the core of the auditory analyzer (on the convolutions of Heschl), fibers from the left and right ear approach its cells, therefore, a unilateral lesion of the core does not lead to complete hearing loss:
41
- primary field, it perceives impulses,
42
- psychological field, auditory memory,
52
- evaluation field, with its help we orient ourselves in space.
17, 18, 19
- the core of the visual analyzer, fibers from the lateral side of the retina of the eye of its half of the body, as well as from the medial retina of the eye of the opposite half of the body, approach its cells. Therefore, complete cortical occurs when the centers of both hemispheres are affected:
17
- primary field,
18
- psychological,
19
- appraisal.
A, E, 11- the core of the olfactory analyzer, located in the most ancient structures of the cerebral cortex (in the hook and hippocampus)
43
- the core of the taste analyzer. As V. M. Bekhterev noted, this analyzer is closely interconnected with the olfactory fields of both hemispheres.
Thus, the "psychological" areas of the cortex (19, 42, 5 and 7) cause the evaluation or association of various information. They surround the supramarginal (marginal) lobule and are closely interconnected with it, therefore, a violation in this lobule affects the generalization of information and its understanding.
Rice. 28. Cytoarchitectonic fields of the cerebral cortex (upper lateral surface) 
Rice. 29. Cytoarchitectonic fields of the cerebral cortex (medial surface)
SECOND SIGNALING SYSTEM (SII) is available only in humans. It is due to the development of speech and, as I. P. Pavlov believed, is "signals of signals." They represent a distraction from reality, allow the generalization of information and form the basis of higher thinking. Speech and mental functions are performed with the participation of the entire cortex. However, certain fields can be distinguished, which have strictly defined speech functions. Speech centers develop after birth, usually in the left hemisphere (there are exceptions for left-handers). If they are lost, a person can again develop speech centers, but in this case other fields will take over their function.
44
- the core of the motor analyzer of written speech, innervates the thin muscles of the hand and fingers. For left-handers, this center is located in the right hemisphere. With the destruction of this center, there is a loss of the ability to write - agrophy.
45
- the core of the motor analyzer of oral speech (Brock). Innervates the muscles of the larynx, tongue, lips, and others involved in articulation. Motor aphasia is the loss of the ability to pronounce words.
47
- speech analyzer of singing, allows you to pronounce words in a singsong voice Used to restore speech in children with
External surface Figure 2
Outside surface
1, 2, 3, 5, 7.43 (partially) - representation of skin and proprioceptive sensitivity;
4 - motor zone;
6, 8,9, 10 - premotor and additional motor areas;
11 - representation of olfactory reception;
17, 18, 19 - representation of visual reception;
20, 21, 22, 37,41,42,44 - representation of auditory reception;
37, 42 - auditory speech center;
41 - projection of the organ of Corti;
44 - the motor center of speech.
(According to Brodman)
2.3. Basic principles of brain structure
The brain as a substrate of mental processes is a single system, a single whole, which, however, consists of different sections and zones that play a different role in the implementation of mental functions.
All data (anatomical, physiological and clinical) testify to the leading role of the cerebral cortex in the cerebral organization of mental processes.
In neuropsychology, based on the analysis of neuropsychological data (i.e., the study of disorders of mental processes in various local lesions of the brain), a general structural and functional model of the brain as a substrate of mental activity was developed. This model, proposed by A. Luria, characterizes the most general patterns of the brain as a whole and is the basis for explaining its integrative activity. According to this model (Fig. 3), the entire brain can be subdivided into three main structural and functional blocks: a) an energy block, or a block regulating brain activity levels; b) a block for receiving, processing and storing exteroceptive (coming from outside) information; c) a block of programming, regulation and control over the course of mental activity. Each higher mental function is carried out with the participation of all three blocks, each of which contributes to its implementation. Blocks are characterized by certain structural features, the physiological principles underlying their work, and the role they play in the implementation of mental functions.
The first energy block regulates two types of activation processes: generalized changes in brain activation, which are the basis of various functional states, and local selective activation changes necessary for the implementation of higher mental functions.
The functional significance of the first block in providing mental functions primarily consists, as mentioned above, in the regulation of activation processes, in ensuring that
Structural-functional model of the integrative work of the brain, proposed by A.R. Luria
Figure 3
BUT- the first block of regulation of general and selective nonspecific activation of the brain, including the reticular structures of the brainstem, midbrain and diencephalic regions, as well as the limbic system and mediobasal regions of the cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain:
corpus callosum,
midbrain,
mediobasal regions of the right frontal lobe of the brain,
Cerebellum,
Reticular formation of the trunk,
Medial regions of the right temporal lobe of the brain
thalamus;
B- the second block for receiving, processing and storing exteroceptive information, including the main analyzer systems (visual, skin-kinesthetic, auditory), the cortical zones of which are located in the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres:
Parietal region (general sensitive cortex),
occipital region (visual cortex),
Temporal region (auditory cortex),
central sulcus;
AT- the third block of programming, regulation and control over the course of mental activity, including the motor, premotor and prefrontal parts of the brain with their two-way connections:
prefrontal area,
premotor area,
Motor area (precentral gyrus),
central furrow,
(According to Khamskaya)
the general activation level, at which all mental functions are played out, in maintaining the general tone of the central nervous system, which is necessary for any mental activity. This aspect of the work of the first block is directly related to the processes of attention, as well as consciousness in general. In addition to general non-specific activation functions, the first block of the brain is directly associated with memory processes, with the imprinting, storage and processing of information of different modalities. The second block - the block for receiving, processing and storing information includes the main analytical systems: visual, auditory and skin-kinesthetic, the cortical sections (zones) of which are located in the posterior sections of the cerebral hemispheres. All three analyzer systems are organized according to a general principle: they consist of peripheral (receptor) and central sections. The central sections of the analyzers include several levels, the last of which is the cerebral cortex. In general, analyzers are devices that prepare the body's responses to external stimuli. The cortex of the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres has a number of common features that make it possible to combine different levels of analyzer systems into a single block of the brain. In the cortex of the posterior parts of the brain, primary, secondary and tertiary fields are distinguished, and according to the terminology of I. Pavlov - “nuclear zones of analyzers” and “periphery”. The nuclear zone of the visual analyzer includes the 17th, 18th and 19th fields, the nuclear zone of the skin-kinesthetic analyzer - the 3rd, 1st, 2nd, partially 5th field, the nuclear zone of the sound analyzer - 41st, 42nd and 22nd fields, of which the primary fields are 17th, 3rd and 41st. The rest are secondary.
Secondary cortical fields carry out the synthesis of stimuli, the functional association of various analyzer zones, taking a direct part in providing various gnostic types of mental activity.
The tertiary fields of the cerebral cortex are outside the "nuclear zones" of the analyzers. These include the upper parietal region (7 and 40), the lower parietal region (39), the middle temporal region (21 and partially 37). The functional significance of the tertiary fields of the cortex is diverse. With their participation, complex
supramodality types of mental activity - symbolic, speech, intellectual.
The third structural and functional block of the brain - the block of programming, regulation and control over the course of mental activity - includes the motor, premotor and prefrontal sections of the cortex of the frontal sections of the brain. The cortex of the frontal lobes of the brain occupies 24% of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The frontal cortex is divided into motor cortex (4, 6) and non-motor (9, 10, 11, 12, 46, 47). These areas have different structures and functions. The motor frontal cortex constitutes the nuclear zone of the motor analyzer.
The general structural and functional model of brain organization proposed by A. R. Luria suggests that various stages of voluntary mediated speech of conscious mental activity are carried out with the obligatory participation of all three blocks of the brain.
According to modern psychological concepts, each mental activity has a strictly defined structure: it begins with a phase of motives, intentions, plans, which then turn into a specific program of activity, including an “image of the result” and ideas about how to implement this program, and then is realized with the help of certain operations. Psychic activity ends with the stage of comparing the obtained results with the initial “image of the result”. In case of discrepancy between the obtained data, mental activity continues until the desired result is obtained. The defeat of any of the three blocks (or violation of any departments of these blocks) is reflected in any mental activity, as it leads to a violation of the corresponding stage or stage of its implementation. This general scheme of the formation of the brain as a substrate for complex conscious forms of mental activity finds concrete confirmation in the analysis of various disorders of higher mental functions resulting from local brain lesions.