78 percent of the atmosphere. Atmosphere and the world of atmospheric phenomena. How did the Earth's atmosphere form?

The exact size of the atmosphere is unknown, since its upper boundary is not clearly visible. However, the structure of the atmosphere has been studied enough so that everyone can get an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhow the gaseous shell of our planet is arranged.

Atmospheric physics scientists define it as the area around the Earth that rotates with the planet. The FAI gives the following definition:

• The boundary between space and the atmosphere runs along the Karman line. This line, according to the definition of the same organization, is the height above sea level, located at an altitude of 100 km.

Everything above this line is outer space. The atmosphere gradually passes into interplanetary space, which is why there are different ideas about its size.

With the lower boundary of the atmosphere, everything is much simpler - it passes through the surface of the earth's crust and the water surface of the Earth - the hydrosphere. At the same time, the boundary, one might say, merges with the earth and water surfaces, since particles of air are also dissolved there.

What layers of the atmosphere are included in the size of the Earth

Interesting fact: in winter it is lower, in summer it is higher.

It is in this layer that turbulence, anticyclones and cyclones arise, clouds form. It is this sphere that is responsible for the formation of the weather; approximately 80% of all air masses are located in it.

The tropopause is the layer in which temperature does not decrease with height. Above the tropopause, at an altitude above 11 and up to 50 km, is the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains a layer of ozone, which is known to protect the planet from ultraviolet rays. The air in this layer is rarefied, which explains the characteristic purple hue of the sky. The speed of air currents here can reach 300 km/h. Between the stratosphere and the mesosphere is the stratopause - the boundary sphere, in which the temperature maximum takes place.

The next layer is the mesosphere. It extends to heights of 85-90 kilometers. The color of the sky in the mesosphere is black, so the stars can be observed even in the morning and afternoon. The most complex photochemical processes take place there, during which atmospheric glow occurs.

Between the mesosphere and the next layer, the thermosphere, is the mesopause. It is defined as a transition layer in which a temperature minimum is observed. Above, at an altitude of 100 kilometers above sea level, is the Karman line. Above this line are the thermosphere (altitude limit 800 km) and the exosphere, which is also called the "dispersion zone". At an altitude of about 2-3 thousand kilometers, it passes into the near space vacuum.

Given that the upper layer of the atmosphere is not clearly visible, its exact size cannot be calculated. In addition, there are organizations in different countries with different opinions on this matter. It should be noted that Karman line can be considered the boundary of the earth's atmosphere only conditionally, since different sources use different boundary marks. So, in some sources you can find information that the upper limit passes at an altitude of 2500-3000 km.

NASA uses the 122 kilometer mark for calculations. Not so long ago, experiments were carried out that clarified the border as located at around 118 km.

At 0 °C - 1.0048 10 3 J / (kg K), C v - 0.7159 10 3 J / (kg K) (at 0 °C). The solubility of air in water (by mass) at 0 ° C - 0.0036%, at 25 ° C - 0.0023%.

In addition to the gases indicated in the table, the atmosphere contains Cl 2, SO 2, NH 3, CO, O 3, NO 2, hydrocarbons, HCl,, HBr, vapors, I 2, Br 2, as well as many other gases in minor quantities. In the troposphere there is constantly a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol). Radon (Rn) is the rarest gas in the Earth's atmosphere.

The structure of the atmosphere

boundary layer of the atmosphere

The lower layer of the atmosphere adjacent to the Earth's surface (1-2 km thick) in which the influence of this surface directly affects its dynamics.

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor present in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are strongly developed in the troposphere, clouds appear, cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 m

tropopause

The transitional layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere in which the decrease in temperature with height stops.

Stratosphere

The layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. A slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and its increase in the 25-40 km layer from −56.5 to 0.8 ° (upper stratosphere or inversion region) are characteristic. Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.

Stratopause

The boundary layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. There is a maximum in the vertical temperature distribution (about 0 °C).

Mesosphere

The mesosphere begins at an altitude of 50 km and extends up to 80-90 km. The temperature decreases with height with an average vertical gradient of (0.25-0.3)°/100 m. The main energy process is radiant heat transfer. Complex photochemical processes involving free radicals, vibrationally excited molecules, etc., cause atmospheric luminescence.

mesopause

Transitional layer between mesosphere and thermosphere. There is a minimum in the vertical temperature distribution (about -90 °C).

Karman Line

Altitude above sea level, which is conventionally accepted as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space. According to the FAI definition, the Karman Line is at an altitude of 100 km above sea level.

Thermosphere

The upper limit is about 800 km. The temperature rises to altitudes of 200-300 km, where it reaches values ​​of the order of 1226.85 C, after which it remains almost constant up to high altitudes. Under the influence of solar radiation and cosmic radiation, air is ionized (“ auroras”) - the main regions of the ionosphere lie inside the thermosphere. At altitudes above 300 km, atomic oxygen predominates. The upper limit of the thermosphere is largely determined by the current activity of the Sun. During periods of low activity - for example, in 2008-2009 - there is a noticeable decrease in the size of this layer.

Thermopause

The region of the atmosphere above the thermosphere. In this region, the absorption of solar radiation is insignificant and the temperature does not actually change with height.

Exosphere (sphere of scattering)

Up to a height of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous, well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases in height depends on their molecular masses, the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to −110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200–250 km corresponds to a temperature of ~150 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density are observed in time and space.

At an altitude of about 2000-3500 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas is only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part is composed of dust-like particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to extremely rarefied dust-like particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

Review

The troposphere accounts for about 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, the stratosphere accounts for about 20%; the mass of the mesosphere is no more than 0.3%, the thermosphere is less than 0.05% of the total mass of the atmosphere.

Based on the electrical properties in the atmosphere, they emit the neutrosphere and ionosphere .

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, they emit homosphere and heterosphere. heterosphere- this is an area where gravity affects the separation of gases, since their mixing at such a height is negligible. Hence follows the variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere, called the homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called turbopause, it lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Other properties of the atmosphere and effects on the human body

Already at an altitude of 5 km above sea level, an untrained person develops oxygen starvation and, without adaptation, a person's performance is significantly reduced. This is where the physiological zone of the atmosphere ends. Human breathing becomes impossible at an altitude of 9 km, although up to about 115 km the atmosphere contains oxygen.

The atmosphere provides us with the oxygen we need to breathe. However, due to the drop in the total pressure of the atmosphere as you rise to a height, the partial pressure of oxygen also decreases accordingly.

In rarefied layers of air, the propagation of sound is impossible. Up to altitudes of 60-90 km, it is still possible to use air resistance and lift for controlled aerodynamic flight. But starting from altitudes of 100-130 km, the concepts of the M number and the sound barrier familiar to every pilot lose their meaning: there passes the conditional Karman line, beyond which the area of ​​​​purely ballistic flight begins, which can only be controlled using reactive forces.

At altitudes above 100 km, the atmosphere is also deprived of another remarkable property - the ability to absorb, conduct and transfer thermal energy by convection (that is, by mixing air). This means that various elements of equipment, equipment of the orbital space station will not be able to be cooled from the outside in the way it is usually done on an airplane - with the help of air jets and air radiators. At such a height, as in space in general, the only way to transfer heat is thermal radiation.

History of the formation of the atmosphere

According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere has been in three different compositions throughout its history. Initially, it consisted of light gases (hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This so-called primary atmosphere. At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to the saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, water vapor). This is how secondary atmosphere. This atmosphere was restorative. Further, the process of formation of the atmosphere was determined by the following factors:

• leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space;
• chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors.

Gradually, these factors led to the formation tertiary atmosphere, characterized by a much lower content of hydrogen and a much higher content of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (formed as a result of chemical reactions from ammonia and hydrocarbons).

Nitrogen

The formation of a large amount of nitrogen N 2 is due to the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular oxygen O 2, which began to come from the surface of the planet as a result of photosynthesis, starting from 3 billion years ago. Nitrogen N 2 is also released into the atmosphere as a result of the denitrification of nitrates and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO in the upper atmosphere.

Nitrogen N 2 enters into reactions only under specific conditions (for example, during a lightning discharge). Oxidation of molecular nitrogen by ozone during electrical discharges is used in small quantities in the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers. It can be oxidized with low energy consumption and converted into a biologically active form by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and nodule bacteria that form a rhizobial symbiosis with legumes, which can be effective green manure plants that do not deplete, but enrich the soil with natural fertilizers.

Oxygen

The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the advent of living organisms on Earth, as a result of photosynthesis, accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide. Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, the ferrous form of iron contained in the oceans, etc. At the end of this stage, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to grow. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties formed. Since this caused serious and abrupt changes in many processes occurring in the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, this event was called the Oxygen catastrophe.

noble gases

Air pollution

Recently, man has begun to influence the evolution of the atmosphere. The result of human activity has been a constant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels accumulated in previous geological epochs. Huge amounts of CO 2 are consumed during photosynthesis and absorbed by the world's oceans. This gas enters the atmosphere due to the decomposition of carbonate rocks and organic substances of plant and animal origin, as well as due to volcanism and human production activities. Over the past 100 years, the content of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased by 10%, with the main part (360 billion tons) coming from fuel combustion. If the growth rate of fuel combustion continues, then in the next 200-300 years the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere will double and may lead to global climate change.

Fuel combustion is the main source of polluting gases (СО,, SO 2). Sulfur dioxide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to SO 3, and nitric oxide to NO 2 in the upper atmosphere, which in turn interact with water vapor, and the resulting sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4 and nitric acid HNO 3 fall on the Earth's surface in the form so-called. acid rain. The use of internal combustion engines leads to significant air pollution with nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and lead compounds (tetraethyl lead Pb (CH 3 CH 2) 4).

Aerosol pollution of the atmosphere is caused both by natural causes (volcanic eruption, dust storms, entrainment of sea water droplets and plant pollen, etc.) and by human economic activity (mining of ores and building materials, fuel combustion, cement production, etc.). Intense large-scale removal of solid particles into the atmosphere is one of the possible causes of climate change on the planet.

see also

• Jacchia (atmosphere model)

Write a review on the article "Atmosphere of the Earth"

Notes

1. M. I. Budyko , K. Ya. Kondratiev Atmosphere of the Earth // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970. - T. 2. Angola - Barzas. - pp. 380-384.
2. - article from the Geological Encyclopedia
4. Gribbin, John. Science. A History (1543-2001). - L. : Penguin Books, 2003. - 648 p. - ISBN 978-0-140-29741-6.
5. Tans, Pieter. Globally averaged marine surface annual mean data . NOAA/ESRL. Retrieved February 19, 2014.(English) (for 2013)
6. IPCC (English) (for 1998).
7. S. P. Khromov Air humidity // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1971. - T. 5. Veshin - Gazli. - S. 149.
8. (English) , SpaceDaily, 07/16/2010

Literature

1. V. V. Parin, F. P. Kosmolinsky, B. A. Dushkov"Space biology and medicine" (2nd edition, revised and supplemented), M .: "Prosveshchenie", 1975, 223 pages.
2. N. V. Gusakova"Chemistry of the environment", Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2004, 192 with ISBN 5-222-05386-5
3. Sokolov V. A. Geochemistry of natural gases, M., 1971;
4. McEwen M, Phillips L. Chemistry of the atmosphere, M., 1978;
5. Wark K., Warner S. Air pollution. Sources and control, trans. from English, M.. 1980;
6. Monitoring of background pollution of natural environments. in. 1, L., 1982.

Links

• // December 17, 2013, FOBOS Center

History of the Earth Physical properties of the Earth Shells of the Earth Geography and geology Environment see also

An excerpt characterizing the Earth's atmosphere

When Pierre approached them, he noticed that Vera was in the self-satisfied enthusiasm of the conversation, Prince Andrei (which rarely happened to him) seemed embarrassed.
- What do you think? Vera said with a thin smile. - You, prince, are so insightful and understand the character of people at once. What do you think of Natalie, can she be constant in her affections, can she, like other women (Vera understood herself), love a person once and remain faithful to him forever? This is what I consider true love. What do you think, prince?
“I know your sister too little,” answered Prince Andrei with a mocking smile, under which he wanted to hide his embarrassment, “to solve such a delicate question; and then I noticed that the less a woman likes, the more constant she is, ”he added and looked at Pierre, who had approached them at that time.
- Yes, it's true, prince; in our time, Vera continued (referring to our time, as limited people generally like to mention, believing that they have found and appreciated the features of our time and that the properties of people change with time), in our time the girl has so much freedom that le plaisir d "etre courtisee [the pleasure of having fans] often drowns out the true feeling in her. Et Nathalie, il faut l" avouer, y est tres sensible. [And Natalya, it must be confessed, is very sensitive to this.] The return to Natalya again made Prince Andrei frown unpleasantly; he wanted to get up, but Vera continued with an even more refined smile.
“I don’t think anyone was as courtisee [object of courtship] as she was,” Vera said; - but never, until very recently, did she seriously like anyone. You know, count, - she turned to Pierre, - even our dear cousin Boris, who was, entre nous [between us], very, very dans le pays du tendre ... [in the land of tenderness ...]
Prince Andrei frowned silently.
Are you friends with Boris? Vera told him.
- Yes, I know him…
- Did he tell you right about his childhood love for Natasha?
Was there childhood love? - suddenly suddenly blushing, asked Prince Andrei.
- Yes. Vous savez entre cousin et cousine cette intimate mene quelquefois a l "amour: le cousinage est un dangereux voisinage, N" est ce pas? [You know, between cousin and sister, this closeness sometimes leads to love. Such kinship is a dangerous neighborhood. Is not it?]
“Oh, without a doubt,” said Prince Andrei, and suddenly, unnaturally animated, he began to joke with Pierre about how careful he should be in his treatment of his 50-year-old Moscow cousins, and in the middle of a joking conversation, he got up and, taking under the arm of Pierre, took him aside.
- Well? - said Pierre, looking with surprise at the strange animation of his friend and noticing the look that he threw at Natasha getting up.
“I need, I need to talk to you,” said Prince Andrei. - You know our women's gloves (he talked about those Masonic gloves that were given to the newly elected brother to present to his beloved woman). - I ... But no, I'll talk to you later ... - And with a strange gleam in his eyes and restlessness in his movements, Prince Andrei went up to Natasha and sat down beside her. Pierre saw how Prince Andrei asked her something, and she, flushing, answered him.
But at this time, Berg approached Pierre, urging him to take part in a dispute between the general and the colonel about Spanish affairs.
Berg was pleased and happy. The smile of joy never left his face. The evening was very good and exactly like the other evenings he had seen. Everything was similar. And ladylike, subtle conversations, and cards, and behind the cards a general raising his voice, and a samovar, and cookies; but one thing was still missing, that which he always saw at parties, which he wished to imitate.
There was a lack of loud conversation between men and an argument about something important and clever. The general started this conversation and Berg brought Pierre to it.

The next day, Prince Andrei went to the Rostovs for dinner, as Count Ilya Andreich called him, and spent the whole day with them.
Everyone in the house felt for whom Prince Andrei went, and he, without hiding, tried all day to be with Natasha. Not only in the soul of Natasha, frightened, but happy and enthusiastic, but in the whole house, fear was felt before something important that had to happen. The Countess looked at Prince Andrei with sad and seriously stern eyes when he spoke with Natasha, and timidly and feignedly began some kind of insignificant conversation, as soon as he looked back at her. Sonya was afraid to leave Natasha and was afraid to be a hindrance when she was with them. Natasha turned pale with fear of anticipation when she remained face to face with him for minutes. Prince Andrei struck her with his timidity. She felt that he needed to tell her something, but that he could not bring himself to do so.
When Prince Andrei left in the evening, the countess went up to Natasha and said in a whisper:
- Well?
- Mom, for God's sake don't ask me anything now. You can’t say that,” Natasha said.
But despite the fact that that evening Natasha, now agitated, now frightened, with stopping eyes, lay for a long time in her mother's bed. Now she told her how he praised her, then how he said that he would go abroad, then how he asked where they would live this summer, then how he asked her about Boris.
“But this, this… has never happened to me!” she said. “Only I’m scared around him, I’m always scared around him, what does that mean?” So it's real, right? Mom, are you sleeping?
“No, my soul, I myself am afraid,” answered the mother. - Go.
“I won’t sleep anyway. What's wrong with sleeping? Mommy, mommy, this has never happened to me! she said with astonishment and fear before the feeling that she was aware of in herself. - And could we think! ...
It seemed to Natasha that even when she first saw Prince Andrei in Otradnoye, she fell in love with him. She seemed to be frightened by this strange, unexpected happiness that the one whom she had chosen back then (she was firmly convinced of this), that the same one had now met her again, and, as it seems, was not indifferent to her. “And it was necessary for him, now that we are here, to come to Petersburg on purpose. And we should have met at this ball. All this is fate. It is clear that this is fate, that all this was led to this. Even then, as soon as I saw him, I felt something special.
What else did he tell you? What verses are these? Read it ... - thoughtfully said the mother, asking about the poems that Prince Andrei wrote in Natasha's album.
- Mom, is it not a shame that he is a widower?
- That's it, Natasha. Pray to God. Les Marieiages se font dans les cieux. [Marriages are made in heaven.]
“Darling, mother, how I love you, how good it is for me!” Natasha shouted, crying tears of happiness and excitement and hugging her mother.
At the same time, Prince Andrei was sitting with Pierre and telling him about his love for Natasha and about his firm intention to marry her.

On that day, Countess Elena Vasilievna had a reception, there was a French envoy, there was a prince, who had recently become a frequent visitor to the countess's house, and many brilliant ladies and men. Pierre was downstairs, walked through the halls, and struck all the guests with his concentrated, absent-minded and gloomy look.
From the time of the ball, Pierre felt the approach of fits of hypochondria in himself and with a desperate effort tried to fight against them. From the time of the prince’s rapprochement with his wife, Pierre was unexpectedly granted a chamberlain, and from that time on he began to feel heaviness and shame in a large society, and more often the same gloomy thoughts about the futility of everything human began to come to him. At the same time, the feeling he noticed between Natasha, who was patronized by him, and Prince Andrei, his opposition between his position and the position of his friend, further strengthened this gloomy mood. He equally tried to avoid thoughts about his wife and about Natasha and Prince Andrei. Again everything seemed to him insignificant in comparison with eternity, again the question presented itself: “what for?”. And he forced himself day and night to work on the Masonic works, hoping to drive away the approach of the evil spirit. Pierre at 12 o'clock, leaving the countess's chambers, was sitting upstairs in a smoky, low room, in a worn dressing gown in front of the table and copying genuine Scottish acts, when someone entered his room. It was Prince Andrew.
“Ah, it’s you,” said Pierre with an absent-minded and displeased look. “But I’m working,” he said, pointing to a notebook with that kind of salvation from the hardships of life with which unhappy people look at their work.
Prince Andrei, with a radiant, enthusiastic face renewed to life, stopped in front of Pierre and, not noticing his sad face, smiled at him with egoism of happiness.
“Well, my soul,” he said, “yesterday I wanted to tell you and today I came to you for this. Never experienced anything like it. I'm in love my friend.
Pierre suddenly sighed heavily and sank down with his heavy body on the sofa, next to Prince Andrei.
- To Natasha Rostov, right? - he said.
- Yes, yes, in whom? I would never believe it, but this feeling is stronger than me. Yesterday I suffered, suffered, but I will not give up this torment for anything in the world. I haven't lived before. Now only I live, but I can't live without her. But can she love me?... I'm old for her... What don't you say?...
- I? I? What did I tell you, - Pierre suddenly said, getting up and starting to walk around the room. “I always thought that… This girl is such a treasure, such… This is a rare girl… Dear friend, I beg you, don’t think, don’t hesitate, get married, get married and get married… And I’m sure that no one will be happier than you.
- But she!
- She loves you.
“Don’t talk nonsense ...” said Prince Andrei, smiling and looking into Pierre’s eyes.
“He loves, I know,” Pierre shouted angrily.
“No, listen,” said Prince Andrei, stopping him by the hand. Do you know what position I'm in? I need to tell everything to someone.
“Well, well, say, I’m very glad,” Pierre said, and indeed his face changed, the wrinkle smoothed out, and he joyfully listened to Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei seemed and was a completely different, new person. Where was his anguish, his contempt for life, his disappointment? Pierre was the only person before whom he dared to speak out; but on the other hand, he told him everything that was in his soul. Either he easily and boldly made plans for a long future, talked about how he could not sacrifice his happiness for the whim of his father, how he would force his father to agree to this marriage and love her or do without his consent, then he was surprised how on something strange, alien, independent of him, against the feeling that possessed him.
“I would not believe someone who would tell me that I can love like that,” said Prince Andrei. “It's not the same feeling I had before. The whole world is divided for me into two halves: one is she and there is all the happiness of hope, light; the other half - everything where it is not there, there is all despondency and darkness ...
“Darkness and gloom,” Pierre repeated, “yes, yes, I understand that.
“I can't help but love the light, it's not my fault. And I am very happy. You understand me? I know that you are happy for me.
“Yes, yes,” Pierre confirmed, looking at his friend with touching and sad eyes. The brighter the fate of Prince Andrei seemed to him, the darker his own seemed.

For marriage, the consent of the father was needed, and for this, the next day, Prince Andrei went to his father.
The father, with outward calm, but inward malice, received his son's message. He could not understand that someone wanted to change life, to bring something new into it, when life was already ending for him. “They would only let me live the way I want, and then they would do what they wanted,” the old man said to himself. With his son, however, he used the diplomacy he used on important occasions. Assuming a calm tone, he discussed the whole matter.
Firstly, the marriage was not brilliant in relation to kinship, wealth and nobility. Secondly, Prince Andrei was not the first youth and was in poor health (the old man especially leaned on this), and she was very young. Thirdly, there was a son whom it was a pity to give to a girl. Fourthly, finally, - said the father, looking mockingly at his son, - I ask you, put the matter aside for a year, go abroad, take medical treatment, find, as you like, a German, for Prince Nikolai, and then, if it’s love, passion, stubbornness, whatever you want, so great, then get married.
“And this is my last word, you know, the last ...” the prince finished in such a tone that he showed that nothing would make him change his mind.
Prince Andrei clearly saw that the old man hoped that the feeling of his or his future bride would not stand the test of the year, or that he himself, the old prince, would die by this time, and decided to fulfill his father's will: to propose and postpone the wedding for a year.
Three weeks after his last evening at the Rostovs, Prince Andrei returned to Petersburg.

The next day after her explanation with her mother, Natasha waited all day for Bolkonsky, but he did not arrive. The next day, the third day, it was the same. Pierre also did not come, and Natasha, not knowing that Prince Andrei had gone to her father, could not explain his absence to herself.
So three weeks passed. Natasha did not want to go anywhere, and like a shadow, idle and despondent, she walked around the rooms, in the evening she secretly cried from everyone and did not appear in the evenings to her mother. She was constantly blushing and irritated. It seemed to her that everyone knew about her disappointment, laughed and regretted her. With all the strength of inner grief, this vainglorious grief increased her misfortune.
One day she came to the countess, wanted to say something to her, and suddenly burst into tears. Her tears were the tears of an offended child who himself does not know why he is being punished.
The Countess began to reassure Natasha. Natasha, who at first listened to her mother's words, suddenly interrupted her:
- Stop it, mom, I don’t think, and I don’t want to think! So, I traveled and stopped, and stopped ...
Her voice trembled, she almost burst into tears, but she recovered herself and calmly continued: “And I don’t want to get married at all. And I'm afraid of him; I am now completely, completely, calmed down ...
The next day after this conversation, Natasha put on that old dress, which she was especially aware of for the cheerfulness it delivered in the morning, and in the morning she began her former way of life, from which she lagged behind after the ball. After drinking tea, she went to the hall, which she especially loved for its strong resonance, and began to sing her solfeji (singing exercises). Having finished the first lesson, she stopped in the middle of the hall and repeated one musical phrase that she especially liked. She listened joyfully to that (as if unexpected for her) charm with which these sounds, shimmering, filled the entire emptiness of the hall and slowly died away, and she suddenly became cheerful. “Why think about it so much and so well,” she said to herself, and began to walk up and down the hall, stepping not with simple steps on the resonant parquet, but at every step stepping from heel (she was wearing new, favorite shoes) to toe, and just as joyfully as to the sounds of his voice, listening to this measured clatter of heels and the creaking of socks. Passing by a mirror, she looked into it. - "Here I am!" as if the expression on her face at the sight of herself spoke. “Well, that's good. And I don't need anyone."
The footman wanted to come in to clean up something in the hall, but she did not let him in, again shutting the door behind him, and continued her walk. She returned that morning again to her beloved state of self-love and admiration for herself. - “What a charm this Natasha is!” she said again to herself in the words of some third, collective, masculine face. - "Good, voice, young, and she does not interfere with anyone, just leave her alone." But no matter how much they left her alone, she could no longer be at peace, and immediately felt it.
In the front door the entrance door opened, someone asked: are you at home? and someone's footsteps were heard. Natasha looked in the mirror, but she did not see herself. She listened to the sounds in the hallway. When she saw herself, her face was pale. It was he. She knew this for sure, although she barely heard the sound of his voice from the closed doors.
Natasha, pale and frightened, ran into the living room.
- Mom, Bolkonsky has arrived! - she said. - Mom, this is terrible, this is unbearable! “I don’t want to… suffer!” What should I do?…
The countess had not yet had time to answer her, when Prince Andrei entered the drawing room with an anxious and serious face. As soon as he saw Natasha, his face lit up. He kissed the hand of the countess and Natasha and sat down beside the sofa.
“For a long time we have not had pleasure ...” the countess began, but Prince Andrei interrupted her, answering her question and obviously in a hurry to say what he needed.
- I have not been with you all this time, because I was with my father: I needed to talk to him about a very important matter. I just got back last night,” he said, looking at Natasha. “I need to talk to you, Countess,” he added after a moment's silence.
The Countess sighed heavily and lowered her eyes.
“I am at your service,” she said.
Natasha knew that she had to leave, but she could not do it: something was squeezing her throat, and she looked impolitely, directly, with open eyes at Prince Andrei.
"Now? This minute!… No, it can't be!” she thought.
He looked at her again, and this look convinced her that she had not been mistaken. - Yes, now, this very minute her fate was being decided.
“Come, Natasha, I will call you,” said the countess in a whisper.
Natasha, with frightened, pleading eyes, looked at Prince Andrei and at her mother, and went out.
“I have come, Countess, to ask for the hand of your daughter,” said Prince Andrei. The countess's face flushed, but she said nothing.
“Your suggestion…” the Countess began sedately. He remained silent, looking into her eyes. - Your offer ... (she was embarrassed) we are pleased, and ... I accept your offer, I'm glad. And my husband ... I hope ... but it will depend on her ...
- I will tell her when I have your consent ... do you give it to me? - said Prince Andrew.
“Yes,” said the Countess, and held out her hand to him, and with a mixture of aloofness and tenderness pressed her lips to his forehead as he leaned over her hand. She wanted to love him like a son; but she felt that he was a stranger and a terrible person for her. “I'm sure my husband will agree,” said the countess, “but your father ...
- My father, to whom I informed my plans, made it an indispensable condition for consent that the wedding should not be earlier than a year. And this is what I wanted to tell you, - said Prince Andrei.
- It is true that Natasha is still young, but so long.
“It could not be otherwise,” Prince Andrei said with a sigh.
“I will send it to you,” said the countess, and left the room.
“Lord, have mercy on us,” she repeated, looking for her daughter. Sonya said that Natasha was in the bedroom. Natasha sat on her bed, pale, with dry eyes, looked at the icons and, quickly making the sign of the cross, whispered something. Seeing her mother, she jumped up and rushed to her.
- What? Mom?… What?
- Go, go to him. He asks for your hand, - the countess said coldly, as it seemed to Natasha ... - Go ... go, - the mother said with sadness and reproach after the fleeing daughter, and sighed heavily.
Natasha did not remember how she entered the living room. When she entered the door and saw him, she stopped. “Is this stranger really become my everything now?” she asked herself and instantly answered: “Yes, everything: he alone is now dearer to me than everything in the world.” Prince Andrei went up to her, lowering his eyes.
“I fell in love with you from the moment I saw you. Can I hope?
He looked at her, and the earnest passion of her countenance struck him. Her face said: “Why ask? Why doubt that which is impossible not to know? Why talk when you can’t express what you feel in words.
She approached him and stopped. He took her hand and kissed it.
– Do you love me?
“Yes, yes,” Natasha said as if with annoyance, sighed loudly, another time, more and more often, and sobbed.
– About what? What's wrong with you?
“Oh, I’m so happy,” she answered, smiled through her tears, leaned closer to him, thought for a second, as if asking herself if it was possible, and kissed him.
Prince Andrei held her hands, looked into her eyes, and did not find in his soul the former love for her. Something suddenly turned in his soul: there was no former poetic and mysterious charm of desire, but there was pity for her feminine and childish weakness, there was fear of her devotion and gullibility, a heavy and at the same time joyful consciousness of the duty that forever connected him with her. The real feeling, although it was not as light and poetic as the former, was more serious and stronger.

Sometimes the atmosphere that surrounds our planet in a thick layer is called the fifth ocean. No wonder the second name of the aircraft is an aircraft. The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases, among which nitrogen and oxygen predominate. It is thanks to the latter that life on the planet is possible in the form to which we are all accustomed. In addition to them, there is another 1% of other components. These are inert (not entering into chemical interactions) gases, sulfur oxide. The fifth ocean also contains mechanical impurities: dust, ash, etc. All layers of the atmosphere in total extend almost 480 km from the surface (the data are different, we will dwell on this point in more detail Further). Such an impressive thickness forms a kind of impenetrable shield that protects the planet from destructive cosmic radiation and large objects.

The following layers of the atmosphere are distinguished: the troposphere, followed by the stratosphere, then the mesosphere, and finally the thermosphere. The above order begins at the surface of the planet. The dense layers of the atmosphere are represented by the first two. They filter out a significant part of the destructive

The lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, extends only 12 km above sea level (18 km in the tropics). Up to 90% of water vapor is concentrated here, so clouds form in it. Most of the air is also concentrated here. All subsequent layers of the atmosphere are colder, since proximity to the surface allows reflected sunlight to heat the air.

The stratosphere extends up to almost 50 km from the surface. Most weather balloons "float" in this layer. Some types of aircraft can also fly here. One of the amazing features is the temperature regime: in the interval from 25 to 40 km, an increase in air temperature begins. From -60 it rises to almost 1. Then there is a slight decrease to zero, which persists up to an altitude of 55 km. The upper bound is the infamous

Further, the mesosphere extends almost up to 90 km. The air temperature drops sharply here. For every 100 meters of elevation, there is a decrease of 0.3 degrees. Sometimes it is called the coldest part of the atmosphere. The air density is low, but it is quite enough to create resistance to falling meteors.

The layers of the atmosphere in the usual sense end at an altitude of about 118 km. The famous auroras are formed here. The region of the thermosphere begins above. Due to X-rays, the ionization of those few air molecules contained in this area occurs. These processes create the so-called ionosphere (it is often included in the thermosphere, so it is not considered separately).

Anything above 700 km is called the exosphere. air is extremely small, so they move freely without experiencing resistance due to collisions. This allows some of them to accumulate energy corresponding to 160 degrees Celsius, while the ambient temperature is low. Gas molecules are distributed throughout the volume of the exosphere in accordance with their mass, so the heaviest of them can only be found in the lower part of the layer. The attraction of the planet, which decreases with height, is no longer able to hold molecules, so cosmic high-energy particles and radiation give gas molecules an impulse sufficient to leave the atmosphere. This region is one of the longest: it is believed that the atmosphere completely passes into the vacuum of space at altitudes greater than 2000 km (sometimes even the number 10000 appears). Artificial orbits still in the thermosphere.

All these numbers are approximate, since the boundaries of the atmospheric layers depend on a number of factors, for example, on the activity of the Sun.

Atmosphere(from the Greek atmos - steam and spharia - ball) - the air shell of the Earth, rotating with it. The development of the atmosphere was closely connected with the geological and geochemical processes taking place on our planet, as well as with the activities of living organisms.

The lower boundary of the atmosphere coincides with the surface of the Earth, since air penetrates into the smallest pores in the soil and is dissolved even in water.

The upper limit at an altitude of 2000-3000 km gradually passes into outer space.

Oxygen-rich atmosphere makes life possible on Earth. Atmospheric oxygen is used in the process of breathing by humans, animals, and plants.

If there were no atmosphere, the Earth would be as quiet as the moon. After all, sound is the vibration of air particles. The blue color of the sky is explained by the fact that the sun's rays, passing through the atmosphere, as if through a lens, are decomposed into their component colors. In this case, the rays of blue and blue colors are scattered most of all.

The atmosphere retains most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which has a detrimental effect on living organisms. It also keeps heat at the surface of the Earth, preventing our planet from cooling.

The structure of the atmosphere

Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, differing in density and density (Fig. 1).

Troposphere

Troposphere- the lowest layer of the atmosphere, whose thickness above the poles is 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes - 10-12 km, and above the equator - 16-18 km.

Rice. 1. The structure of the Earth's atmosphere

The air in the troposphere is heated from the earth's surface, i.e. from land and water. Therefore, the air temperature in this layer decreases with height by an average of 0.6 °C for every 100 m. At the upper boundary of the troposphere, it reaches -55 °C. At the same time, in the region of the equator at the upper boundary of the troposphere, the air temperature is -70 °С, and in the region of the North Pole -65 °С.

About 80% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere, almost all water vapor is located, thunderstorms, storms, clouds and precipitation occur, and vertical (convection) and horizontal (wind) air movement occurs.

We can say that the weather is mainly formed in the troposphere.

Stratosphere

Stratosphere- the layer of the atmosphere located above the troposphere at an altitude of 8 to 50 km. The color of the sky in this layer appears purple, which is explained by the rarefaction of the air, due to which the sun's rays almost do not scatter.

The stratosphere contains 20% of the mass of the atmosphere. The air in this layer is rarefied, there is practically no water vapor, and therefore clouds and precipitation are almost not formed. However, stable air currents are observed in the stratosphere, the speed of which reaches 300 km / h.

This layer is concentrated ozone(ozone screen, ozonosphere), a layer that absorbs ultraviolet rays, preventing them from passing to the Earth and thereby protecting living organisms on our planet. Due to ozone, the air temperature at the upper boundary of the stratosphere is in the range from -50 to 4-55 °C.

Between the mesosphere and the stratosphere there is a transitional zone - the stratopause.

Mesosphere

Mesosphere- a layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 50-80 km. The air density here is 200 times less than at the surface of the Earth. The color of the sky in the mesosphere appears black, stars are visible during the day. The air temperature drops to -75 (-90)°C.

At an altitude of 80 km begins thermosphere. The air temperature in this layer rises sharply to a height of 250 m, and then becomes constant: at a height of 150 km it reaches 220-240 °C; at an altitude of 500-600 km it exceeds 1500 °C.

In the mesosphere and thermosphere, under the action of cosmic rays, gas molecules break up into charged (ionized) particles of atoms, so this part of the atmosphere is called ionosphere- a layer of very rarefied air, located at an altitude of 50 to 1000 km, consisting mainly of ionized oxygen atoms, nitric oxide molecules and free electrons. This layer is characterized by high electrification, and long and medium radio waves are reflected from it, as from a mirror.

In the ionosphere, auroras arise - the glow of rarefied gases under the influence of electrically charged particles flying from the Sun - and sharp fluctuations in the magnetic field are observed.

Exosphere

Exosphere- the outer layer of the atmosphere, located above 1000 km. This layer is also called the scattering sphere, since gas particles move here at high speed and can be scattered into outer space.

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases consisting of nitrogen (78.08%), oxygen (20.95%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), argon (0.93%), a small amount of helium, neon, xenon, krypton (0.01%), ozone and other gases, but their content is negligible (Table 1). The modern composition of the Earth's air was established more than a hundred million years ago, but the sharply increased human production activity nevertheless led to its change. Currently, there is an increase in the content of CO 2 by about 10-12%.

The gases that make up the atmosphere perform various functional roles. However, the main significance of these gases is determined primarily by the fact that they very strongly absorb radiant energy and thus have a significant effect on the temperature regime of the Earth's surface and atmosphere.

Table 1. Chemical composition of dry atmospheric air near the earth's surface

	Volume concentration. %	Molecular weight, units
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrous oxide
	0 to 0.00001
Sulfur dioxide	from 0 to 0.000007 in summer; 0 to 0.000002 in winter
	From 0 to 0.000002	46,0055/17,03061
Azog dioxide
Carbon monoxide

Nitrogen, the most common gas in the atmosphere, chemically little active.

Oxygen, unlike nitrogen, is a chemically very active element. The specific function of oxygen is the oxidation of organic matter of heterotrophic organisms, rocks, and incompletely oxidized gases emitted into the atmosphere by volcanoes. Without oxygen, there would be no decomposition of dead organic matter.

The role of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is exceptionally great. It enters the atmosphere as a result of the processes of combustion, respiration of living organisms, decay and is, first of all, the main building material for the creation of organic matter during photosynthesis. In addition, the property of carbon dioxide to transmit short-wave solar radiation and absorb part of thermal long-wave radiation is of great importance, which will create the so-called greenhouse effect, which will be discussed below.

The influence on atmospheric processes, especially on the thermal regime of the stratosphere, is also exerted by ozone. This gas serves as a natural absorber of solar ultraviolet radiation, and the absorption of solar radiation leads to air heating. The average monthly values ​​of the total ozone content in the atmosphere vary depending on the latitude of the area and the season within 0.23-0.52 cm (this is the thickness of the ozone layer at ground pressure and temperature). There is an increase in the ozone content from the equator to the poles and an annual variation with a minimum in autumn and a maximum in spring.

A characteristic property of the atmosphere can be called the fact that the content of the main gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon) changes slightly with height: at an altitude of 65 km in the atmosphere, the content of nitrogen is 86%, oxygen - 19, argon - 0.91, at an altitude of 95 km - nitrogen 77, oxygen - 21.3, argon - 0.82%. The constancy of the composition of atmospheric air vertically and horizontally is maintained by its mixing.

In addition to gases, air contains water vapor and solid particles. The latter can have both natural and artificial (anthropogenic) origin. These are flower pollen, tiny salt crystals, road dust, aerosol impurities. When the sun's rays penetrate the window, they can be seen with the naked eye.

There are especially many particulate matter in the air of cities and large industrial centers, where emissions of harmful gases and their impurities formed during fuel combustion are added to aerosols.

The concentration of aerosols in the atmosphere determines the transparency of the air, which affects the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. The largest aerosols are condensation nuclei (from lat. condensatio- compaction, thickening) - contribute to the transformation of water vapor into water droplets.

The value of water vapor is determined primarily by the fact that it delays the long-wave thermal radiation of the earth's surface; represents the main link of large and small moisture cycles; raises the temperature of the air when the water beds condense.

The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere varies over time and space. Thus, the concentration of water vapor near the earth's surface ranges from 3% in the tropics to 2-10 (15)% in Antarctica.

The average content of water vapor in the vertical column of the atmosphere in temperate latitudes is about 1.6-1.7 cm (a layer of condensed water vapor will have such a thickness). Information about water vapor in different layers of the atmosphere is contradictory. It was assumed, for example, that in the altitude range from 20 to 30 km, the specific humidity strongly increases with height. However, subsequent measurements indicate a greater dryness of the stratosphere. Apparently, the specific humidity in the stratosphere depends little on height and amounts to 2–4 mg/kg.

The variability of water vapor content in the troposphere is determined by the interaction of evaporation, condensation, and horizontal transport. As a result of the condensation of water vapor, clouds form and precipitation occurs in the form of rain, hail and snow.

The processes of phase transitions of water proceed mainly in the troposphere, which is why clouds in the stratosphere (at altitudes of 20-30 km) and mesosphere (near the mesopause), called mother-of-pearl and silver, are observed relatively rarely, while tropospheric clouds often cover about 50% of the entire earth surfaces.

The amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air depends on the temperature of the air.

1 m 3 of air at a temperature of -20 ° C can contain no more than 1 g of water; at 0 °C - no more than 5 g; at +10 °С - no more than 9 g; at +30 °С - no more than 30 g of water.

Conclusion: The higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can contain.

Air can be rich and not saturated steam. So, if at a temperature of +30 ° C 1 m 3 of air contains 15 g of water vapor, the air is not saturated with water vapor; if 30 g - saturated.

Absolute humidity- this is the amount of water vapor contained in 1 m 3 of air. It is expressed in grams. For example, if they say "absolute humidity is 15", then this means that 1 mL contains 15 g of water vapor.

Relative humidity- this is the ratio (in percent) of the actual content of water vapor in 1 m 3 of air to the amount of water vapor that can be contained in 1 m L at a given temperature. For example, if the radio during the transmission of the weather report reported that the relative humidity is 70%, this means that the air contains 70% of the water vapor that it can hold at a given temperature.

The greater the relative humidity of the air, t. the closer the air is to saturation, the more likely it is to fall.

Always high (up to 90%) relative humidity is observed in the equatorial zone, since there is a high air temperature throughout the year and there is a large evaporation from the surface of the oceans. The same high relative humidity is in the polar regions, but only because at low temperatures even a small amount of water vapor makes the air saturated or close to saturation. In temperate latitudes, relative humidity varies seasonally - it is higher in winter and lower in summer.

The relative humidity of the air is especially low in deserts: 1 m 1 of air there contains two to three times less than the amount of water vapor possible at a given temperature.

To measure relative humidity, a hygrometer is used (from the Greek hygros - wet and metreco - I measure).

When cooled, saturated air cannot retain the same amount of water vapor in itself, it thickens (condenses), turning into droplets of fog. Fog can be observed in the summer on a clear cool night.

Clouds- this is the same fog, only it is formed not at the earth's surface, but at a certain height. As the air rises, it cools and the water vapor in it condenses. The resulting tiny droplets of water make up the clouds.

involved in the formation of clouds particulate matter suspended in the troposphere.

Clouds can have a different shape, which depends on the conditions of their formation (Table 14).

The lowest and heaviest clouds are stratus. They are located at an altitude of 2 km from the earth's surface. At an altitude of 2 to 8 km, more picturesque cumulus clouds can be observed. The highest and lightest are cirrus clouds. They are located at an altitude of 8 to 18 km above the earth's surface.

families	Kinds of clouds	Appearance
A. Upper clouds - above 6 km	I. Pinnate	Threadlike, fibrous, white
	II. cirrocumulus	Layers and ridges of small flakes and curls, white
	III. Cirrostratus	Transparent whitish veil
B. Clouds of the middle layer - above 2 km	IV. Altocumulus	Layers and ridges of white and gray
	V. Altostratified	Smooth veil of milky gray color
B. Lower clouds - up to 2 km	VI. Nimbostratus	Solid shapeless gray layer
	VII. Stratocumulus	Opaque layers and ridges of gray
	VIII. layered	Illuminated gray veil
D. Clouds of vertical development - from the lower to the upper tier	IX. Cumulus	Clubs and domes bright white, with torn edges in the wind
	X. Cumulonimbus	Powerful cumulus-shaped masses of dark lead color

Atmospheric protection

The main sources are industrial enterprises and automobiles. In large cities, the problem of gas contamination of the main transport routes is very acute. That is why in many large cities of the world, including our country, environmental control of the toxicity of car exhaust gases has been introduced. According to experts, smoke and dust in the air can halve the flow of solar energy to the earth's surface, which will lead to a change in natural conditions.