True judgments about truth and its criteria. The idea of truth and its criteria in the history of philosophy. Relative truth is subjective
Hello, dear readers of the blog site. The concept of truth is often mentioned by educators, scientists, religious figures and other members of the intellectual elite.
To give it an exact definition is as difficult as to explain, or. In the literature you will find several dozen different interpretations. So what is truth? Let's figure it out.
The concept of truth in philosophy
Truth is the central problem in philosophy. After all, philosophers have always tried to describe the world at the most abstract (abstracted from specifics) levels.
The founder of the classical interpretation was Aristotle. It is his definition that you will find in school and university textbooks. Other supporters of the classical approach were Plato, Democritus, Thomas Aquinas. If we translate philosophical language into human language, we get the following formulation:
"Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to objective reality."
Let's take a simple example. On the table is a round orange citrus with a sweet and sour aroma. Petya looks at him and thinks: "It's an orange." His knowledge of the fruit corresponds to reality, and therefore true. Thus, truth is the formula: "Real orange = Knowledge about the orange."
But this is not the only philosophical interpretation of this concept. Exist also such definitions of the concept:
Thus, truth in philosophy is a concept that is used to describe the process of cognition.
The environment is complex and multifaceted. The more people know about it, the higher the chances of survival, a comfortable existence, the faster technologies develop.
If to speak in simple words, then the truth is a 100% understanding of the world. People are interested in striving for it.
Truth and its criteria
How to understand something difficult? Learn to distinguish it from the opposite. Usually the truth contrast with lies, uncertainty, mystery, delusion.
Signs that are characteristic only of true knowledge are called criteria of truth.
Various philosophical theories have identified and other criteria, in particular, usefulness, necessity, economy, aesthetics.
In Buddhism, for example, truth is liberation from private desires and suffering, unity with the world. Her awareness is identified with. Man begins to understand his nature clearly.
Types of truth - absolute and relative
The most common classification involves the division of the category into absolute and relative.
absolute truth- this is a complete correspondence of knowledge to real objects and phenomena. Its criterion is immutability. True knowledge cannot be refuted.
Many like to argue that this is something unattainable. The opinion is debatable. It is clear that it is difficult to find answers to eternal questions about the world and society, life and death. But the process of cognition also covers small pieces of reality.
Examples absolute truth:
- cannot be divided by "0";
- at 3 am it is darker than at 2 pm;
- birthday only once a year;
- a living penguin cannot fly by itself (and will never learn);
- mosquitoes are dead.
There is not much absolute true knowledge in the world. Basically, people describe objects and phenomena from one angle, omitting unfamiliar details.
Relative truth- this is an incomplete correspondence of knowledge to reality. Over time, judgments can be adjusted or replaced with new ones. Their authenticity is 100% unprovable, depending on the time period and socio-historical conditions.
Examples regarding true knowledge:
- it is cold in winter (as a rule, yes, but sometimes there are frosts in November or March, and in the period from December to February there is a positive temperature, so when comparing, this judgment will be relative);
- substances consist of molecules (knowledge is not complete, because later it turned out that molecules consist of atoms, and atoms - of electrons);
- Lisa Petrova is a girl (girls are different: teenagers, 18-25 years old and even older).
Also the truth is objective and subjective depending on whether reality is passed through the consciousness of a person.
Here is the Universe, and in it -. The Earth revolves around the Sun. This is an objective truth. It doesn't matter what a person thinks of her. The earth will still revolve around the sun.
And now closer to life. A new student has arrived at the school. Most of the boys thought: "Lena is beautiful." This is a subjective truth, because it has passed through the consciousness of people. From the point of view of objective reality, there is no concept of beauty. Some boys like thin girls, others like athletic girls, and others like those with rounded shapes.
A special case of subjective truth is truth.
It characterizes the attitude of a person to events that actually happened. No wonder they say: "Everyone has his own truth."
conclusions
In this article, you have read more than 10 definitions of this complex concept. And all of them had something in common. Truth cannot be touched or seen.
People came up with this abstract concept in order to be convenient describe your aspirations to the knowledge of the world, the steps taken in this direction and the results achieved. The pursuit of true knowledge is the fuel in the engine.
Good luck to you! See you soon on the blog pages site
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A priori - the meaning of this word according to Wikipedia and what it means in everyday life What is epistemology What is a hypothesis Dogma, dogma and doctrine - what is it An agnostic is an unbeliever Thomas or a preacher of science What is knowledge - types, forms, methods and levels of knowledge Pluralism is dissent expressed in political and other areas (e.g. pluralism of opinions) What is a discussion Logic is the basis and laws of correct thinking
1 option
1. Choose correct judgments about truth.
1) The relativity of truth is due to the infinity and variability of the comprehended world.
2) The relativity of truth is due to the limited cognitive capabilities of a person.
3) Truth is an objective reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena.
4) Truth is the result of knowledge, existing only in the form of concepts, judgments and theories.
5) The path to absolute truth goes through relative truths.
6) Relative truth is complete, unchanging knowledge
2. Choose the right judgmentsabout truth. True Knowledge:
1) always objectively;
2) is always shared by most people.
3) is an essential property of both relative and absolute truth;
4) is expressed in the independence of knowledge from the preferences and interests of people.
5) consists in obtaining knowledge corresponding to the subject of study;
6) is expressed in the sharing of knowledge by the majority of people.
3 Choose the correct judgments about the truth.
Truth is a mandatory result of human cognitive activity;
Truth meansobjective reflection of reality in the human mind;
True knowledge differs from false knowledge in that itcorresponds to a cognizable object;
true knowledgedoes not contradict previous ideas;
absolute truthexhaustive, accurate knowledge about the object of study;
Objective truth is knowledge:independent of the preferences and interests of people;
4. “Undoubted, invariably once and for all established knowledge is called _____________
truth."
5. Set the correspondence: for each position given in the first column, selectallcorresponding positions from the second column.
Reliable knowledge independent of opinions and 1) objective truth
2) Relative truth
people's addictions
B) Comprehensive, complete, reliable knowledge about
objective world
3) Absolute truth
Approximate knowledge
and incomplete reflection of reality
G). Limited knowledge about the object at any given moment
E) Information corresponding to the actual state of affairs
6. Relative _____ ________ depends on the real historical conditions of its time, in particular, on the accuracy or perfection of the means of observation and experiment.
7. Absolute and relative truths are forms of truth _______________
The result of cognitive activity is the receipt of _______________
9._______________________ as one of the criteria of truth includes the experience accumulated by previous generations of people.
10.._______________________ is expressed in the independence of knowledge from the predilections and interests of people.
Option 2.
1. Choose the right judgments
1 Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to the interests of man.
2.. Truth is the correspondence of thought to reality.
3. Truth is the result of knowledge, existing only in the form of concepts, judgments and theories.
4. Truth is relative, because the world is changeable and infinite.
5. Truth is relative, because the possibilities of cognition are determined by the level of development of science.
6. Absolute truth is practically unattainable.
2. Choose the right judgments
1) Relative truth is called incomplete knowledge, true only under certain conditions.
2) All phenomena of reality can be evaluated from the point of view of truth or falsity.
3) Practice is the only criterion for the truth of our knowledge of the world.
4) The criterion of the truth of knowledge is the simplicity, clarity and consistency of knowledge.
5) The criterion of the truth of knowledge is the practical orientation of knowledge.
6) There are phenomena that are inaccessible for practical influence on them.
3. Choose the right judgments
1. Knowledge of the world can occur in the process of everyday life.
2. The object of knowledge can be a person.
3. The experience of everyday life is one of the ways of knowing the world.
4. Science and religion are forms of knowledge of the world
5. A feature of social cognition is the independence of the influence of the position of the researcher on the assessment of facts.
6. The scientific study of society requires a subjective approach to facts.
4.. Choose the right judgments
1. The structure of knowledge includes the goal, means, result.
2. The results of rational cognition are fixed in sensations.
3. Knowledge requires the presence of an object and a subject of knowledge.
4. The concept, judgment, conclusion create a sensual image of the object.
5. Inference is a logical connection of judgments.
6. The results of sensory cognition exist in the form of concepts.
5. Which concept in the series is generalizing for all the others?
1) inference;
2) deduction;
3) concept;
4) knowledge;
5) presentation;
6) analogy;
7) judgment.
6. (task 26) 26. Name three aspects of the role of practice in cognition and reveal each of them.
7. (task 20) Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.
“Observation is a purposeful systematic (A) of an object. concentrating
attention on the object, the observer relies on some (B) about
it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of observation. Observation is characterized by activity (B), its ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.
following. In scientific observation, the interaction between subject and object is mediated by (D) observation: the devices and instruments with which the observation is made. A microscope and a telescope, photographic and television equipment, a radar and an ultrasound generator, and many other devices transform microbes, elementary particles, etc., inaccessible to human senses. into empirical (D). As a method of scientific knowledge, observation gives the initial ______ (E) about the object, necessary for its further research.
The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be usedone once.
Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.
List of terms:
perception
knowledge
objects
information
knowledge
observer
funds
methods
true
The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.
BUT8. Write down the word missing in the table
properties of truth
…….. character.
Reflection of the current level of knowledge about the essence of the phenomenon.
Objective character
Independence from the cognizing subject and his consciousness
9. Write down the word missing in the table
falseIntentional lies
A person realizes that he is saying something that is not true, but claims that it is the truth.
Man takes the false for the true.
10. (task 25) Using social science knowledge 1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "truth;. 2) make two sentences: - one sentence containing information about the types of truth, - one sentence containing information about one of the types you named.
11. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Truth is the correspondence of inferences to the laws of logic.
2) Social practice serves as a universal criterion of truth.
3) Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to the subject of knowledge.
4) Truth is a feature of the external world that a person is trying to know.
5) Truth is a reflection in human creativity of the phenomena of the surrounding reality
12.
Establish a correspondence between the distinctive features and types of truth: to each
after the position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second
column.
DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES TYPES OF TRUTH
A) complete, exhaustive knowledge 1) absolute truth
B) immutable knowledge 2) relative truth
C) knowledge that reflects reality; 3) both absolute and relative truths
ness at this stage of knowledge
D) objective knowledge
D) knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge
Write in the table the selected numbers under the corresponding letters.
Key
1.4 The concept of truth, its criteria.
1 option
3.23564.Absolute
5. 13221
6. TRUE
7. objectivity
8. knowledge
9.practice
10. objectivity
Option 2.
6. . three manifestations of the role of practice in cognition:-the basis of knowledge, the goal of knowledge,
-criterion of truth
2) a specification of each manifestation is given, for example:
-it is in interaction with the outside world that people develop certain ideas about reality, they begin to cognize it;
-knowledge is necessary for mankind, first of all, in order to transform the world, improving living conditions, improving social relations;
-in practice, a person becomes convinced of the truth or falsity of his ideas, judgments, theories; if they find confirmation in reality, then they can be considered true.
7. 126734
8. relative
9 delusion
10 Knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge.
Distinguish between absolute and relative truth.
Relative truth is objective. But incomplete knowledge about an object or phenomenon
11.23
12.11233
Interpretations of the concept of "truth"
- Correspondence of knowledge to reality
- That is confirmed by experience
- Some agreement, convention
- Knowledge self-consistency property
- The usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice
Truth - knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it.
objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or on mankind
Absolute truth is:
Relative truth is:
exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society
The knowledge that can never be refuted
Incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge
Knowledge depending on certain conditions, place and time receiving them
false
Intentional lies
Delusion
A person realizes that his statement is not true, but claims it as true
Man takes the false for the true
Objects do not match
Possible criteria
(from gr. krit rion - a distinctive sign, measure) of truth
Compliance with the laws of logic
Simplicity, economy of form
Paradoxical idea
Compliance with previously discovered laws of a particular science
Compliance with fundamental laws
Practice
Practice - integral organic system active material activity people directed for conversion reality, carried out in a certain sociocultural context
Practice Forms
material production (labor), transformation of nature
social action (reforms, revolutions, wars, etc.)
scientific experiment
Functions of practice in the process of cognition
Source of knowledge:
practical needs brought to life the existing sciences
The basis of knowledge: a person not only observes or contemplates the world around him, but in the process of his life activity transforms it
Purpose of knowledge: for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities
Criterion of truth: until some position, expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple conclusion, is not tested by experience, is not translated into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption) → the main criterion of truth is practice.
Plans on the topic: "The concept of truth, its criteria"
Plan No. 1: "Truth and its criteria", "Truth as the goal of cognitive activity"
1) The concept of "truth".
2) Properties of truth:
- objectivity;
- subjectivity;
- specificity.
3) Types of truth:
– absolute;
- relative.
4) Criteria of truth:
- sensory experience;
- practice;
- knowledge.
5) Delusions.
6) The role of truth in scientific knowledge.
Plan #2: "Truth and Falsehood"
1) The concept of "truth".
2) Properties of truth:
- objectivity;
- subjectivity;
- specificity.
3) Types of truth:
– absolute;
- relative.
4) Criteria of truth:
- sensory experience;
- practice;
- knowledge.
5) The concept of delusion.
6) Reasons for the existence of delusions:
- limited, underdeveloped social practice;
- imperfection of the methodology and tools of knowledge;
– internal physical and spiritual (emotional) state of the subject of knowledge;
- limited thinking;
- adherence to dogmas.
7) Delusions and lies.
USE assignments
1. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The criterion of truth can be its recognition by authoritative persons.
2) The criterion of truth can be its compliance with previously discovered laws of science.
4) A statement that has been verified by the practice and experience of many generations is recognized as true.
5) Truth is not an element of knowledge that can be refuted in the future.
2. Select the correct judgments about truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The objectivity of truth is manifested in its correspondence to the interests of the cognizing subject.
2) True knowledge always corresponds to the object being known.
3) In scientific knowledge, absolute truth is an ideal, a goal.
4) Only relative truth reveals patterns and laws according to which the studied objects function.
5) Practice, according to a number of philosophers, is the main criterion of truth.
3. Select the correct judgments about the truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) True knowledge adequately reflects the surrounding reality.
2) The criterion of true knowledge is the correspondence to the interests of the cognizing subject.
3) Relative truth is knowledge that can change as the possibilities of cognition develop.
4) Truth is connected with the conditions of place, time, etc., which must be taken into account in the process of cognition.
5) Absolute truth, unlike relative truth, is practice-oriented knowledge.
4. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The criteria of truth include the correspondence of knowledge to the laws of logic.
2) The most important criterion of truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the interests of the cognizing subject.
3) The criteria of truth make it possible to distinguish its true knowledge from delusion.
4) The criterion of truth can be the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to previously discovered laws.
5) The truth of the judgment cannot be verified in practice.
5. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Truth is knowledge corresponding to the properties of the object being known.
2) Absolute truth, unlike relative truth, is an exhaustive knowledge of a subject.
3) The only criterion for true knowledge is its evidence for any person.
4) True knowledge always has an abstract and generalized character.
5) Truth is conditioned by reality, social practice.
6. Using social science knowledge,
− one sentence containing information about the criteria of truth;
− one sentence, kinds of truths.
7. Select the correct judgments about truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
2) Practice, according to a number of philosophers, is the main criterion of truth.
3) Truth is knowledge that reproduces a cognizable object as it exists, regardless of human consciousness.
4) Truth is always concrete.
5) The only criterion of truth is compliance with existing scientific theories.
8. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Absolute truth, in contrast to relative truth, is theoretically substantiated knowledge.
2) The only criterion for true knowledge is an authoritative source of information.
3) There are phenomena that are inaccessible to practical influence on them, but their truth can be established in other ways.
5) Truth is always objective.
9. Choose the correct judgments about the criteria of truth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The main criterion of truth is compliance with the interests of the cognizing subject.
2) The criteria of truth include compliance with the laws of logic.
3) Practical application can test the truth of knowledge.
4) Reason and intuition of the scientist are the criteria of truth.
5) From the point of view of representatives of the philosophical trend of empiricists, the main criterion of truth is reason.
10. Select the correct judgments about truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) True knowledge, unlike false, corresponds to the subject of knowledge.
2) The only criterion for true knowledge is its acceptance by the community of scientists.
3) Relative truth is limitedly true knowledge.
4) Only absolute truth is characterized by objectivity.
5) True knowledge is formed in the unity of sensory and rational knowledge.
11. Write down the word missing in the table.
PROPERTIES OF TRUTH
... character
CHARACTERISTICS
Objective character
Reflection of the current level of knowledge about the essence of phenomena
Independence from the cognizing subject and his consciousness
12. Using social science knowledge,
1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "truth";
2) make two sentences:
− one sentence containing information about the forms of representing the truth;
−
13. Using social science knowledge,
1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "truth";
2) make two sentences:
− one sentence containing information about relative truth;
− one sentence revealing the objective nature of truth.
14. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Absolute truth is an exhaustive knowledge of a subject.
2) Truth - knowledge obtained as a result of an adequate reflection of the object by the cognizing subject.
3) One of the criteria for the truth of knowledge is its understanding and acceptance by the majority of people.
5) Relative truth is characterized by subjectivity.
15. Name and illustrate with examples three criteria of truth. (Each example should be formulated in detail).
16. Using social science knowledge,
1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "truth";
2) make two sentences:
− one sentence containing information about absolute truth;
− one sentence revealing the relationship between absolute and relative truth.
17. Using social science knowledge,
1) reveal the meaning of the concept of "truth";
2) make two sentences:
− one sentence containing information about the methods of knowing the truth;
− one sentence revealing the essence of absolute truth.
18. Choose the correct judgments about the truth and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
1) Absolute truth is such a content of knowledge that exists by itself and does not depend on a person.
2) Truth is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it.
3) Truth is one, but it has objective, absolute and relative aspects.
4) Relative truth is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, depending on certain conditions, place, time and means of obtaining knowledge.
5) Relative truth is always subjective.
19. Find in the list below the features inherent in the scientific understanding of truth. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) knowledge expressed in an accessible form
2) knowledge obtained as a result of an adequate reflection of the object by the cognizing subject
3) knowledge that reproduces a cognizable object as it exists, regardless of human consciousness
4) knowledge corresponding to the interests of the subject
5) knowledge that has ample opportunities for dissemination
6) knowledge shared by most people
Answers
- The meaning of the concept
- knowledge objectively corresponding to the subject of knowledge.
Two suggestions:
- in the history of philosophy, there were different approaches to determining the most important criterion of truth: so some considered reason as the main criterion, others considered experience, and still others considered practice.
- Philosophers distinguish relative (incomplete knowledge about the subject, corresponding to a certain level of development of society) and absolute (complete, irrefutable knowledge about the subject) truth.
- Relative
12 . 1) the meaning of the concept, for example: truth - knowledge that accurately (adequately) reflects reality;
2) One sentence with information about the forms of presenting the truth, based on the knowledge of the course, for example:
- truth can be presented in the form of scientific facts, empirical laws, theories. 3) one sentence, revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the objective nature of truth, for example:
- the objective nature of truth is manifested in the fact that its content does not depend on the specific subject of knowledge.
13. 1) the meaning of the concept, for example: knowledge corresponding to the properties of a cognized object;
2) one sentence with information about the relative truth based on the knowledge of the course, for example: relative truth is limitedly true knowledge;
3) one sentence, revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the objective nature of truth, for example: the objective nature of truth is manifested in the fact that its content does not depend on the specific subject of knowledge.
15. - applicability in practice
For example, engineering calculations make it possible to build buildings that can withstand the required loads and are suitable for use.
- consistency
For example, in the proof of the Pythagorean theorem, all links in the chain of reasoning follow one from the other, all conclusions are consistent with all premises.
- verifiability (verifiability)
For example, the periodic law of Mendeleev is confirmed by the properties of chemical elements revealed during the experiment.
16. Truth is a true reflection of reality in the human mind. Absolute truth is called complete, exhaustive, accurate knowledge about the object of study, which cannot be refuted. The path to absolute truth lies through relative truths, which can be refuted, for example, thanks to scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new data.
17. 1) the meaning of the concept, for example: truth is knowledge corresponding to the subject of knowledge (or an adequate reflection of reality in the human mind);
2) one sentence with information about the methods of knowing the truth, based on knowledge of the course, for example: The methods of cognition of truth include observation, experiment, modeling, etc.
3) one sentence, revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the essence of absolute truth, for example: Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about an object, phenomenon, process.
The concept of truth is leading in the philosophy of the name. All problems of the philosophy of the theory of knowledge concern either the means and ways of achieving truth, or the forms of its realization, the structure of cognitive relations, and so on.
The concept of truth is one of the most important in the general system of worldview problems. It is on a par with such concepts as "justice", "good", "meaning of life". The problem of truth, like the problem of theory change, is not as trivial as it might seem at first glance. One can be convinced of this by recalling the atomistic concept of Democritus and its fate. Its main position is: “All bodies are made up of atoms. Atoms are indivisible, is it true or false from the point of view of the science of our time? If we consider it a delusion, then wouldn't that be subjectivism?
How can a concept that has proven to be true turn out to be false in practice? In this case, we will come to the recognition that today's theory (theories) - sociological, biological, physical, philosophical - are only true "today", and in 100-300 years they will already be delusions? The alternative assertion that the concept of Democritus is a delusion must also be discarded. So, the atomistic concept of the ancient world, the atomistic concept of the XVII-XVIII centuries. neither truth nor error.
1.1 Truth and the scope of its problems
The dictionary of modern philosophy defines the concept of “truth” as follows: “Truth (Greek aletheia, lit. “unhiddenness”) is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it. Among the main properties, signs of truth are: objectivity in its external source and subjectivity in its internal ideal content and form; procedural nature (truth is a process, not a “bare result”); the unity of the absolute, stable (i.e., “eternal truths”) and the relative, changeable in its content; the relationship between the abstract and the concrete (“truth is always concrete”). Any true knowledge (in science, philosophy, art, etc.) is determined in its content and application by given conditions of place, time, and many other specific circumstances. The opposite of truth, and at the same time the necessary moment of the movement of knowledge towards it, is delusion. The criteria of truth are divided into empirical (experience, practice) and non-empirical (logical, theoretical, as well as such as simplicity, beauty, inner perfection of knowledge, etc.)”. But this definition is rather incomplete, and it should be developed in more detail. Particular attention, I believe, should be given to such an issue as the criteria of truth.
There are truths empirical and theoretical. Empyria is experience. From experiments we derive the idea of any particular empirical truths. Most often they are superficial, do not claim the status of law and can be easily refuted by various situations. Theoretical truths are the exact opposite of empirical ones. They are contained in the strict formulations of the law, that is, they express not an accidental and superficial, but a deep connection of things.
1.2 The development of trends in the study of truth
A person cannot live and develop without comprehending truths, without comparing his subjective images with what is happening around him. Therefore, the question of truth arose in the most ancient times. Along with the question, various answers arose, in which truth itself, the conditions for its discovery, and its position in being were understood in completely different ways.
Firstly, in all periods of history, starting from deep antiquity, there was a direction skepticism(or otherwise, relativism). Skeptics believe that the search for a single truth for all is a fruitless and thankless task. On practically any question, be it nature or morality, two directly opposite opinions can be formulated, and both of them will be equally justified. This is clearly seen in philosophical statements about the world as a whole. The propositions “the world is finite” - “the world is infinite”, “God exists” - “There is no God”, “freedom exists” - “there is no freedom and everything is necessary” - collect equivalent arguments for both affirmation and denial . Therefore, skeptics believe, there is no need to fight in contradiction, and it is best to refrain from judgments about the truth. He who believes that he owns the truth is afraid to lose it. He who has not found the truth suffers from not having it. Only the sage does not rush about in fruitless searches, he is imperturbable and with an ironic smile watches people who imagine that they know the essence of things.
The second major trend in the understanding of truth is connected with the teachings that are usually called objective idealism. Its essence is expressed in the concept of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Plato believed that there is a world of objective ideas (eidos), and our everyday life is only its shadow, an incomplete display. The ideas of Beauty, Justice, Love, etc. constitute true being. They are the truth, the core, the pattern for everything else.
Another direction in understanding the truth is the so-called subjective idealism. It manifested itself especially clearly in the works of the eighteenth-century English bishop George Berkeley. Berkeley believed that the only truth we can know with certainty is the truth of our sensations. Everything else is mental constructions. According to D. Berkeley, the world is my feeling, and there should not be any general concepts that claim to be a general truth. Everything is singular. Berldy's views, leading to the opinion that "the whole world is the creation of my feelings," were so absurd that at the end of his life he himself departed from them. But at the beginning of the 20th century they were revived again within the framework of modern positivism, the philosophy of science.
Finally, the ideas of the 17th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant are of great heuristic (promoting cognition) value. Kant developed the idea of activity of consciousness and cognition. He considered our cognitive ability to be a complex tool with the help of which the image of the world is consistently constructed by ourselves. But the material from which the cognitive ability creates this image is taken from the external world - the world "in itself". The images of the world that exist in our head do not reflect, according to Kant, extrahuman realities, and we do not know and will never know what reality looks like outside the human eye, but still knowledge would be impossible without relying on objectivity . The material from which consciousness molds its picture does not depend on consciousness itself. Thus, the truth turns out to be subjective-objective, including both moments coming from the world itself and forms of human perception.
On this proposition, dating back to Kant, the most diverse philosophical schools converge today. Knowledge is our model of the world. Subjective and objective create a kind of unity here. Therefore, theoretical ideas well tested by experience, shared by the absolute majority of scientific specialists, are called objective knowledge, truth. This means that “true knowledge” is such a logical model, which is considered the most successful expression of the objective state of things at the moment, as far as it is generally possible within the framework of human knowledge.
1.3 Concepts of truth
In modern philosophy, three concepts of truth stand out especially clearly: the concept of correspondence (correspondence), coherence and pragmatism.
According to conformity concepts, truth is a form of correlation between the psyche of the subject and the object. Aristotle believed that the true false is not in things, but in thought. Quite often, a simple scheme of direct correspondence of a feeling or thought to an object is not sufficient. Separate judgments acquire meaning only in a system of judgments. Where multi-link logical constructions are in use, one has to take into account the sequence, coherence, systemic reasoning and statements. In this regard, they talk about coherent conception of truth. Coherence is understood as the mutual correspondence of statements. A significant contribution to the development of the coherent concept of truth outside Leibniz, Spinoza, Hegel. The concept of the coherence of truth does not cancel the concept of correspondence, but a number of accents in the understanding of truth are put differently.
The concept, in which the criterion of truth is practice, is called pragmatic conception of truth, which originates in Greek sophistry and ancient Chinese philosophy. A significant contribution to the development of the pragmatic concept of truth was made by supporters of Marxism and American pragmatism. Marxists believe that truth reflects the objective state of affairs; Phagmatics, on the other hand, understand truth as the efficiency of feelings, thoughts, ideas, their usefulness in achieving the desired goal.
The idea of the American philosopher N. Rescher seems to be very valuable, according to which the three concepts of truth do not cancel, but complement each other. All attempts to exclude from philosophy the problems of one of the concepts of truth end in failure.
1.4. Truth Criteria
Studies repeatedly undertaken by scientists and methodologists at the present stage of development of scientific rationality lead to the assertion that an exhaustive list of truth criteria is impossible. This is true in connection with the constantly progressing development of science, its transformation, entry into a new, post-non-classical stage, in many respects different from the previous classical and non-classical ones. To fill the niche of criteria, they point to such newfangled concepts as progressivism or non-triviality, reliability, criticism, justification. The previously identified criteria, among which the first places are subject-practical activity, objectivity, and on the second - logical consistency, as well as simplicity and aesthetic organization, also correspond to the list of true knowledge criteria.
The problem of the criterion of truth has always been central in the theory of knowledge, because identifying such a criterion means finding a way to separate truth from error. Subjectivist-minded philosophers are unable to correctly resolve the question of the criterion of truth. Some of them argue that the criterion of truth is profit, utility and convenience (pragmatism), others rely on universal recognition (the concept of “socially organized experience”), others limit themselves to the formal-logical criterion of truth, I agree new knowledge with the old, bringing them into line with previous ideas (the theory of coherence), the fourth generally consider the truth of knowledge to be a matter of conditional agreement (conventionalism). In any of these cases, the criterion of truth (if it is recognized) is not taken out of the mind, so that knowledge closes in on itself. The criterion of truth does not go beyond the limits of consciousness even in the case when it is limited as a one-sided influence of the object on the sense organs of the subject. However, firstly, an increasing number of indirectly obtained scientific concepts and provisions do not possess and, therefore, cannot be subjected to verification with the help of sensory experience. Secondly, the sensory experience of the individual subject is insufficient; the appeal to the sensory experience of the masses of people means nothing more than the same notorious universal recognition, the opinion of the majority. The assertion of those who considered accuracy and rigor, clarity and obviousness to be the measure of truth is also unjustified. History did not spare these views either: the whole of the 20th century. passes under the sign of a certain devaluation of mathematical precision and formal-logical rigor in connection with the discovery of paradoxes in set theory and logic, so that the accuracy of the so-called “descriptive”, ordinary sciences turned out to be in a sense more “solid” than the accuracy of the most “exact” sciences - - mathematics and formal logic.
So, neither empirical observations, which are not characterized by the universality so necessary for the criterion of truth, nor the essentially rationalistic stake on the clarity of axioms, initial principles and the rigor of logical proofs, are able to provide a reliable, objective criterion of truth. Such a criterion can only be material activity, i.e. practice, understood as a socio-historical process. Acting as a criterion of truth, practice has all the properties necessary for this: activity directed towards the object and going beyond the sphere of knowledge; universality, since practice is not limited by the activity of an individual subject of knowledge; the necessary sensory specificity. In short, practice involves a transition from thought to action, to material reality. At the same time, success in achieving the set goals indicates the truth of the knowledge on the basis of which these goals were set, and failure indicates the unreliability of the original knowledge. The sensuous concreteness of practice does not mean that it must confirm the truth of every concept, every act of cognition. Practical confirmation is received only by individual links in the reasoning of one or another cognitive cycle; most acts of cognition are carried out by deriving one knowledge from another, previous one; the process of proof often proceeds in a logical way. The logical criterion always accompanies the criterion of practice as a necessary condition for the realization of the latter. And yet, logical proof acts only as an auxiliary criterion of truth, in the end having a practical origin itself. The specific weight of the formal-logical criterion of truth (or rather, accuracy and consistency) in the sphere of mathematical knowledge is great. But even here, only in the field of fundamental, “pure” mathematics, it acts as a direct criterion for the truth of mathematical constructions. As for applied mathematics, here practice is the only criterion for the truth of mathematical models, their effectiveness.
The relativity of practice as a criterion of truth lies in the fact that, being always historically limited, it is not able to fully, completely prove or disprove all our knowledge. Practice is able to realize this only in the process of its further development.
“Uncertainty”, the relativity of practice as a criterion of truth is in unity with its opposite - certainty, absoluteness (in the end, in principle, in a trend). Thus, the relativity of practice as a criterion of truth corresponds to relative truth, the nature of the knowledge that mankind has at this stage of its historical development.