Cuttlefish sepia respiratory system. Cuttlefish. Species: Sepia apama = Giant Australian cuttlefish

The common sepia, or medicinal cuttlefish, is active at night. She preys on fish and small crustaceans. During the day, sepia changes its color and hides in the gorges of underwater rocks.

   Type - shellfish
   Class - cephalopods
   Row - Cuttlefish
   Genus/Species - Sepia officinalis

   Basic data:
DIMENSIONS
Body length: 30 cm
Tentacle length: tentacles used for hunting can reach 50 cm.

BREEDING
Mating period: spring and summer.
Number of eggs: about 300.

LIFESTYLE
Habits: keep in small flocks, which attracts different predators: dolphins, sharks and rays.
Food: fish, shellfish.

RELATED SPECIES
About 100 species belong to the family of true cuttlefish. The size of these animals is from 1.8 to 150 cm. The cuttlefish belongs to the class of cephalopods, and its close relatives are nautilus and argonauts.

   Common sepia belongs to the class of cephalopods, that is, it is one of the most developed representatives of mollusks. Nature provided her with a flat body, movable tentacles, well-developed eyes and amazing abilities. Fleeing from danger, sepia can instantly change the color of the body and swim back.

FOOD

   Sepia hunts at night. She catches fish and shellfish. Since the sepia has a well-developed vision, it freely covers the entire space with its eyes and easily notices prey. Sepia moves slowly, with the help of a mantle, the undulating movements of which push it forward. While moving, the sepia's limbs point forward. When the prey is at the right distance, the sepia throws forward two long tentacles with clubs at the ends and snaps the victim with them.

LIFESTYLE

   Normal sepia prefer shallow water, usually with a sandy bottom. During the day they lie at the bottom. With a change in the color of the pigment cells, the body acquires the color of the environment. The protective coloring perfectly masks the usual sepia. Often, sepia fins throw sand on their backs to become completely invisible for camouflage. At night the animals come out to hunt. Their internal calcareous shell (sepion) has a porous structure. The voids are filled with air, which reduces the mass of the animal.

BREEDING

   Ordinary sepia are animals of different sexes. They breed in shallow coastal waters. During the mating season, males have distinct purple and purple transverse stripes on their bodies. When another sepia approaches a male, he raises his hectocotyl. This organ is adapted for the storage and transfer of sperm. If another sepia does not repeat the gesture of the male, then the individual that approached is a female. The male fertilizes her by placing spermatophores with the help of a hectocotyl into the female's seminal receptacles. After some time, the female lays about 300 eggs. Sepia masonry look like grape bosoms. The eggs hatch into small sepia.

DEVICE FEATURES

   Sepia uses several amazing ways to trick the enemy or attract prey. During the hunt, sepia changes color and blends perfectly with the environment. When several sepia hunt together, the animals move in concert and change color at the same time. Fleeing from the enemy, the sepia closes the hole in the mantle, contracts the strong muscles of the walls of the mantle and abruptly releases water from its body through a narrow funnel. This device, like a jet engine, pushes her forward. A sharp change in speed and direction of movement is possible due to a change in the angle of rotation of the funnel. It confuses the enemy. At the slightest danger, Sepia also uses ink, forming a veil that allows it to escape.
  

DO YOU KNOW WHAT...

• Sepia, when attacked, ejects ink at such a speed that it can color 20 cubic meters of water in a few minutes.
• Wounded or weakened sepia are often washed ashore in waves. Why this happens is still unknown.
• If a sepia loses one of its tentacles, a new one will soon grow in its place.
• During the mating season, sepia females glow quite brightly. They have luminous organs.
• People have been writing in sepia ink for hundreds of years. In addition, for many centuries they have been used to produce a brown paint, which is called sepia.
• Sepias have a well-developed nervous system and brain.

  

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF SEPIA

   Leather: contains hundreds of pigmented cells that stretch and contract. Thanks to these cells, cuttlefish can change color within a few seconds. Color change is of great importance in camouflage and during the mating season.
   Limbs: eight shorter arms-tentacles are organs of touch that provide information about the world around. They have 2-4 rows of suckers, with which the cuttlefish is attached to objects and holds food at the mouth opening. Two tentacles are used to catch prey. One of the male's arms (hectocotylus) is adapted to carry spermatophores (sperm containers).
   Mantle: surrounds the body on both sides, serves for swimming and changing the direction of movement.
   Sink, or sepion: this hard calcareous plate is like a shield covering the cuttlefish's body. Consists of several layers.

PLACES OF ACCOMMODATION
Common sepia lives in the Mediterranean Sea, it is also found in the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Baltic Sea and the English Channel.
PRESERVATION
Sepia has long been an object of fishing. For centuries, people have used her ink to write. In addition, the taste qualities of sepia meat are highly valued. Today, the species is not threatened with extinction.

Pharmacy cuttlefish. Class - cephalopods. Trituration of the dried liquid contents of the ink sac. It turned out that the drug prepared from a fresh ink bag, which Dr. Swallow gave me, is superior in all respects to the official drug, which I rarely use. However, in the trials and cases described, a dry preparation was used.

Clinic The impact of alcohol. Amenorrhea. Pressure in the anus. Apoplexy. Bad appetite. Ascariasis. Baldness. Bladder irritation. Cancer. Life changes. Chloasma. Chorea. Condylomas. Cystitis. Dandruff. Dysmenorrhea. Dyspepsia. Eczema. Nosebleeds. Eye diseases. Jaundice of the face. Freckles. Chronic urethritis of gonorrheal origin. Gonorrhea. Sand in urine. Ring herpes. Hysteria. Irritation. Jaundice. Beli. Liver spots. Sluggish liver. Menstrual disorders. Mental disorders. Pain under the nails.

Neuralgia. Inflammation and swelling of the nasal mucosa. Nasty coryza. Phimosis. Pityriasis. Pleurisy. Violations during pregnancy, vomiting. Itching. Psoriasis. Ptosis. Seal of the pylorus. Peritonsillar abscess. Cancer and fissures of the rectum. Dermatomycosis. Pain in the sacrum. Sciatica. Seborrhea. Acute sense of smell or its disorders. Spermatorrhoea. Barley. Toothache. Urinary incontinence. Struggling in the uterus. Phlebeurysm. Warts. Whooping cough.

Characteristic We owe the current use of sepia in medicine to Hahnemann. Ancient physicians used the meat, eggs, or skeletal bones of this animal for "leucorrhea, gonorrhea, cystitis, sand in the urine, bladder spasms, baldness, freckles, and certain types of eczema," which seems surprising in light of the tests. Sep. is one of the remedies described in "Chronic Diseases" and has been tested by Goullon, von Gersdorff, Gross, Hartlaub and Wahle. Sep. predominantly (but not exclusively) is a female remedy. It affects the reproductive system of both men and women and a range of symptoms in other organs.

The teste describes the type for which Sep. fits as follows: young people of both sexes, or rather people of reproductive age (from puberty to the critical period), of slight build, with clear, white or rosy skin, fair or red haired, of a nervous temperament, extremely excitable, anxious and emotional, especially subject to intense sexual arousal or exhausted by sexual excesses. Hering describes the following types:

People with dark hair, rigid muscles and a soft, docile disposition. Women during pregnancy, childbirth and lactation. Children who catch cold easily when the weather changes. Scrofulous patients. Men prone to alcohol abuse and sexual excesses. Irritable women with large belly, yellow "saddle" on the nose, leuco-phlegmatic constitution and weakness from the slightest exertion.

According to Bahr, they are: "Excitable, full-blooded people, prone to congestion." Farrington adds that Sep. very sensitive to all impressions, and that dark hair is by no means a necessary feature.

He gives a fuller description: edematous, lethargic people (much less often emaciated) with yellow or dirty yellow, and also brown skin, covered with spots; with excessive sweating, especially in the genital area, armpits and on the back; hot flushes; headache in the morning; they wake up with stiffness in the muscles and a feeling of fatigue; susceptible to diseases of the genital organs; in general, patients are weak and sickly, with weak connective tissue, lethargic, and paresis easily.

Sep. affects the vital forces no less than the tissues of the body. Sphincters and all smooth muscles are weakened. Sep. causes circulatory disturbances, hot flashes and other disturbances, such as pulsation of blood throughout the body, heat in the hands and cold in the feet, or vice versa.

The flushes spread from below upwards and end in sweat, fainting and a feeling of weakness. Nosebleeds may start from a bruise, from being in a warm room, or from suppressed menstruation. Distribution of symptoms Sep. bottom up is one of its key symptoms. The headache shoots upwards, as do the pains in the anus, rectum and vagina. Feelings of coldness and flushes also rise from below upwards. On the other hand, night sweats descend from top to bottom.

Headache extends from inside out. It is characterized by dizziness with a sensation as if "something is rolling" in the head. Sep. is one of the remedies which has a feeling of "lump" in the internal organs, most pronounced in the rectum. It is described as an apple or potato "stuck" in the rectum; this sensation is not relieved by defecation. With this symptom I have cured both diarrhea and constipation with Sep.

Stitches in rectum and vagina radiating upward, which is also an indication of Sep. in cases of hemorrhoids, prolapse of the rectum, with prolapse or induration of the uterus and cervix. Like Murex, the main scope of Sep. are female genital organs, although in general it reduces the amount of menstrual flow, while Murex, on the contrary, increases. Sep. causes a rush of blood to the uterus, leading to its compaction. It is characterized by prolapse or retroversion. Yellowish-green leucorrhoea has an unpleasant odor.

It causes strong attempts that occur in the abdomen and back, and sometimes even make it difficult to breathe. These attempts are aggravated in a standing position and when walking; cover the hips.

The patient experiences a sensation of constant pressure in the vagina, forcing her to cross her legs to avoid prolapse. Associated with uterine symptoms are hysteria, erethism, palpitations, flushing, and fainting. The feeling of weakness and emptiness, which is one of the main characteristics of Sep., is sometimes associated with pelvic pressure. Feeling of emptiness in the epigastrium and in the whole abdomen. It is analogous to the strong relaxing action of Sep. to connective tissue.

This sinking sensation is common in pregnancy; besides him Sep. helps with many other disorders associated with pregnancy, such as: “morning sickness, vomiting of food and bile in the morning; vomiting of milky white fluid and increased pressure from exertion." "Nausea even at the thought of eating, and feeling of great heaviness in the anus."

Sep. indicated for a tendency to miscarriages; say that "to all women prone to miscarriage," Hering recommended taking Sep. and Zinc. In addition, she has cured many cases of dyspepsia not related to uterine disorders. She cured dyspepsia due to an overload injury. Portal stasis is also included in its scope. Among its symptoms are a feeling of fullness, soreness and stitching pain in the region of the liver, as well as a stitching pain in the left hypochondrium.

All urinary tracts are in a state of irritation, cystitis and urethritis may begin. Frequent and strong urge to urinate. Stitching pain in urethra. Relaxation of the sphincters, characteristic of Sep., predisposes to urinary incontinence; especially when "the child urinates as soon as he goes to bed, always shortly after falling asleep." It cures enuresis in fair-faced boys prone to masturbation. If the bladder is irritated, even with an urge to urinate, urination may be difficult, and the patient has to wait quite a long time for urine to appear. Cures gonorrhea after the acute symptoms have disappeared.

With its help, chronic urethritis and warts of gonorrheal origin were cured. Hering adds "condylomas ringing around the head of the penis". I myself have cured a scattering of small soft warts surrounding the opening of the foreskin. Thuja did not help in this case. As regards warts, by triturating Sep. 3x I cured a large keratinized wart on a woman's abdomen. It was about 3 cm in size, had the shape of a bean and protruded 6 mm above the level of the skin.

But one of the most characteristic of Sep. are skin symptoms. Patients Sep. have delicate skin, so the slightest damage leads to the formation of ulcers. Itching, in place of which, after scratching, there is a burning sensation. Soreness of the skin, weeping areas on the bends of the knees. Chloasma. Painful rash on the tip of the nose. Herpetic eruption on the lips and around the mouth. A rash resembling dermatophytosis, which appears every spring on some parts of the body, then on other parts of the body.

Dermatophytosis of the face. Ring herpes. Rounded and yellow spots. Urticaria appears on exposure to fresh air, but it is better in a warm room. Itching can drive the patient to despair, especially when it affects the genitals and anus. On the example of the joints of the fingers, where ulcers form, we see another manifestation of the action of Sep. to connective tissue.

Sweat: pungent, offensive in the armpits and on the feet, irritating. The eyes and eyelids are closely related to the skin, so Sep. causes all kinds of inflammations of the eyes, eyelids, as well as visual disturbances, such as: black spots, green halo and fiery redness before the eyes. The eye symptoms are worse from rubbing, pressing on the eyelids, morning and evening, and better from washing the eyes with cold water. Sep. is a "cold" remedy and is used when there is a lack of internal heat, especially in case of chronic diseases.

It is often required for chronic rhinitis. Nash once treated a patient with a thick, profuse and "soft" discharge. Puls reduced inflammation but increased menses too much. Sep. cured both. It is also useful in inflammation of the tonsils, with a tendency to suppurate during a cold.

The characteristic sensations in the throat are: dryness and pressure, as if a scarf were tied too tightly; feeling of congestion; burning; stitching pain when swallowing; narrowing of the throat between swallows; gagging sensation when swallowing, with sensation of constriction. There are certain features of the mental state of Sep. which must be remembered.

Anxiety: with flushes of heat to face and head, fear of misfortune, real or imagined; stronger in the evening. Great sadness and tears, fear of loneliness, fear of men, of meeting friends (combined with diseases of the uterus). Indifference, even to one's own family, work, the dearest and closest people. Greed and avarice. Lethargy. Patients Sep. cry when asked to describe symptoms.

Patients are very sensitive and do not tolerate when they point out shortcomings. Another characteristic feature of Sep. are "frequent fainting", weakness after getting wet; due to extreme heat or cold; when riding in a carriage; when kneeling in church. Lorbacher describes three important indications for Sep. that are little known: pre-stroke; whooping cough that goes on endlessly; congestive pleurisy.

The symptoms of Sep. corresponding to the first indication are: stiffness in the back and neck; dizziness and unsteady gait (aggravated by exercise in the open air), anxiety and fear of falling ill with a serious illness, interruptions in the work of the heart; lethargy and drowsiness.

Lorbacher cites the following case: a heavily built, 50-year-old farmer, prone to hypochondria, who occasionally suffered from hemorrhoids and had no tendency to alcoholism, suddenly developed the habit of "taking a drink" from time to time. Gradually, his stomach enlarged, stiffness in the neck appeared, dizziness, at times a pulsation in the head, short, transient attacks of loss of consciousness, anxiety, fear of a stroke; at the same time, the hemorrhoids have shrunk and almost ceased to bother him. Several times he underwent venesection, but it gave only partial relief.

Refusal of alcohol did not have a significant effect. He was assigned Sep. 12x, first four drops twice a day, then every other day and so on with increasing intervals between doses. After two months, the symptoms decreased and gradually disappeared completely. After that, the man lived for eight years, he did not develop a stroke, although he did not get rid of the habit of "skipping a glass." Sep. is indicated in persistent whooping cough if it lasts eight weeks or more, and although the number and strength of the attacks decrease, they do not completely disappear and most often develop before midnight.

Patients lose strength, their digestion is disturbed, irritability, tearfulness appear, they easily fall into a rage or, conversely, become apathetic. Kunkel reports the following case of lung disease: a boy of 14 was treated for five weeks for cough and hoarseness. The hoarseness intensified in the evening, during the day he was disturbed by a cough with purulent sputum.

He slept well, in the position on the left side the dream was accompanied by dreams. Exhaustion. phos. 10x caused only small changes. He had a great tension in the chest when breathing with a desire to take a deep breath, better in the open air, while moving and while working; worse indoors and at rest. Although the weather was bad, he constantly wanted to be in the air.

Sep. 10x healed him quickly. Boenninghausen recommended Sep. in cases of cough with or without sputum, in sputum streaked with blood, bloody, purulent (yellow, greenish or offensive) and especially in tuberculosis. Nash described a case of cholera infantum which he cured with Sep., on the basis of the indication "worse every time after drinking milk." For Sept. characteristic leakage of fluid from the anus. On this basis, it can only be compared with Ant. s, which comes first.

Sep., writes Bahr, "provides considerable help in certain conditions of the female body, which we have hitherto only been able to note. After an exacerbation of chronic gastritis, which lasted several days and was accompanied by burning pain, the region of the kidneys, mainly on the left, became painful; there was severe burning pain, rich yellow urine with a lot of urate precipitated, or clear urine with a lot of sediment in the form of sand, covered with uric acid. After the passage of urine, the pains generally decreased and resumed only with a recurrence of pain in the stomach.

Unusual sensations Sep.. as if all objects were moving. It's like she's floating in the air. Vertigo, as if intoxicated. As if the brain is crushed. Like my head is about to explode. As if waves of pain were rolling through the head, hitting the frontal bone. Sensation as if something were rolling in the head, with vertigo. Stitching, as if with needles, pain in the head. Soreness of the hair roots; as if her hair was cut very short. As if the eyeballs were about to fall out of their sockets.

Sensation of heaviness over the eyes. As if the eyes had disappeared, and cold air was escaping from the sockets. Bruised feeling in the eyes. Like a grain of sand got into my eye. As if eyelids were too heavy to open. As if eyes were on fire. As if the eyelids were contracted and did not completely close the eyeballs. Sensation of a hollow in the molar, as if it were swollen and longer. Gums as if burned, as if they were starting to fester. Burning sensation of tongue and mouth. Feeling of a plug in the throat. Sore feeling in throat. As if something were swirling in the stomach and rising up the throat. As if internal organs were turned inside out. Sensation of pain in the cavity of the stomach. As if there was a foreign body in the stomach. Scraping sensation in stomach.

As if a palm-wide belt was tightly tightened around the waist. Sensation as if liver would burst. As if all the entrails in the abdomen were turning over. Feeling of heaviness in the abdomen. As if loops of intestines were pulled together into a ball. Sensation of something sticky in the abdomen. Sensation of something alive in the stomach. Feeling of heaviness or lump in the anus.

As if the bladder were so full that its bottom rose above the pubis. As if urine was dripping from the bladder. As if the bladder and other urinary organs were compressed with force. As if everything is about to flow out through the vulva. As if the contents of the uterus were about to fall out. Sensation as if the uterus were being squeezed by claws. As if external genitalia were enlarged. As if something heavy were being pushed out of the vagina. Feeling of heaviness in the sides. As if the ribs were broken and the sharp ends dig into the soft tissue. As if a cough were coming up from the abdomen and stomach.

Sensation as if chest were empty, with sensation of pain. As if throat were filled with mucus. As if the mammary glands were enlarged. As if the heart had stopped. The back is numb, as if the patient had been sitting in an uncomfortable position for a long time and could neither turn nor rise. Sudden pain in the back, as if struck with a hammer. Pain in the back, as from subcutaneous ulceration.

It feels like something is about to break in the back. As if the limbs were about to fail. Sensation of dislocation in the shoulder joint. Feet are numb. Sensation of a bruise in the right hip joint. Sensation as if the patient's legs had been beaten. Like a mouse running up the leg. As if the bones of the legs were rotting. It's like she can feel every muscle, every nerve on the right side of her body, from shoulder to foot. Sensation of a lump in the internal organs. Sensation of an icy hand between the shoulder blades. Feeling of suffocation. As if she were standing ankle-deep in cold water. Like being poured with hot water. "Stiffness" is the hallmark of Sep.: Stiffness in the limbs worse after sleep; stiffness in the uterus.

Unusual symptoms Sep.: "Involuntary jerking of the head back and forth, especially in the morning, while sitting." This can be seen in hysteria. Pointing to Sep. are open fontanelles in children. The symptoms are aggravated by touch (with the exception of pain in the back, which is relieved by palpation).

Pressure aggravates the symptoms. (Press on the eyelids aggravates the symptoms.) Pulling the head tight with a bandage relieves the pain. Better when unbuttoning clothes. Aggravation from rubbing and scratching. Worse from concussions when the patient stumbles, from the slightest blow, from overload. Many symptoms may either increase or decrease with rest and movement. Worse when moving the arms, when lying on the left side and on the back. Better when lying on the right side.

Many symptoms are aggravated by sitting. Fainting when sitting upright or kneeling. (Worse when kneeling is a very characteristic sign.) Sitting cross-legged ameliorates; heavy physical activity reduces headache. Worse when bending over, standing up, going up stairs. A short walk causes fatigue.

Dancing and running do not cause shortness of breath. Worse: from mental labor; after sexual excesses. Worse in afternoon and evening (characteristic "dyspnoea in the evening"); from cold air or east wind; in stuffy and humid weather; before the storm; from washing (Sep. called "the medicine of laundresses" - Allen.). Stormy weather causes a feeling of suffocation. Worse after sleep (stiffness in legs). Worse on falling asleep or immediately after falling asleep. Outdoor improvement. (And also in heat, at the same temperature as the body; increased sensitivity to cold air.)

Cold water relieves eye and tooth symptoms. Better from warmth of bed and from hot applications. Cough worse in church. Worse during and immediately after eating. Milk, fatty and sour foods aggravate the condition. Pulsation in the epigastric region during eating: the more she eats, the stronger the pulsation. The feeling of emptiness disappears during dinner. Worse after intercourse.

I agree with Dr. Swallow who found that fresh Sep. have a broader spectrum of action than a conventional drug, and act as an "organ-specific agent" for a large number of uterine disorders, even those that may not be clearly indicated in the pathogenesis. I used Sept. in dilutions from 5 to 30.

Relationships

Antidotes for Sepia are: Odor, Nit. sp. d.; organic acids of vegetable origin - Aso., Ant. c, Ant. t., Rhus. Sepia is an antidote for: Calc, Chi., Merc, Nat. m., Nat. ph., Pho., Sars., Sul. Incompatible with: Lach. (but in one case, when Lach. in a very high potency caused violent, agonizing tenesmus in the rectum, accompanied by alternate retraction and protrusion of the anus, Sep. proved to be a good antidote). Additional: Nat. m. (cuttlefish lives in salt water), Nat. with. and other sodium salts; Sul. It is well followed by Nit. ac.

Should be compared

Vesicular eruptions and ulcers around the joints, Brx., Mez. Psoriasis, Ars., Ars. i. Chloasma, Lyc, Nux, Sul., Curar. Epidermophytosis - You, Calc, Tell. Sadness, Caust., Puls. Soft, docile disposition, Puls. The patient cries when asked about her symptoms (Puls. cries when describing symptoms). Diseases with sudden prostration, weakness and fainting, Murex, Nux m. Medicine for laundresses - Pho. (Pho. - headache after washing). Pain from other parts of the body extends to the back (Sabi. - vice versa). Pain with trembling (Puls., with chilliness). Lack of internal warmth, especially in chronic diseases (Led. in acute). Coldness on vertex with headache, Ver. (Heat at vertex, Calc., Graph., Sul.). Indifference to work -Fl.ac, Ph. ac. Greed, stinginess, Lyc.

Forced to unbutton shirt collar - Lach. Sensation of lump in internal organs, Lach. Ring-shaped herpes in separate areas (Tell. - rings intersect). Empty feeling better after eating, Chel, Pho. Constipation during pregnancy - Aim. Pain in rectum long after stool, Nit. ac, Sul. Urine so offensive that it has to be taken out of the room immediately (Indium urine becomes extremely offensive after standing).

The child urinates the bed as soon as he goes to bed - Kge. Chronic gonorrheal urethritis - K. iod. Struggling as if every viscera would be forced out of the pelvis, Agar., Bell., Lil. t., Murex, Sank. Seeing or thinking of food causes nausea, Nux. Smell of cooking causes nausea, Ars., Colch. Itching which burns after scratching, Sul. Pain in spine, worse sitting or walking, Cob., Zn., Puls., Can. i. Induration of uterus, vaginismus, Plat. Attempts - Bell. (Bell. - increase in the prone position, Sep. - weaken; Bell. - weaken in the standing position, Sep. - increase). Cannot cough up phlegm, Caust., Dros., K. ca., Am. Involuntary passage of urine on coughing, Caust., Nat. m., Fer.

Eczema on dorsum of hand, Nat. with. Prolapse of uterus, Nux. (Sep. follows Nux when the latter ceases to be effective.) Ptosis, Gels. (Gels. - dullness of mind; redness of face). Urticaria worse in open air -Rx. with. Urticaria - Ast. fl., Nat. m., Apis, Chloral., Urtica. Eye troubles in tea drinkers, Thuj. Dyspepsia with intensely colored urine, Lyc. Condensation of the uterus, melancholy -Aur. Attempts, sadness - K. fey. Struggling, congestion, dull pain, prolapse, Ust., Sec, Vib. o., Vib. t., Inula., Hedeo, Ziz.

Fits of uncontrollable laughter, Croc, Ign. Deep sadness during menses, Lyc, Nat. m., Nit. ac. (Nat. m. worse or better at 10 am). Irritation during menstruation (Nux, Cham., Mg. m. before and during; Lyc. before). Worse when kneeling, Coccul., Mg. with. Anxiety about one's health, Calc, Pho. Offensive coryza, crusting, Pul., Syph., Psor. Fetid urine, Calc. (Benz. ac. and Nit. ac. - with a strong odor). Burning, shooting and stitching in cervix, Murex. Hot, burning eructations, Pet., K. ca. Hep. Retention of urination, Ars. (ineffective urges - Nux). Fear of ghosts, Pho., Pul. Phimosis - Can. s., Merc. Sul., Nit. ace, Thuj. Sensation as if everything had been "pumped out" of the bowels, after stool, Plat.

Head movements, Lyc. Worse after intercourse; remedy for women, relaxation of tissues - Arnisa. Sensation as if the patient had been struck with a hammer on the back (Naj., on the back of the neck). Burning sensation of tongue and mouth, Sang. Sensation as if something were turning over in the abdomen, Nit. ac. (as if a machine were running in the stomach). Pain as from subcutaneous ulceration, Puls., Ran. b. Skin lesions heal slowly, Hep. Better by washing eyes with cold water, Asar. Hypersensitivity - Asar. Apoplexy, Ast. r. (sea animal). Aggravation from milk, Homar. (sea animal). Thorax, Pho.

Etiology

Anger or irritation. bruises. Falls. Concussions. Injuries. Overload (dyspepsia). Snowfall. Tobacco (neuralgia). Wash. Getting wet. Alcohol. Boiled milk (diarrhea). Pork fat.

Symptoms

Psyche- Sadness and depression with tears. Melancholy and gloominess. Anguish and restlessness, sometimes with flushes of heat, mostly in the evening (when walking in the open air) and sometimes in bed. Anxiety, restlessness. Fear of being alone. Increased nervousness, sensitivity to the slightest sound. Great anxiety about one's health and household chores. thoughtfulness. Timidity. Decline of spirit, up to disgust for life. Indifference to everything around, even to relationships with other people.

Aversion to usual work. Violent disturbances caused by irritation. Increased excitability in the company. Patients are touchy and capricious, increased irritability, quarrelsomeness, desire to make sarcastic remarks. Weak memory. Absent-mindedness. Tendency to make mistakes in speaking and writing. Inability to intellectual work. Slow perception. Difficulty perceiving, thoughts flow slowly. Speaks slowly.

Head- Confusion of thoughts, which does not allow doing mental work. Attacks of vertigo, especially when walking in the open air, when writing anything, or even at the slightest movement of the arms. Vertigo, with sensation as if everything around were moving, or something was rolling in the head. Vertigo in the morning on rising from bed, or in the afternoon. Sensation of coldness in vertex, aggravated by moving the head and stooping, ameliorated by rest and open air. Attacks of headache with nausea, vomiting, shooting or boring pains that cause screaming.

Headache occurs every morning. Headache that prevents the patient from opening her eyes. Headache with increased sexual excitability. Headache when shaking or moving the head, and with every step, with sensation as if the brain were shaking. Unilateral headache, sometimes in the evening after going to bed; pain is preceded by heaviness in the head. Migraine attacks, burning pain from inside out in one side of the head (more often the left) with nausea (and vomiting) and constriction in the eyes; worse indoors and when walking fast; better in the open air and lying on the affected side.

Boring headache from inside out; starts in the morning and continues until the evening; aggravated by movement and inclination; decreases at rest, when eyes are closed, from external pressure, during sleep. Heaviness in the head. Pressive pain over the eyes in daylight, as if the head would explode and the eyes would fall out, with nausea. Strong sensation of pressure in the head, sometimes on stooping, as if a little more and it would explode. Sensation as if the head were constricted. Drawing and tearing in the head, inside and out, sometimes one-sided. Sharp, shooting headache, often on one side or in the forehead. Shooting pains, especially over the left eye, which makes the patient scream.

Headache at onset of menstruation, with scanty discharge. Headache in the form of violent shocks. Involuntary twitching of the head back and forth, especially in the morning and in a sitting position. Long-lasting fontanelles, twitching of the head, pallor and pasty face, pain in the stomach and discharge of green, loose stools. The patient sweats in the head, the sweat has a sour smell; sweating is accompanied by weakness and fainting, worse in the evening, before going to bed. A rush of blood to the Head. Throbbing headache, especially in the occiput (which begins in the morning and is worse in the evening, on the slightest movement, on turning the eyeballs, when lying on the back; better when closing the eyes and at rest).

Violent congestions of blood to head with heat, especially when bending over. The surface of the head is cold. Tendency to take colds in the head, especially after exposure to a dry, cold wind, or when the head gets wet. Involuntary trembling and tremors in the head. Mobility of the skin of the skull. The scalp and hair roots are extremely sensitive to touch. Itching of the scalp (nose and eyes).

Rash on vertex and back of head; the skin is dry, offensive, with itching, prickling and fissures extending behind the ears, and pain when scratching them. A lump on one side of the head, above the temple, with itching, feeling of coldness, and tearing pain; worse when touched, better when lying on it or getting out of bed. Moist crusts on the head. Areas of baldness on the skull, favus of the scalp. Hair loss. Small red pimples on forehead, rough skin. Swelling of the scalp, especially in the forehead.

Eyes- Heaviness and ptosis of the upper eyelids. Sensation of pressure on the eyeballs. Itching and burning in eyes and lids. Stinging in the eyes by candlelight in the evening. Burning sensation in the eyes, especially in the morning on waking. Inflammation of the eyes, with reddening of the sclera and shooting pains. Inflammation, redness and swelling of the eyelids with styes. Pustules on the cornea. Eyebrow scabs. Glassy, ​​watery eyes in the evening. Fungus haematodes on the cornea. Dry scabs on eyelids, especially on waking in the morning. Yellow sclera.

Pain in the eyelids in the morning on waking, as if the eyelids were too heavy, as if the patient could not bear to keep the eyes open. Eyelids red, swollen; barley. Lachrymation, especially in the morning, or agglutination of the eyelids at night. Trembling and twitching of the eyelids. Paralysis of the eyelids, with inability to lift them, especially at night (and in the evening). When reading and writing in the eyes, everything merges. Presbyopia. Weak vision, as in amaurosis, with constriction of the pupils.

The appearance of a veil, black spots, dots, flashes and streaks of light before the eyes. Cannot tolerate light reflected from bright objects. Green halo around the candle in the evening. Great sensitivity of the eyes to daylight. During menstruation, vision deteriorates; improvement in lying position.

Ears- Ear pain. Shooting pain in ears. Stinging pain in left ear. Sore pain in the ears. Swelling and purulent discharge from the outer ear. Herpes on the earlobe, behind the ear and on the back of the neck. Discharge of liquid pus from the ear, with itching. Extremely acute hearing, the patient hears music especially well. Hearing loss. Sudden deafness, as if caused by cerumen. Buzzing and roaring in ears.

Nose- Swelling and inflammation of the nose, especially the tip. Scabs on the tip of the nose. The inside of the nostrils are covered with ulcers and scabs. Thick mucus in nose. Epistaxis and discharge of blood, often on blowing the nose, on the slightest overheating, from a blow to the nose, even a slight one. Violent bleeding from the nose, especially during menstruation. Anosmia. Sharpening or dulling of the sense of smell; yellow "saddle" on the bridge of the nose.

Fetid odor from the nose. Fetid coryza, when blowing the nose large pieces of yellow-green mucus or yellow-green pieces of the mucous membrane with blood are discharged. Dry runny nose. Dry coryza, especially in left nostril. Dry mucus that causes nasal congestion. Profuse liquid discharge with sneezing, pain in occiput and drawing in limbs.

Face- Pale and pasty with blue circles under the eyes; the eyes become red and dim. Face yellow (including sclera). Exhausted face. Saddle-shaped yellow spots on nose and cheeks. Violent heat in the region of the face. The face is pale and swollen. Erysipelatous inflammation and pastosity of one half of the face (due to a tooth affected by caries). Inflammation and swelling of the face, with groups of yellow, scaly pimples.

Herpes with desquamation of the skin of the face. Warts on the face. Black pores on the face. The appearance of acne before menstruation. Itching and rash on the face and forehead, sometimes just hyperemic or rough skin. The skin on the forehead is pasty. Tumors on the forehead. Drawing pain in the face. Spasmodic and tearing pains in the bones of the facial skull. Neuralgic pain (in left side of face from tobacco abuse). Dryness and peeling of the lips. Tension in the lower lip. Puffiness under the lip. Yellow herpetic eruptions around the mouth.

Moist, crusty eruptions on the red border of the lips and chin. Painful ulcers on the inner surface of the lips. Congestion and soreness of the submaxillary glands.

Teeth- Toothache comes on from pressure, from touching the teeth, from talking, or from the slightest breath of cold air. Toothache at night, with great excitement. Throbbing, drawing, or shooting toothache, which sometimes extends to the ear (especially after eating, drinking, or when the patient puts something cold in the mouth), to the hands, or to the fingers. Toothache during menses.

Burning and throbbing toothache, which spread to the ear during pregnancy, was accompanied by shallow breathing, swelling of the face and submandibular glands; aggravated by cold drafts, by touching the teeth, by talking. Toothache, with violent effervescence and throbbing all over the body. Tearing pain felt as a jolt in the teeth. Teeth become dull, loose, bleed easily, and caries develops in them. The gums are dark red. Swelling, abrasions, ulcers and frequent bleeding from the gums.

Mouth- Bad breath. Swelling of the inner surface of the mouth. Dryness of the mouth, lips and tongue. Salty saliva. Taste: bitter, sour, slimy, offensive, mostly in the morning. Pain in tongue and palate, as if burned. Sensation as if the tip of the tongue were burned. Abrasions on the tongue. Vesicles on the tongue. The tongue is coated with white. Soreness of the tip of the tongue.

Throat- Sore throat with enlargement of cervical glands. Pressure as from a cork in the throat, stinging or shooting pain when swallowing. Pressure in the throat in the region of the tonsils, with a feeling as if the tie were too tight. Twitching sensation in throat. Swelling and inflammation of the esophageal mucosa. Inflammation, swelling and suppuration of the tonsils. Dryness in the throat, with tension and scratching. Sticky feeling in throat. Accumulation of mucus in the throat and on the palate. Rawness and burning in fauces, aggravated by dry cough. Expectoration of mucus, especially in the morning. Discharge of bloody mucus on expectoration.

Appetite- Putrid or sour taste in the mouth. Too salty taste of food. Adipsia or excessive thirst, especially in the morning and evening, sometimes with anorexia. Increased appetite. Bulimia with feeling of emptiness in the stomach. Passionate desire for wine, vinegar. Aversion to beer. Aversion to food or simply unwillingness to eat, especially meat and milk (which cause diarrhea). Does not tolerate the smell of tobacco smoke. Unpleasant belching with nausea after fatty food. Weak digestion. After eating: sour sensation in the mouth, frequent belching, scratching and burning in the throat, throbbing in the heart fossa, hiccups, bloating, sweat, fever, palpitations, headache, nausea, vomiting, pain in the stomach.

Stomach- Feeling of emptiness in the epigastric region, under the xiphoid process; it is a very faint feeling of emptiness that is not filled with anything; this symptom can be a complication of any disease, with menstrual irregularities. Frequent eructations, mostly sour or bitter, smelling of rotten eggs or taste of food. Painful belching, in which blood enters the mouth. Acidity, with disgust for life.

Nausea, sometimes on empty stomach in the morning, better after eating a little food. Nausea with bitter taste and eructation. Nausea in a moving train. Nausea and vomiting after eating. Vomiting of bile and food (morning, with headache). Vomiting of bile and food during pregnancy; gagging so strong that the pressure rises. Pain in stomach after eating, sometimes in the evening. Violent pain in the cardia when food passes into the stomach. Pain in the epigastric region when walking. Pressure in stomach, as if there were a stone in it, especially while eating, after eating, or at night. Cramps in the stomach.

Belching, especially after drinking or eating, or preceded by a feeling of "twisting" in the stomach. Vomiting of milky white serum (in pregnant women). Vomiting at night with headache. Cramps in stomach and chest. Tearing and boring pain in the region of the cardia extending to the small of the back. Cutting and drilling, directed from the stomach to the spine. Pressive and shooting in the fossa of the heart and in the region of the stomach. Burning sensation in the epigastric region and cardiac fossa. Pulsation in the epigastric region. Painful sensitivity and feeling of emptiness in the stomach.

Stomach- Pain in the liver when riding in a carriage. Dull, throbbing, and shooting pains in region of liver. Boring pain or tension and shooting pain in hypochondria, especially on motion. Shooting pain in left hypochondrium. Attacks of constricting pain in the right hypochondrium. Pain in the hypogastric region at night, when lying down, better after urination. Abdominal pain; in bed, in the morning. Pressure and heaviness in the abdomen, with a sense of fullness, as if the abdomen would burst. The strongest stretching of the anterior abdominal wall. Heaviness in the abdomen and induration. Consolidation of the pyloric region. Abdominal pain in pregnant women. Abdominal enlargement (in women who have recently given birth). Swelling of the anterior abdominal wall. Cramping in the abdomen, with sensation as if claws had dug into it, as if the intestines were twisted. Acute colic, especially after exercise or at night, with urge to stool.

Boring, cutting and dull pain in the abdomen. Pain in the intestines, as from a bruise. Cold in the stomach. Burning and shooting pain in the abdomen, especially in the left side, which sometimes extends to the thigh. Feeling of emptiness in the abdomen. Sharp shooting pain in the groin. Brownish spots on the skin of the abdomen. Peristalsis and rumbling in the abdomen, especially after eating. Excess formation of gases and dynamic intestinal obstruction.

stool and anus- Constipation during pregnancy. Ineffective urge to defecate or pass only mucus and flatus. Delayed inefficient defecation, feces resemble sheep. The stool is scanty, accompanied by straining and tenesmus. Feces are too soft. Difficulty passing stools, although they are soft. The stool comes out with great difficulty, seems as if it does not pass, because of an obstruction in the anus or rectum (as if there were a lump or a potato). Difficult stool, with feeling of heaviness in the abdomen. Gelatinous stools (small amount, defecation accompanied by cramping pain and tenesmus). Exhausting diarrhea. Greenish diarrhoea, often with a putrid or sour smell, especially in children. Diarrhea after drinking boiled milk. White or brownish stools. Discharge of blood during bowel movements. Constrictive pain and distension, itching, prickling, burning and shooting pain in anus and rectum.

Leakage of fluid from the anus. Mucous discharge from the rectum, with shooting and tearing pain. Anus and rectum affected, with sharp and lancinating pains, the pain shoots up into the abdomen. Prolapse of the rectum, especially during stool. Sensation of weakness in the rectum, which comes on in bed. Congestion in the region of the anus. Lethargy of the bowels. Bulging hemorrhoids (when walking; bleeding when walking). Bleeding from hemorrhoids. Abrasions between the buttocks. Contractive pain in the perineum. Ring of warts around the anus.

urinary organs- Frequent (and ineffective) urge to urinate (due to pressure on the bladder and tension in the epigastrium). Dull pain in bladder. Sensation as if the bladder were greatly distended. Passing urine at night (has to get up often). Involuntary emission of urine at night, especially shortly after falling asleep. Urine intensely colored, blood-red. Cloudy urine with red, sandy sediment or sediment like brick dust. Urine with a white sediment and a thin film on the surface. Profuse offensive urine with white sediment. Urine with bloody sediment. The sediment in the urine resembles clay, as if clay had been fired at the bottom of the vessel. The urine is very offensive and cannot be kept in the room. Cramps in the bladder, burning in the bladder and urethra. Burning in urethra, especially when urinating. Sharp and shooting pain in the urethra. Mucus discharge from the urethra, as in chronic gonorrhea.

Male reproductive organs- Profuse sweat on the genitals, especially on the scrotum. Itching of the skin in the genital area. Itching eruptions on the glans and foreskin. (An abundance of small velvety gonorrheal warts along the edge of the foreskin.) Pseudo-gonorrhea with a sour-salty smell of discharge. Ulcers on the head and foreskin. Pain in testicles. Cutting pain in testicles. swelling of the scrotum. Weakness in the genitals. Increased sexual desire with frequent erections (prolonged erections at night). Frequent wet dreams. Discharge of prostatic fluid, after urination and during difficult defecation. Mental, mental and physical exhaustion after intercourse and wet dreams. Both sexes complain after intercourse.

Female reproductive organs- Abrasions on the external genitalia and between the thighs; sometimes before menstruation (soreness and redness of the labia majora and perineum). Great dryness and soreness of the vulva and vagina when touched, especially after menstruation. Internal and external heat in the genitals. Narrowing and pain in the vagina. Swelling, redness and weeping eruption with itching on the labia minora. Struggling in the uterus, which makes it difficult to breathe.

Sensation of pressure, as if the internal organs were about to be squeezed out of the vagina (with oppression of breathing). Pain in groin on both sides, and straining, with constipation, but no leucorrhoea; heavy sleep, coldness in the whole body, flaccid tongue (cured, in a fat woman 35 years old). Vaginal prolapse. Violent stitching pain in the vagina, radiating upward. Prolapse of uterus with congestion and yellow leucorrhoea. Prolapse with deviation of the fundus of the uterus to the left, causing numbness of the left half of the body and pain; better lying down, especially on right side; soreness of the cervix. Induration of the neck with burning, shooting and stitching pains. Metrorrhagia during menopause or pregnancy. Very profuse menses.

Menstruation is suppressed, very weak or premature (appears only in the morning). Cases in which young mothers who are no longer breastfeeding do not menstruate, combined with bloating. Colic before menses. During menstruation: irritability, melancholy, toothache, headache, epistaxis, pain and fatigue in the limbs or cramps, colic and downward pressure. The patient is forced to cross her legs to avoid prolapse. Dull, violent pain in ovaries, especially left. Sterility. Leucorrhea yellow, greenish, red, liquid, or purulent and offensive, sometimes with distention of the abdomen or shooting pains in the vagina. Leukorrhea instead of menstruation.

Milky white leucorrhoea, with soreness of vulva. Itching and corrosive leucorrhoea. A tendency to miscarriage. Spontaneous abortion after the fifth month of pregnancy. Tendency to spontaneous abortions between the fifth and seventh months. Shooting pain in the mammary glands. Sore pain in the nipples (which bleed; they seem to be about to get ulcers). Fissure at the top of the nipple. Thickening of the mammary glands, areas of fibrous hardening, stabbing pain, soreness, burning pain. Sore pain in children. Sudden hot flushes during the climax, the patient is instantly perspiring, accompanied by weakness and a tendency to faint. Retained placenta after miscarriage. Pain in the abdomen, the patient is overly sensitive to the movements of the child. Yellow-brown spots on the face during pregnancy. Violent itching in the genitals, provoking miscarriage. Long-lasting, offensive, corrosive lochia.

Respiratory system- Itching and soreness in the larynx and throat. Sensation of dryness in the larynx. Hoarseness with coryza. Sensation of dryness in the trachea. Cough caused by a tickling sensation in the larynx or chest. Dry cough that seems to come up from the stomach, especially in bed in the evening (before midnight), and is often accompanied by nausea and bitter vomiting. Cough with expectoration after chill. Cough disturbs either only during the day, or it wakes the patient at night. The expectoration is white and copious. Cough: with copious expectoration of sputum, mostly putrid or salty in taste, often only in the morning or evening; often accompanied by murmurs, weakness, and raw pain in the chest. Cough with phlegm in the morning and without phlegm in the evening; with sputum at night and no sputum during the day; very violent cough in the morning on waking, with expectoration of much foul-tasting sputum. Nocturnal cough with screaming, choking and retching. Whooping-cough-like cough.

Attacks of spasmodic cough (similar to whooping cough) caused by a tickling sensation in the chest or a tickling sensation extending from the larynx into the abdomen, and expectoration of sputum only in the morning, evening and night (greenish-gray pus or milky-white, viscous sputum, sometimes unpleasantly sweet) that has to be swallowed. Cough worse lying on left side; from sour. Cough excited by tickling, accompanied by constipation. Difficult expectoration (or she has to swallow raised sputum). Greenish-yellow purulent sputum. Expectoration of blood while lying down. Bloody expectoration during cough in the morning and evening, with expectoration of mucus in the afternoon. Sharp shooting pains in the chest or back during coughing.

Rib cage- Shortness of breath, chest tightness and shallow breathing when walking and climbing stairs, as well as when lying in bed, in the evening and at night. Pain in the side of the chest when breathing or coughing. Stitching pain in the left side of the chest and in the scapula on breathing and coughing. Chest tightness caused by accumulation of mucus or expectoration of too much mucus. Pain in the chest on movement. Pressure in the chest, especially in bed in the evening. Heaviness, feeling of fullness and tension in the chest. (Hepatization of the middle and lower lobes of the right lung)

Sore pain in chest. Spasms in the chest. Itching and tickling in the chest. Feeling of emptiness in the chest. Shooting pains and tingling in the chest, in the sides of the chest; sometimes during inhalation or coughing, but may also be due to mental exertion. Brown spots on the skin of the chest. The chest symptoms disappear or are relieved by hand pressure on the chest.

A heart- Boiling (congestion) of blood in the chest and palpitations. Intermittent heartbeat. Palpitations : in the evening in bed, with pulsation of all arteries; when digesting food; with stitching pain in left side of chest. From time to time the patient feels a strong jolt in the heart. Wakes up with violent heartbeat. Nervous palpitations are ameliorated by walking fast.

Neck and back- Eczematous eruptions on the neck and behind the ears. Burgundy spots on the neck and under the chin. Furuncles on the neck. Sweat on back and under armpits. Enlargement and suppuration of the axillary lymph nodes. Moist eruptions on the skin of the armpits. Sensation of pressure and stitching in right shoulder blade. Stiffness in the loins and neck. Pain in the back and small of the back, with burning and tearing. Pulsation in the back.

Weakness in the small of the back when walking. Stitching, pressing, boring, tearing and spasmodic pain in the back. Rigidity of the muscles of the back and back of the neck. Pain in the back and lower back, combined with stiffness; weakens when walking. Tearing pain in the back during menstruation, accompanied by chilliness, heat, thirst, and cramps in the chest. Dull, monotonous pain in lumbar and sacral regions extending to thighs and legs. Pain as if sprained over the hip-joints, appearing in the evening in bed and in the afternoon.

Trembling in the back. Brownish spots on the back. Reddish herpetic patches over the hips and on both sides of the neck. Stitches behind and slightly above right hip joint; the patient cannot lie on her right side, the joint is painful on palpation. Stitching pain in back when coughing. Itching eruptions on the back.

limbs- Drawing pain in the limbs. Drawing and tearing (paralytic pain) in limbs and joints (with weakness). Heaviness in the limbs. Arthritis-like pain in joints. Tension in the limbs, with a sensation as if they were too short.

Limbs go numb easily, especially after physical labor. Stiffness and lack of mobility of the joints. Dislocations and fractures easily occur. Trembling and twitching in limbs day and night. Sensation of restlessness and throbbing in all limbs, the patient does not feel comfortable in any position. Often there is a desire to stretch. Lack of stability in the limbs. Hands and feet cold and damp.

upper limbs- Twisting pain (as if dislocated) in the shoulder joint, especially when lifting or holding something. Lethargy in the hands. Sensation of stiffness and coldness in the arms, as if they were paralyzed. Drawing paralytic pain in the arms and shoulders, covering the fingers. Swelling and suppuration of the axillary lymph nodes. Shooting pains in the arms, wrists and fingers, when tired and moving them. Painful tension in the arms, elbows and fingers, as if caused by spasms. Dense edema of inflammatory origin, the skin in the zone of which is intense red, with a marble pattern, is localized in the middle of the arm. Pustules on the skin of the hands, provoking severe itching.

Stiffness in the joints of the elbows and hands. Brown spots, herpes on the skin, itchy crusts on the elbows (with peeling). Itching vesicles on dorsum of hands and tips of fingers. Itching and crusts on the hands (itching in soldiers). Herpes on back of hands. Swelling of hands, with vesicular rash resembling pemphigus. Shooting pain in the wrists when moving the arms.

Burning heat in the palms. Cold sweat on hands. Malignant scabies and crusts on the hands. Drawing and shooting pains in the joints of the fingers, as from arthritis. Dislocations in the joints. Painless ulcers over the joints and on the tips of the fingers. (Tingling in the tips of the fingers, which wakes the patient when she falls asleep, after which she sleeps well all night.) Warts on the hands and fingers, on the sides of the fingers, calluses. Cracks in the fingers. Nail deformity. Panaritium with throbbing and shooting pains.

lower limbs- Pain, as from a bruise, in the right hip-joint. Pain in thighs, tearing and shooting. Pain in buttocks and thighs after sitting for some time. Cramps in buttocks at night in bed, when stretching limbs. Paralytic weakness in the legs, especially after great mental disturbances. Stiffness in the legs reaching to the hip joints after sitting for a short time.

Coldness in the legs and feet (especially in the evening in bed). Swelling of legs and feet (worse sitting or standing; better walking). Cramps in thighs when walking. Tearing and sharp shooting pains or shocks in the thighs and tibias, which make the patient scream. Furuncles on thighs. Drawing, tearing and shooting pains in knees, thighs and heels. Soreness and swelling of the knees. Synovitis of the knee joint in maids. Stiffness in the knee and ankle joints.

Cramps in calves, sometimes at night. Restless feeling in legs every evening (with goosebumps). Itching pimples on legs and instep. Drawing pain in legs and thumbs. Shooting pain in tibia and instep of foot. Sensation as if a mouse were running up and down the legs. Jerking in feet during sleep. Ulcers on instep. Stiffness in the heels and joints of the foot, as from spasms. Burning and tingling in the feet. Tingling and numbness in the soles. Profuse or, on the contrary, suppressed (offensive) sweat on the feet (causing pain between the toes). Burning pain in heels. Tension in the Achilles tendons. Ulcers on the heels that develop from vesicles with acrid contents. Painless ulcers over the joints and on the tips of the toes. Calluses on feet causing shooting pains. Nail deformity.

General- In general, the left half of the body is more affected; right arm and leg; eyelids; inner ear; heightened hearing. Pain : in region of liver; in the center of the lower half of the abdomen; in the left shoulder blade; in the back and lower back, in the armpits; in the axillary glands (especially stitches), in the upper and lower limbs and their joints, in the right lumbar region with violent pressure or straining; nails turn yellow. Dark hair, pale face, rash on the face (forehead, nose and lips). Bleeding from internal organs.

Clonic and tonic convulsions, catalepsy, restlessness all over the body, aversion to washing. Weakness in general or in certain parts of the body. Sensations: a lump in the internal organs; pain, as if the affected part of the body were about to burst, as if squeezed or crushed. Cramping or pressing pain in internal or external parts; feeling of emptiness in any part of the body, especially when it is accompanied by fainting; twitching in the muscles of any part of the body, for example, it can be felt in the head when talking; shock, beating or pulsation in the internal organs; pressure, as from a heavy weight; vibration in the form of a dull tingling or a feeling that the body is "humming".

Worse, early in the morning, in the morning, in the evening, especially before going to sleep; on waking, bending over, inhaling, in company; during coughing, after intercourse; after meal; from mental stress; during a fever; with ordinary female complaints; due to loss of fluids; masturbation; music; consumption of milk, fatty pork; during and after sweating; during pregnancy; when traveling in a car; on horseback; swinging on a swing; after sexual excesses; in the first hours after falling asleep; in the snow; when stretching the affected part; when breastfeeding; from water and washing; after getting wet; with leucorrhoea in women, especially during childbirth.

Better stretching limbs, motion, exertion, drinking cold water, alone; while walking fast. Shooting and stitching pains in the limbs and other parts of the body. Burning pain in various parts of the body. Pain that is relieved by external heat. Paroxysmal pain accompanied by trembling.

Twisting pain, especially when exerting the affected limb, and also at night, in the warmth of the bed. Rheumatic pain with swelling of the affected part; this is accompanied by sweating, chills or shivering, alternating with heat. Irritation causes significant disturbances. Limbs are easily swollen (and arms and legs), especially after physical labor. Stiffness and lack of mobility of the joints. Dislocations and sprains easily occur in the limbs.

Tendency to stretch the back. Trembling and twitching in limbs day and night. Muscle twitching. Anxiety attacks and hysterical spasms. Enlargement and suppuration of the lymph nodes. Recurrence or worsening of certain symptoms during and immediately after eating. Symptoms disappear during intense exercise, except for riding, and are worse at rest, and in the evening and at night, in the warmth of the bed (and in the morning). Soreness and tenderness of the whole body.

Violent effervescence of the blood, even at night, with throbbing all over the body. Great swelling of the whole body, with shallow respiration, but no thirst. Feeling of heaviness and sluggishness in the body. Attacks of weakness and hysterical or other forms of fainting. Fainting. Tiredness with trembling. Lack of energy, sometimes only on waking. The patient gets tired quickly when walking in the open air. The patient takes cold easily, and is sensitive to cold air, especially to the north wind. Feverish shivering, fainting, and later coryza (after getting wet).

Leather- Yellow, as in jaundice; abrasions or cracks in the skin, penetrating into the depths of the tissues, worse after washing; often recurrent rash, especially when the patient has a predisposition to cracking. Ulceration at the site of the rash, bedsores, necrosis. Eczema. Ulcers suppurate, pus is abundantly secreted; the edges of the ulcer are edematous, in its bottom there are excessive granulations. The discharge has a salty taste.

Increased skin sensitivity. Soreness and weeping of the skin on the folds of the joints. Itching in various parts of the body (face, arms, hands, back, hips, abdomen, genitals), which is replaced by burning. Itching and papular rash in the joints. Excoriations, especially on the skin around the joints. Dry, itchy eruption, like scabies.

Dry skin, itching and discomfort where the itching has been suppressed by Merc, or Sul. Brown or burgundy or reddish patches of herpetic eruptions on the skin. Ring-shaped peeling (annular herpes). Moist, crusty herpetic eruptions, with itching and burning. Boils and boils with bloody contents. Congestion of blood to the lymph nodes. fibrous seals.

Swollen skin with deep fissures. Vesicular rash resembling pemphigus. Itching, burning and sharp shooting pain and burning, or sometimes painless ulcers (over the joints and on the tips of the fingers and toes). Calluses causing shooting pains. Nail deformity. Liver spots. Warts: on the neck, with keratinization in the center; small; itchy; flat on the hands and face; large, dense warts that have a granular surface; dark and painless (large keratinized wart on abdomen).

Dream- Extreme sleepiness during the day or desire to go to bed early in the evening. Coma sleep every third day. The patient sleeps late; complains that he cannot sleep; sleeps long in the morning; often wakes up at night; sleepy in the morning; insomnia before midnight; drowsiness without sleep. Wakes up at 3 am and cannot go back to sleep. Sleeplessness due to overexcitation. Wakes up early and lies awake for long periods. Frequent awakenings for no apparent reason. Superficial sleep with great "boiling" of blood, constant tossing, fantastic, disturbing, frightening dreams.

Often shudders and cries out in fright in sleep. The sleeper seems to be called by name. Unrefreshing sleep; in the morning there is a feeling as if the patient did not get enough sleep. Sweet dreams. Talking, crying and twitching of limbs during sleep. Delirium at night. Wandering pains, anguish and feverish heat with excitement all over the body, toothache, colic, cough, and many other nightly complaints.

Fever- At night the pulse is well filled and fast, then intermittent; slow during the day. The speed of the pulse increases with movement and with anger. Pulsation of all blood vessels. Trembling (chillness) with pain. Sensation of coldness in parts. Lack of vitality. Frequent shivering, especially when outdoors in the evening; with any movement. Hot flushes occur at regular intervals, especially in the afternoon and evening, while sitting or in the open air, usually accompanied by thirst or redness of the face. (Transient) flushes of heat, especially when sitting or walking in the open air, also when angry or having an important conversation.

Attacks of heat with thirst (and trembling). Thirst is worse during chill than during fever. Prolonged heat with reddening of the face and intense thirst. Fever with thirst, trembling, pain in the limbs, icy coldness in the hands and feet, and numbness of the fingers. increased sweating; the patient sweats easily; separate parts of the body may sweat; sweating is accompanied by anxiety and restlessness; sweat with a sour or offensive odor. Internal chill with external heat. Sweats while sitting. Profuse sweat on slightest movement (more after than during exercise). Only the upper part of the body perspires. Night sweat, sometimes cold (on chest, back and thighs). Sweats in the morning, sometimes sweat has a sour smell. Intermittent fever followed by intense heat and semi-consciousness, followed by profuse sweating.

Latin name Cephalopoda

Cephalopods General characteristics

The most highly organized animals among invertebrates. This is a relatively small group (about 730 species) of marine predators whose evolution is associated with shell reduction. Only the most primitive four-gill mollusks have an external shell. The rest of the two-gill cephalopods, capable of fast and long movements, have only rudiments of the shell, which play the role of internal skeletal formations.

Cephalopods are usually large animals, their body length is at least 1 cm. Among deep-sea forms, there are giants up to 18 m. Pelagic cephalopods (squids) have a streamlined body shape (similar to a rocket), they move the fastest. At the rear end of their body there are fins - movement stabilizers. Benthic forms - octopuses - have a sac-like body, the front end of which forms a kind of parachute due to the fused bases of the tentacles.

External structure

The body of cephalopods consists of a head and a body. The leg, which is characteristic of all mollusks, is greatly modified in them. The back of the leg turned into a funnel, a conical tube leading to the mantle cavity. The funnel is located behind the head on the ventral side of the body. It is the organ by which molluscs swim. In a cephalopod of the genus Nautilus, which has retained many of the most ancient features of the structure of cephalopods, the funnel is formed by folding into a tube a leaf-shaped leg, which has the usual wide sole. At the same time, the wrapping edges of the leg do not grow together. Nautiluses either slowly crawl along the bottom with their feet, or rise and swim slowly, carried by the currents. In other cephalopods, the funnel lobes are primarily separate, while in adult animals they fuse into a single tube.

Around the mouth are tentacles, or arms, which are seated with several rows of strong suckers and have powerful muscles. It turns out that the tentacles of cephalopods, like the funnel, are homologues of part of the leg. In embryonic development, the tentacles are laid on the ventral side behind the mouth from the leg bud, but then move forward and surround the mouth opening. The tentacles and infundibulum are innervated by the pedal ganglion. The tentacles of most cephalopods are 8 (in octopuses) or 10 (in decapods), in primitive molluscs of the genus Nautilus - up to 90. The tentacles serve to capture food and move; the latter is characteristic mainly of benthic octopuses, which walk along the bottom on their tentacles. The suckers on the tentacles of many species are armed with chitinous hooks. In decapods (cuttlefish, squids), two out of ten tentacles are much longer than others and are seated at the widened ends with suckers. These are tentacles.

Mantle and mantle cavity

The mantle covers the entire body of cephalopods; on the dorsal side it fuses with the body, on the ventral side it covers an extensive mantle cavity. The mantle cavity communicates with the external environment through a wide transverse slit located between the mantle and the body and running along the front edge of the mantle behind the funnel. The wall of the mantle is very muscular.

The structure of the muscular mantle and funnel is a device with which cephalopods swim, and move forward with the posterior end of the body. This is a kind of "rocket" engine. In two places on the inner wall of the mantle at the base of the funnel there are cartilaginous protrusions called cufflinks. When the musculature of the mantle contracts and presses against the body, the front edge of the mantle, with the help of cufflinks, is, as it were, “fastened” to the recesses at the base of the funnel and the gap leading to the mantle cavity closes. In this case, water is forced out of the mantle cavity through the funnel. The body of the animal is thrown back by a push some distance back. This is followed by relaxation of the muscles of the mantle, the cufflinks are “unfastened” and water is sucked through the mantle gap into the mantle cavity. The mantle contracts again and the body receives a new push. Thus, the compression and stretching of the mantle muscles that quickly follow each other alternately make it possible for cephalopods to swim at high speed (squids). The same mechanism creates the circulation of water in the mantle cavity, which ensures respiration (gas exchange).

The gills are located in the mantle cavity, having the structure of typical ctenidia. Most cephalopods have one pair of ctenidia, and only the nautilus has 2 pairs. This is the basis for the division of the class of cephalopods into two subclasses: two-gill (Dibranchia) and four-gill (Tetrabranchia). In addition, the anus, a pair of excretory openings, genital openings and openings of the nidamental glands open into the mantle cavity; in the nautilus, osphradia are also placed in the mantle cavity.

Sink

Most modern cephalopods do not have a shell at all (octopuses) or it is rudimentary. Only the nautilus has a well-developed thin shell. It should be borne in mind that the nautilos genus is very ancient, having changed very little since the Paleozoic. The shell of a nautilus is twisted spirally (in the plane of symmetry) onto its head. Inside, it is divided into chambers by partitions, and the body of the animal is placed only in the front part, the largest chamber. From the back of the body of the nautilus, a process of a siphon departs, which passes through all the partitions to the top of the shell. With the help of this siphon, the chambers of the shells are filled with gas, which reduces the density of the animal.

Modern bibranch cephalopods are characterized by an underdeveloped internal shell. The most complete spiral shell is preserved only in the small mollusk spirula, which leads a benthic lifestyle. In the cuttlefish, the shell leaves a wide and thick porous calcareous plate lying on the dorsal side under the mantle. It has a supporting function. In squids, the shell is represented by a narrow dorsal chitinoid plate. Some octopuses have two conchiolin sticks under the mantle. Many cephalopods have completely lost their shells. Shell rudiments play the role of skeletal formations.

In cephalopods, for the first time, an internal cartilaginous skeleton appears, which has protective and supporting functions. The bibranchs have a cartilaginous head capsule surrounding the central nervous system and statocysts, as well as cartilage of the bases of the tentacles, fins, and cufflinks of the mantle. The four-gills have a single cartilage that supports the nerve centers and the anterior end of the digestive system.

Digestive system

The mouth is at the front end of the body and is always surrounded by a ring of tentacles. The mouth leads into a muscular pharynx. It is armed with powerful horny jaws, similar to the beak of a parrot. The radula is located at the back of the pharynx. The ducts of one or two pairs of salivary glands open into the pharynx, the secret of which contains digestive enzymes.

The pharynx passes into a narrow long esophagus, which opens into a sac-like stomach. In some species (for example, in octopuses), the esophagus forms a lateral protrusion - goiter. The stomach has a large blind appendage into which the ducts of the usually bilobed liver open. The small (endodermic) intestine departs from the stomach, which makes a loop, heading forward, and passes into the rectum. The rectum, or hindgut, opens with an anus, or powder, in the mantle cavity.

The duct of the ink sac flows into the rectum before the powder. This pear-shaped gland secretes an inky liquid, which is ejected through the anus and creates a dark cloud in the water. The ink gland serves as a protective device that helps its owner to hide from persecution.

Respiratory system

The gills, or ctenidia, of cephalopods are arranged symmetrically in the mantle cavity in one or two pairs. They have a feathery structure. The epithelium of the gills is devoid of cilia, and the circulation of water is provided by rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the mantle.

Circulatory system

The heart of cephalopods usually consists of a ventricle and two atria, only the nautilus has four. Two aortas depart from the ventricle - the head and abdominal, branching into a number of arteries. Cephalopods are characterized by a large development of arterial and venous vessels and capillaries, which pass into each other in the skin and muscles. The circulatory system becomes almost closed, the lacunae and sinuses are less extensive than in other molluscs. Blood from the organs is collected through the venous sinuses into the vena cava, which form blind protrusions protruding into the walls of the kidneys. Before entering the ctenidium, the afferent gill vessels (vena cava) form muscular extensions, or venous hearts, which pulsate and promote blood flow to the gills. Enrichment of blood with oxygen occurs in the capillaries of the gills, from where arterial blood enters the atria.

The blood of cephalopods is blue because its respiratory pigment, hemocyanin, contains copper.

Secondary body cavity and excretory system

In cephalopods, as in other molluscs, there is a reduction in the secondary body cavity, or coelom. The most extensive coelom, containing the heart, stomach, part of the intestine and gonads, is found in primitive four-branched cephalopods. In decapods, the coelom is more strongly reduced and is represented by two separate areas - pericardial and genital; in the eight-legged bibranchs, the pericardial coelom contracts even more and contains only the pericardial glands, while the heart lies outside the coelom.

The excretory organs are represented by two or four kidneys. They usually begin as funnels in the pericardial cavity (in some forms, the kidneys lose contact with the pericardium) and open with excretory openings in the mantle cavity, on the sides of the powder. The kidneys are closely associated with blind protrusions of the venous vessels, through which filtration and removal of metabolic products from the blood occurs. The pericardial glands also have an excretory function.

Nervous system

Bibranch cephalopods surpass the height of the organization of the nervous system of all invertebrates. All ganglia characteristic of these molluscs come together and form the brain - a common nerve mass surrounding the beginning of the esophagus. Separate ganglia can only be distinguished on cuts. There is a division of paired pedal ganglia into tentacle ganglia and infundibulum ganglia. From the back of the brain, nerves depart, innervating the mantle and forming two large stellate ganglia in its upper part. The buccal ganglia give off sympathetic nerves that innervate the digestive system.

The primitive four-gill nervous system is simpler. It is represented by three nerve semirings, or arcs - supraesophageal and two subesophageal. Nerve cells are distributed on them evenly, without forming ganglionic clusters. The structure of the nervous system of four-gills is very similar to that of chitons.

sense organs

In cephalopods, they are highly developed. Tactile cells are located throughout the body, they are especially concentrated on the tentacles.

The olfactory organs of the two-gills are special olfactory pits, and only the nautilus, that is, the four-gills, have osphradia.

All cephalopods have complex statocysts located in a cartilaginous capsule surrounding the brain.

The most important role in the life of cephalopods, especially in hunting for prey, is played by eyes, very large and of great complexity. The most simple are the eyes of the nautilus. They represent a deep eye fossa, the bottom of which forms the retina.

The eyes of bibranch cephalopods are much more complex. The eyes of a cuttlefish have a cornea, an iris, a lens, a vitreous body, and a highly developed retina. The following structural features of the cephalopod eye are noteworthy. 1. Many molluscs have a small hole in the cornea. 2. The iris also forms a hole - the pupil leading to the anterior chamber of the eye. The pupil can contract and expand. 3. A spherical lens formed by two fused halves is not able to change curvature. Accommodation is achieved with the help of special eye muscles that remove or bring the lens closer to the retina, as is done when focusing the lens of a photographic camera. 4. The retina consists of a huge number of visual elements (per 1 mm 2 of the retina there are 105,000 in cuttlefish, and 162,000 visual cells in squid).

The relative and absolute size of the eyes in cephalopods is larger than in other animals. So, the eyes of a cuttlefish are only 10 times less than the length of its body. The diameter of the eye of a giant octopus reaches 40 cm, and that of a deep-sea squid is about 30 cm.

Reproductive system and reproduction

All cephalopods are dioecious, and some have very pronounced sexual dimorphism. An extreme example in this regard is the wonderful octopus mollusk, the boat (Argonauta argo).

The female boat is relatively large (up to 20 cm) and has a shell of a special origin, not homologous to the shell of other mollusks. This shell is distinguished not by the mantle, but by the leg lobes. The shell is thin, almost transparent and spirally twisted. It serves as a brood chamber in which eggs are hatched. The male boat is many times smaller than the female and does not have a shell.

The gonads and genital ducts in most cephalopods are unpaired. Females are characterized by the presence of two or three paired and one unpaired nidamental glands that secrete a substance from which the egg shell is formed. In males, spermatozoa are enclosed in spermatophores of various shapes.

Of great interest is the method of fertilization in cephalopods. They do not actually mate. In sexually mature males, one of the tentacles is strongly modified, it turns into a hectocotylized tentacle, or hectocotyl. With the help of such a tentacle, the male takes spermatophores from his mantle cavity and transfers them to the mantle cavity of the female. In some cephalopods, especially in the boat (Argonauta) described above, the hectocotylized tentacle has a complex structure. After filling the tentacle with spermatophores, it breaks off and swims on its own, and then climbs into the mantle cavity of the female, where fertilization occurs. Instead of the detached hectocotyl, a new one regenerates.

Large cephalopod eggs are laid in groups on various underwater objects (under stones, etc.). Eggs are covered with a dense shell and are very rich in yolk. Cleavage is incomplete, discoidal. Development is direct, without metamorphosis. A small mollusc comes out of the egg, similar to an adult.

Classification

The class of cephalopods (Cephalopoda) is divided into two subclasses: 1. Tetrabranchia; 2. Double gill (Dibranchia).

Subclass Tetrabranchia

This subclass is characterized by the presence of four gills and a large outer shell, divided by partitions into many chambers. The subclass is divided into two orders: 1. Nautilids (Nautiloidea); 2. Ammonites (Ammonoidea).

Nautilids in modern fauna are represented by only one genus - Nautilus, which includes several species. They have a very limited distribution in the Southwest Pacific. Nautilids are characterized by many features of a more primitive structure: the presence of a shell, an unfused funnel leg, the remains of metamerism in the form of two pairs of gills, kidneys, atria, etc. Nautilids have survived little changed to our time since the Paleozoic. These living fossils are the remains of a once rich fauna of four-gilled cephalopods. Up to 2500 fossil species of nautilids are known.

Ammonites are a completely extinct group of four-gill mollusks that also had a spirally twisted shell. Over 5,000 fossil ammonite species are known. The remains of their shells are common in Mesozoic deposits.

Subclass Dibranchia

The subclass of bibranchs is characterized by an internal reduced shell (or its absence); their respiratory organs are represented by two gills. The subclass is divided into two orders: 1. Decapods (Decapoda); 2. Octopus (Octopoda).

Order Decapods (Decapoda)

For decapods, the presence of 10 tentacles is most characteristic, of which 2 are trapping, many retain a rudiment of a shell. Representatives are cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), various types of fast-swimming squids from the genus Ommatostrephes (hundreds of herring chasing shoals), from the genus Loligo, etc.

Decapods already existed in the Triassic, and they had an inner, but more developed shell. Often found in Mesozoic deposits with devil's fingers "are the remains of the back of the shell of the Mesozoic decapod belemnites (Belemnoidea) - pelagic animals resembling squid in shape.

Order Octopus (Octopoda)

Unlike decapods, these are predominantly benthic animals, with eight tentacles, devoid of a shell. Representatives are different types of octopuses, as well as Argonauta and others.

The most important representatives of the class of cephalopods and their practical significance

Modern cephalopods are an essential part of marine and oceanic fauna. They are distributed mainly in the southern seas and in seas with a fairly high salinity. In Russia, most of the cephalopods are in the Far Eastern seas. There are also cephalopods in the Barents Sea. Cephalopods do not live in the Black and Baltic Seas due to the low salinity of these seas. There are cephalopods at very different depths. Among them are many deep-sea forms. Being predators, cephalopods feed on various marine animals: fish, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. Some of them cause great harm, destroying and spoiling shoals of valuable commercial fish. Such, for example, are the Far Eastern squid Ommatostrephes sloani pacificus.

Among cephalopods there are very large forms, up to 3-4 m and more. The largest known cephalopod is the deep-sea squid (Architeuthis dux), a decapod squid. This real giant among cephalopods, and indeed among invertebrates, reaches a length of 18 m, with a length of tentacles of 10 m and a diameter of each tentacle of 20 cm. We know about such giants, which, unfortunately, have not yet been caught in a living form, we know from their remains. found in the stomachs of dead toothed whales - sperm whales. Many toothed whales feed on cephalopods, as well as other predators of the seas: sharks, pinnipeds (seals), etc.

Cephalopods are also eaten by humans. So, cuttlefish and octopuses are eaten by the population of the Mediterranean countries. In many countries, cuttlefish and squid are the subject of fishing.

Class Cephalopoda

Cephalopods are the most highly organized molluscs. They are rightly called the "primates" of the sea among invertebrates for the perfection of their adaptations to life in the marine environment and the complexity of their behavior. These are mainly large predatory marine animals that are able to actively swim in the water column. These include squid, octopus, cuttlefish, nautilus (Fig. 234). Their body consists of a torso and head, and the leg is transformed into tentacles located on the head around the mouth, and a special motor funnel on the ventral side of the body (Fig. 234, A). Hence the name - cephalopods. It has been proved that part of the tentacles of cephalopods is formed due to the head appendages.

In most modern cephalopods, the shell is absent or rudimentary. Only the genus Nautilus (Nautilus) has a spirally twisted shell, divided into chambers (Fig. 235).

Only 650 species belong to modern cephalopods, and there are about 11 thousand fossil species. This is an ancient group of mollusks known from the Cambrian. Extinct species of cephalopods were predominantly testate and had an external or internal shell (Fig. 236).

Cephalopods are characterized by many progressive features of organization in connection with the active lifestyle of marine predators. At the same time, they retain some primitive features that testify to their ancient origin.

External structure. Features of the external structure of cephalopods are diverse due to the different lifestyles. Their sizes range from a few centimeters to 18 m in some squids. Nektonic cephalopods are usually torpedo-shaped (most squids), benthic cephalopods are bag-shaped (many octopuses), and nektobenthic are flattened (cuttlefish). Planktonic species are small in size, have a gelatinous buoyant body. The body shape of planktonic cephalopods can be narrow or similar to jellyfish, and sometimes spherical (squid, octopus). Benthopelagic cephalopods have a shell divided into chambers.

The body of a cephalopod consists of a head and a body. The leg is modified into tentacles and a funnel. On the head is a mouth surrounded by tentacles, and large eyes. The tentacles are formed by the head appendages and the leg. These are food trapping organs. The primitive cephalopod - boat (Nautilus) has an indefinite number of tentacles (about 90); they are smooth, worm-like. In higher cephalopods, the tentacles are long, with powerful muscles and bear large suckers on the inner surface. The number of tentacles is 8-10. Cephalopods with 10 tentacles have two tentacles - trapping, longer, with suckers at widened ends,

Rice. 234. Cephalopods: A - nautilus Nautilus, B - octopus Benthoctopus; 1 - tentacles, 2 - funnel, 3 - hood, 4 - eye

Rice. 235. Nautilus Nautilus pompilius with a sawn shell (according to Owen): 1 - head hood, 2 - tentacles, 3 - funnel, 4 - eye, 5 - mantle, 6 - visceral sac, 7 - chambers, 8 - partition between shell chambers, 9 - siphon

Rice. 236. Scheme of the structure of cephalopod shells in the sagittal section (from Gescheler): A - Sepia, B - Belosepia, C - Belemnites, D - Spirulirostra, E - Spirula, E - Ostracoteuthis, G - Ommastrephes, H - Loligopsis (C, D, E - fossils); 1 - proostracum, 2 - dorsal edge of the siphon tube, 3 - ventral edge of the siphon tube, 4 - collection of phragmocone chambers, 5 - rostrum, 6 - siphon cavity

Rice. 237. Cuttlefish mantle cavity - Sepia (according to Pfoursheller): 1 - short tentacles, 2 - trapping tentacles, 3 - mouth, 4 - funnel opening, 5 - funnel, 6 - cartilaginous pits of cufflinks, 7 - anus, 8 - renal papillae, 9 - genital papilla, 10 - gills, 11 - fin, 72 - cut line of the mantle, 13 - mantle, 14 - cartilaginous tubercles of cufflinks, 15 - mantle ganglion

and the remaining eight tentacles are shorter (squid, cuttlefish). Seabed octopuses have eight tentacles of the same length. They serve the octopus not only to capture food, but also to move along the bottom. In male octopuses, one tentacle is modified into a sexual (hectocotyl) and serves to transfer the reproductive products into the mantle cavity of the female.

Funnel - a derivative of the leg in cephalopods, serves for a "reactive" way of movement. Through the funnel, water is forcefully pushed out of the mantle cavity of the mollusk, and its body moves reactively in the opposite direction. At the boat, the funnel has not grown together on the ventral side and resembles the sole of the foot of crawling mollusks rolled into a tube. The proof that the tentacles and funnel of cephalopods are leg derivatives is their innervation from the pedal ganglia and the embryonic anlage of these organs on the ventral side of the embryo. But, as already noted, some of the tentacles of cephalopods are derivatives of the head appendages.

The mantle on the ventral side forms, as it were, a pocket - a mantle cavity that opens outwards with a transverse slit (Fig. 237). A funnel protrudes from this gap. On the inner surface of the mantle there are cartilaginous protrusions - cufflinks that fit tightly into the cartilaginous recesses on the body of the mollusk, and the mantle is, as it were, fastened to the body.

The mantle cavity and funnel together provide jet propulsion. When the muscles of the mantle relax, water enters through the gap into the mantle cavity, and when it contracts, the cavity closes with cufflinks and the water is pushed out through the funnel. The funnel is able to bend to the right, to the left and even back, which provides a different direction of movement. The role of the steering wheel is additionally performed by tentacles and fins - the skin folds of the body. Types of movement in cephalopods are diverse. Octopuses often move on tentacles and rarely swim. In cuttlefish, in addition to the funnel, a circular fin serves for movement. Some deep-sea umbrella-shaped octopuses have a membrane between the tentacles - umbrella and can move due to its contractions, like jellyfish.

The shell in modern cephalopods is rudimentary or absent. In ancient extinct cephalopods, the shell was well developed. Only one extant genus, Nautilus, has retained a developed shell. The shell of Nautilus in fossil forms also has significant morphological and functional features, in contrast to the shells of other mollusks. This is not only a protective device, but also a hydrostatic apparatus. The nautilus has a spirally twisted shell divided by partitions into chambers. The body of the mollusk is located only in the last chamber, which opens outwards with the mouth. The remaining chambers are filled with gas and chamber fluid, which ensures the buoyancy of the body of the mollusk. Through

holes in the partitions between the chambers of the shell passes the siphon - the posterior process of the body. Siphon cells are able to release gases. When surfacing, the mollusk emits gases, displacing the chamber fluid from the chambers; when lowering to the bottom, the mollusk fills the shell chambers with chamber fluid. The mover of the nautilus is a funnel, and the shell maintains its body in suspension in the water. Fossil nautilids had a shell similar to that of the modern nautilus. Completely extinct cephalopods - ammonites also had an external, spirally twisted shell with chambers, but their partitions between the chambers had a wavy structure, which increased the strength of the shell. That is why ammonites could reach very large sizes, up to 2 m in diameter. In another group of extinct cephalopods, the belemnites (Belemnoidea), the shell was internal, overgrown with skin. Belemnites in appearance resembled shellless squids, but in their body there was a conical shell, divided into chambers. The top of the shell ended with a point - the rostrum. Rostrums of belemnite shells are often found in Cretaceous deposits and are called "devil's fingers". Some modern shellless cephalopods have rudiments of the inner shell. Thus, in cuttlefish, a calcareous plate is preserved on the back under the skin, which has a chamber structure on the cut (238, B). Only in spirula (Spirula) under the skin is a fully developed spirally twisted shell (Fig. 238, A), and in squid under the skin only a horny plate has survived from the shell. In females of modern cephalopods - argonauts (Argonauta), a brood chamber is developed, resembling a spiral shell in shape. But this is only a superficial resemblance. The brood chamber is distinguished by the epithelium of the tentacles, is very thin and is designed to protect the developing eggs.

covers. The skin is represented by a single layer of epithelium and a layer of connective tissue. The skin contains pigment cells called chromatophores. Cephalopods are characterized by the ability to quickly change color. This mechanism is controlled by the nervous system and is carried out by changing the shape

Rice. 238. Rudiments of a shell in cephalopods (according to Natalie and Dogel): A - spirula (Spirula); 1 - funnel, 2 - mantle cavity, 3 - anus, 4 - excretory opening, 5 - luminous organ, 6 - fin, 7 - shell, 8 - siphon; B - Sepia shell; 1 - septa, 2 - lateral margin, 3 - siphon fossa, 4 - rostrum, 5 - rudiment of siphon, 6 - posterior margin of proostracum

pigment cells. So, for example, cuttlefish, swimming over sandy ground, takes on a light color, and over rocky ground - dark. .At the same time, pigment cells with dark and light pigment in her skin alternately contract and expand. If you cut the optic nerves of a mollusk, then it loses its ability to change color. Due to the connective tissue of the skin, cartilage is formed: in cufflinks, the bases of the tentacles, around the brain.

Protective devices. Cephalopods, having lost the shell in the process of evolution, acquired other protective devices. Firstly, fast movement saves many of them from predators. In addition, they can defend themselves with tentacles and a "beak", which is a modified jaw. Large squids and octopuses can fight with large marine animals, such as sperm whales. Sedentary and small forms have a protective coloration and the ability to quickly change color. And finally, some cephalopods, such as the cuttlefish, have an ink sac, the duct of which opens into the hindgut. Spraying the ink liquid into the water causes a kind of smoke screen that allows the mollusk to hide from predators to a safe place. Cuttlefish ink gland pigment is used to make high-quality artistic ink.

The internal structure of cephalopods

Digestive system cephalopods bear the features of specialization in feeding on animal food (Fig. 239). They feed mainly on fish, crabs and bivalves. They seize prey with tentacles and kill with jaws and poison. Despite their large size, cephalopods can only eat liquid food, as they have a very narrow esophagus that passes through the brain, enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule. Cephalopods have adaptations for grinding food. To gnaw their prey, they use hard horny jaws, similar to the beak of a parrot. In the pharynx, food is rubbed by the radula and abundantly moistened with saliva. The ducts of 1-2 pairs of salivary glands flow into the pharynx, which secrete enzymes that break down proteins and polysaccharides. The second posterior pair of salivary glands secretes poison. Liquid food from the pharynx through the narrow esophagus enters the endodermal stomach, where the ducts of the steam liver flow, which produces a variety of digestive enzymes. The hepatic ducts are lined with small additional glands, the totality of which is called the pancreas. The enzymes of this gland act on polysaccharides,

and hence this gland is functionally distinct from the mammalian pancreas. The stomach of cephalopods is usually with a blind saccular process, which increases its volume, which allows them to absorb a large portion of food. Like other predatory animals, they eat a lot and relatively rarely. The small midgut departs from the stomach, which then passes into the hind intestine, which opens with an anus into the mantle cavity. In many cephalopods, the duct of the ink gland flows into the hindgut, the secret of which has a protective value.

Nervous system cephalopods is the most highly developed among molluscs. The nerve ganglia form a large peripharyngeal cluster - the brain (Fig. 240), enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule. There are additional ganglia. The composition of the brain primarily includes: a pair of large cerebral ganglia that innervate the head, and a pair of visceral ganglia that send nerve cords to the internal organs. On the sides of the cerebral ganglia are additional large optic ganglia that innervate the eyes. Long nerves depart from the visceral ganglia to two stellate mantle ganglia, which develop in cephalopods in connection with the function of the mantle in their jet mode of movement. The composition of the brain of cephalopods includes, in addition to cerebral and visceral pedal ganglia, which are subdivided into paired ganglia of tentacles (brachial) and funnels (infudibular). The primitive nervous system, similar to the ladder system of lateral nerves and monoplacophorans, is preserved only in Nautilus. It is represented by nerve cords forming a peripharyngeal ring without ganglia and a pedal arch. Nerve cords are covered with nerve cells. This structure of the nervous system indicates the ancient origin of cephalopods from primitive shell mollusks.

sense organs cephalopods are well developed. Their eyes, which are of the greatest importance for orientation in space and hunting for prey, reach a particularly complex development. In Nautilus, the eyes have a simple structure in the form of a deep eye fossa (Fig. 241, A), while in other cephalopods, the eyes are complex - in the form of an eye bubble and resemble the structure of the eye in mammals. This is an interesting example of convergence between invertebrates and vertebrates. Figure 241, B shows the eye of a cuttlefish. From above, the eyeball is covered with the cornea, in which there is an opening into the anterior chamber of the eye. The connection of the anterior cavity of the eye with the external environment protects the eyes of cephalopods from the action of high pressure at great depths. The iris forms an opening - the pupil. Light through the pupil enters the spherical lens formed by the epithelial body - the upper shell of the eye bubble. The accommodation of the eye in cephalopods is different,

Rice. 239. Digestive system of cuttlefish Sepia officinalis (according to Reseler and Lamprecht): 1 - pharynx, 2 - common salivary duct, 3 - salivary ducts, 4 - posterior salivary gland, 5 - esophagus, 6 - head aorta, 7 - liver, 8 - pancreas, 9 - stomach, 10 - blind sac of the stomach, 11 - small intestine, 12 - hepatic duct, 13 - rectum, 14 - ink sac duct, 15 - anus, 16 - head cartilaginous capsule (cut), 17 - statocyst , 18 - nerve ring (cut)

Rice. 240. Nervous system of cephalopods: 1 - brain, 2 - optic ganglia, 3 - mantle ganglia, 4 - intestinal ganglion, 5 - nerve cords in tentacles

Rice. 241. Eyes of cephalopods: A - Nautilus, B - Sepia (according to Gensen); 1 - cavity of the eye fossa, 2 - retina, 3 - optic nerves, 4 - cornea, 5 - lens, 6 - anterior chamber of the eye, 7 - iris, 8 - ciliary muscle, 9 - vitreous body, 10 - ophthalmic processes of the cartilage capsule, 11 - optic ganglion, 12 - sclera, 13 - openings of the eye chamber, 14 - epithelial body

than in mammals: not by changing the curvature of the lens, but by approaching or moving away from the retina (similar to focusing a camera). Special ciliary muscles approach the lens, setting it in motion. The cavity of the eyeball is filled with a vitreous body, which has a light-refracting function. The bottom of the eye is lined with visual - retinal and pigment - cells. This is the retina of the eye. A short optic nerve departs from it to the optic ganglion. The eyes, together with the optic ganglia, are surrounded by a cartilaginous capsule. Deep-sea cephalopods have luminous organs on their bodies, built according to the type of eyes.

Organs of balance- Statocysts are located in the cartilaginous capsule of the brain. The organs of smell are represented by olfactory pits under the eyes or osphradia typical of mollusks at the base of the gills - in nautilus. The organs of taste are concentrated on the inner side of the ends of the tentacles. Octopuses, for example, use their tentacles to distinguish between edible and inedible objects. On the skin of cephalopods, there are many tactile and light-sensitive cells. In search of prey, they are guided by a combination of visual, tactile and taste sensations.

Respiratory system represented by ctenidia. Most modern cephalopods have two, while the nautilus has four. They are located in the mantle cavity on the sides of the body. The flow of water in the mantle cavity, which ensures gas exchange, is determined by the rhythmic contraction of the muscles of the mantle and the function of the funnel through which water is pushed out. During the jet mode of movement, the flow of water in the mantle cavity accelerates, and the intensity of respiration increases.

Circulatory system cephalopods almost closed (Fig. 242). In connection with active movement, they have well-developed coelom and blood vessels and, accordingly, parenchymality is poorly expressed. Unlike other mollusks, they do not suffer from hypokenia - poor mobility. The speed of blood movement in them is ensured by the work of a well-developed heart, consisting of a ventricle and two (or four - in Nautilus) atria, as well as pulsating sections of blood vessels. The heart is surrounded by a large pericardial cavity

Rice. 242. Circulatory system of cephalopods (from Abrikosov): 1 - heart, 2 - aorta, 3, 4 - veins, 5 - branchial vessels, 6 - branchial hearts, 7, 8 - portal system of the kidneys, 9 - branchial veins

which performs many functions of the whole. From the ventricle of the heart depart the head aorta - forward and splanchnic aorta - back. The head aorta branches into arteries that supply blood to the head and tentacles. Vessels depart from the splanchnic aorta to the internal organs. Blood from the head and internal organs is collected in the vena cava, located longitudinally in the lower part of the body. The vena cava subdivides into two (or four in Nautilus) afferent gill vessels, which form contracting extensions - gill "hearts" that promote gill blood circulation. The afferent gill vessels lie close to the kidneys, forming small blind protrusions into the tissue of the kidneys, which contributes to the release of venous blood from metabolic products. In the gill capillaries, blood is oxidized, which then enters the efferent gill vessels, which flow into the atria. Partially, blood from the capillaries of veins and arteries flows into small gaps, and therefore the circulatory system of cephalopods should be considered almost closed. The blood of cephalopods contains a respiratory pigment - hemocyanin, which includes copper, therefore, when oxidized, the blood turns blue.

excretory system represented by two or four (in Nautilus) kidneys. With their inner ends they open into the pericardial sac (pericardium), and with their outer ends into the mantle cavity. Excretion products enter the kidneys from the gill veins and from the extensive pericardial cavity. Additionally, the excretory function is performed by the pericardial glands formed by the wall of the pericardium.

Reproductive system, reproduction and development. Cephalopods are dioecious animals. In some species, sexual dimorphism is well expressed, for example, in the argonaut (Argonauta). The female argonaut is larger than the male (Fig. 243) and during the breeding season she secretes a thin-walled parchment-like brood chamber around the body with the help of special glands on the tentacles for carrying eggs, similar to a spiral shell. The male argonaut is several times smaller than the female and has a special elongated sexual tentacle, which is filled during the breeding season with sexual products.

Gonads and genital ducts unpaired. An exception is the nautilus, which has preserved paired ducts extending from the unpaired gonad. In males, the vas deferens passes into the spermatophore bag, where the spermatozoa stick together into special packages - spermatophores. In cuttlefish, the spermatophore is shaped like a checker; its cavity is filled with spermatozoa, and the outlet is closed with a complex plug. During the breeding season, the male cuttlefish, with the help of a sexual tentacle with a spoon-shaped end, transfers the spermatophore into the mantle cavity of the female.

Rice. 243. Mollusk Argonaut (Argonauta): A - female, B - male; 1 - funnel, 2 - eye, 3 - shell, 4 - hectocotyl, 5 - funnel, 6 - eye (according to Dogel)

Cephalopods usually lay their eggs at the bottom. In some species, care for offspring is observed. So, the female argonaut bears eggs in the brood chamber, and the octopuses guard the clutch of eggs, which are placed in shelters made of stones or in caves. Development is direct, without metamorphosis. The eggs hatch into small, fully formed cephalopods.

Modern cephalopods belong to two subclasses: the subclass Nautilida (Nautiloidea) and the subclass Coleoidea (Coleoidea). Extinct subclasses include: subclass Ammonites (Ammonoidea), subclass Bactrites (Bactritoidea) and subclass Belemnites (Belemnoidea).

Subclass Nautilida (Nautiloidea)

Modern nautilids include one order Nautilida. It is represented by only one genus Nautilus, to which only a few species belong. The distribution area of ​​Nautilus is limited to the tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Fossil nautilids number over 2,500 species. This is an ancient group of cephalopods known from the Cambrian.

Nautilids have many primitive features: the presence of an external multi-chambered shell, an unfused funnel, numerous tentacles without suckers, and manifestation of metamerism (four ctenidia, four kidneys, four atria). The similarity of nautilids with lower shell mollusks is manifested in the structure of the nervous system from cords without separate ganglia, as well as in the structure of coelomoducts.

Nautilus is a benthopelagic cephalopod. It floats in the water column in a "reactive" way, pushing the water out of the funnel. The multi-chamber shell provides buoyancy of its body and lowering to the bottom. Nautilus has long been an object of fishing because of the beautiful mother-of-pearl shell. Nautilus shells have been used to make many fine jewelry pieces.

Subclass Coleoidea (Coleoidea)

Coleoidea is Latin for "hard". These are hard-skinned molluscs without a shell. Coleoidea is a thriving group of modern cephalopods, includes four orders, which include about 650 species.

Common features of the subclass are: lack of a developed shell, fused funnel, tentacles with suckers.

Unlike nautilids, they have only two ctenidia, two kidneys, and two atria. Coleoidea have a highly developed nervous system and sensory organs. The following three orders are characterized by the largest number of species.

Squad Cuttlefish (Sepiida). The most characteristic representatives of the order are cuttlefish (Sepia) and spirula (Spirula) with rudiments of the inner shell. They have 10 tentacles, two of which are agility. These are nektobenthic animals, they stay at the bottom and are able to actively swim.

Order Squid (Teuthida). This includes many commercial squids: Todarodes, Loligo, etc. Squids sometimes retain a rudiment

shells in the form of a horny plate under the skin on the back. They have 10 tentacles, like the previous unit. These are mainly nektonic animals that actively swim in the water column and have a torpedo-shaped body (Fig. 244).

Order Octopus (Octopoda). This is an evolutionarily advanced group of cephalopods without traces of a shell. They have eight tentacles. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced. Males develop a sexual tentacle - hectocotylus. This includes a variety of octopuses (Fig. 245). Most octopuses lead a benthic lifestyle. But among them there are nektonic and even planktonic forms. The Octopoda order includes the genus Argonauta - an argonaut, in which the female allocates a special brood chamber.

Rice. 244. Squid Loligo (from Dogel)

Rice. 245. Octopus (male) Ocythoe (according to Pelzner): 1 - tentacles, 2 - funnel, 3 - hectocotyl, 4 - sac, 5 - terminal thread

The practical importance of cephalopods

Cephalopods are food animals. The meat of cuttlefish, squid and octopus is used for food. The world catch of cephalopods currently reaches more than 1600 thousand tons. in year. Cuttlefish and some octopuses are also harvested for ink liquid, which is used to make natural ink and top quality inks.

Paleontology and phylogeny of cephalopods

The most ancient group of cephalopods is considered to be nautilids, whose fossil shells are already known from Cambrian deposits. Primitive nautilids had a low conical shell with only a few chambers and a wide siphon. Cephalopods are thought to have evolved from ancient, creeping shellfish with simple conical shells and flat soles like some fossil monoplacophorans. Apparently, a significant aromorphosis in the emergence of cephalopods consisted in the appearance of the first partitions and chambers in the shell, which marked the beginning of the development of their hydrostatic apparatus and determined the possibility of floating up, breaking away from the bottom. Apparently, the formation of a funnel and tentacles occurred in parallel. The shells of the ancient nautilids were varied in shape: long conical and flat spirally twisted with a different number of chambers. Among them there were also giants up to 4-5 m (Endoceras), which led a benthic lifestyle. Nautilids have undergone several periods of prosperity and extinction in the process of historical development and have survived to the present day, although they are now represented by only one genus of Nautilus.

In the Devonian, in parallel with nautilids, a special group of cephalopods begins to occur - bactrites (Bactritoidea), smaller in size and less specialized than nautilids. It is assumed that this group of cephalopods descended from a common yet unknown ancestors with nautilids. Bactrites turned out to be an evolutionarily promising group. They gave rise to two branches of cephalopod development: ammonites and belemnites.

A subclass of ammonites (Ammonoidea) appeared in the Devonian and died out at the end of the Cretaceous. During their heyday, ammonites successfully competed with nautilids, whose numbers at that time were noticeably declining. It is difficult for us to judge the advantages of the internal organization of ammonites only from fossil shells. But the ammonite shell was more perfect,

Rice. 246. Fossil cephalopods: A - ammonite, B - belemnite

than nautilids: lighter and stronger. The partitions between the chambers in ammonites were not smooth, but wavy, and the lines of the partitions on the shell were zigzag, which increased the strength of the shell. Ammonite shells were spirally twisted. More often, whorls of ammonite shell spirals were located in the same plane, and less often they had the form of a turbospiral (Fig. 246, A). According to some imprints of the body of ammonite fossils, it can be assumed that they had up to 10 tentacles, perhaps there were two ctenidia, beak-shaped jaws, and an ink bag. This indicates that the ammonites apparently experienced oligomerization of metameric organs. According to paleontological data, ammonites were ecologically more diverse than nautilids, and included nektonic, benthic, and planktonic forms. Most ammonites were small, but there were also giants with a shell diameter of up to 2 m. Ammonites were one of the most numerous marine animals in the Mesozoic, and their fossil shells serve as guiding forms in geology for determining the age of layers.

Another branch of cephalopod evolution, hypothetically derived from bactrites, was represented by a subclass of belemnites (Belemnoidea). Belemnites appeared in the Triassic, flourished in the Cretaceous and died out at the beginning of the Cenozoic era. In their external appearance, they are already closer to the modern subclass Coleoidea. In body shape, they resemble modern squids (Fig. 246, B). However, belemnites differed significantly from them in the presence of a heavy shell, which was overgrown with a mantle. The shell of belemnites was conical, multi-chambered, covered with skin. Remains of shells and especially their terminal finger-like rostrums, which are figuratively called "devil's fingers", have been preserved in geological deposits. Belemnites were often very large: their length reached several meters. The extinction of ammonites and belemnites was probably due to increased competition with bony fish. And now, in the Cenozoic, a new group of cephalopods enters the arena of life - coleoids (subclass Coleoidea), devoid of shells, with fast jet propulsion, with a sophisticated nervous system and sensory organs. It was they who became the "primates" of the sea and could compete on equal terms as predators with fish. This group of cephalopods appeared

in the Cretaceous, but reached its highest peak in the Cenozoic era. There is reason to believe that the Coleoidea have common origins with the Belemnites.

Ecological radiation of cephalopods. The ecological radiation of cephalopods is shown in Figure 247. From primitive testate benthopelagic forms capable of surfacing thanks to the hydrostatic apparatus, several paths of ecological specialization have been determined. The most ancient ecological directions were associated with the radiation of nautilids and ammonites, which swam at different depths and formed specialized shell forms of benthopelagic cephalopods. From benthopelagic forms, there is a transition to bentonekton (such as belemnites). Their shell becomes internal, and its function of the swimming apparatus weakens. Instead, they develop the main mover - a funnel. Later they gave rise to shellless forms. The latter undergo intense ecological radiation, having formed nektobenthic, nektonic, benthic, and planktonic forms.

The main representatives of the nekton are squids, but there are also fast-swimming octopuses and cuttlefish with a narrow torpedo-shaped body. The composition of the nektobenthos mainly includes cuttlefish, often swimming

Rice. 247. Ecological radiation of cephalopods

or lying on the bottom, to bentonekton - octopuses that crawl along the bottom more than swim. Plankton include umbellate, or gelatinous, octopuses, rod-shaped squids.

Type: Mollusca Linnaeus, 1758 = Mollusca, soft-bodied

Class: Cephalopoda Cuvier, 1797 = Cephalopoda

Order: Sepiida Zittel, 1895 = Cuttlefish

Species: Sepia apama = Giant Australian cuttlefish

The giant Australian cuttlefish can reach 50 centimeters in length and is considered the largest cuttlefish in the world. Its weight can reach from 3 to 10 kilograms. There is sexual dimorphism in size - males always outnumber females in size.

The Giant Australian Cuttlefish is an endemic Australian species. It lives exclusively in coastal waters in the south, southwest and southeast coasts of Australia, from the coast of Queensland to Shark Bay in Western Australia. And there is a giant Australian cuttlefish at depths of up to about 100 meters, but even more often prefers shallow water.

The giant Australian cuttlefish has a body slightly flattened in the dorsal-abdominal direction, which is decorated with a wide leathery fold on the sides. Here, on the sides of the body, there are also fins - the main organ of their movement in the water. The head end of the urvkatica is adorned with 10 tentacles. Of these, 2 tentacles are grasping, they are the longest, although they can be completely retracted into special sac-like pits under the eyes. The remaining 8 tentacles are short, and all are located around the mouth, framing it. All tentacles are equipped with suction cups that are very necessary for the animal. There is a difference in the structure of the tentacles of cuttlefish of both sexes. So in a male, unlike females, the 4th tentacle serves to fertilize females.

The respiratory organ of cuttlefish is the gills. On the dorsal side of the body under the mantle, there is a porous calcareous shell, which looks like a plate, which gives the animal a fixed body shape. The eyes are similar in structure and visual acuity to human eyes. Cuttlefish, if necessary, are able to change the shape of the lens. Their mouth, like that of other cephalopods, consists of a strong beak, which is shaped like the beak of birds, especially a parrot, there are also jaws and a tongue.

Speaking about the features of the internal structure of cuttlefish, it remains unclear why nature endowed these creatures with 3 hearts. In this case, one is responsible for the blood supply to the nervous system, and the other two are responsible for the coordinated work of the gills. And the blood of cuttlefish is not red, but blue. The blue color of blood is caused by the presence of a special pigment called hemocyanin in it. Hemocyanin, like hemoglobin in vertebrates, is responsible for the transport of oxygen.

The giant Australian cuttlefish is known for its unique ability to instantly change its color, which can depend both on the mood of the animal and the characteristics of the environment. The coloration of males changes greatly during the mating season. This becomes possible due to the presence of a special pigment in the cells of the body, which is responsible for their stretching or contraction, depending on the signals from the nervous system. During the mating season or during an attack on prey, their color acquires a metallic sheen and is covered with bright luminous dots.

An interesting feature of this species is that during the mating season, males can sometimes pretend to be females in order to try to outwit a stronger rival and try to get closer to the female. If they succeed in this maneuver, they mate with her very quickly and retreat until the dominant male has figured out what's what ...

Giant squids use their ink stores as a defense against predators. In case of danger, the squid releases an ink cloud either directly into the “face” of the enemy, after which, under its cover, they quickly hide away, or a little to the side. At the same time, the spot often takes on such a shape that it becomes a bit similar in shape to the cuttlefish itself, and this, albeit for a short time, distracts the attention of the predator from the cuttlefish's own person.

The giant Australian cuttlefish is predominantly nocturnal. They spend most of their time hiding among kelp beds, rocky reefs, or simply burrowing into the seabed. Cuttlefish are homebodies, they spend almost all their active time on a small territory, not exceeding 500 m2. Therefore, they spend most of the food energy absorbed by them not on physical activity, but on their own growth.

The giant cuttlefish is very curious and is not averse to even playing, which is often used by divers. Despite their relatively peaceful nature and cute appearance, cuttlefish are dexterous predators, extracting various small mollusks and crustaceans, fish, sea worms and even small cuttlefish for food. Cuttlefish go hunting at night, attacking prey from an ambush, grabbing it with two long tentacle arms.

By their nature, cuttlefish are solitary, and only during the breeding season, which falls on June-August, they often gather in large groups. One such favorite place for marriage dates is False Bay, located in the northern part of Spencer Bay. At this time, it is simply teeming with giant cuttlefish, and at this time there are almost 1 individual per 1 m2. This is where the fun begins. The largest and strongest males begin to care for the females. They "put on" a bright wedding dress and begin to wave their long "arms" in front of their chosen one. At the same time, they drive away smaller and younger males. Then they are forced to go for a deceptive maneuver, changing their bright cavalier outfit to "ladies'" and under the guise of "females" they try to make their way through the "vigilant guard" to the females. And if the dominant male is distracted for a few moments, the werewolf immediately quickly acquires his bright male color in front of the female and mates with her, transferring his spermatophores to her with the help of the 4th “hand”, and quickly swims away from trouble.

After some time, females lay eggs under stones or in other hard-to-reach places, enclosed in a thick shell. After that, they die. And the cubs are born, depending on the temperature of the water, after 3-5 months, having a body length of about 2.5 centimeters. Outwardly, they are very similar to adults, and at this age they feed only on plankton.

The meat of the giant cuttlefish is edible and is widely used in cooking as food. Cuttlefish ink is still used in painting today. Therefore, large-scale capture of this species for export is currently underway, because of which the giant cuttlefish is already under the threat of decline in numbers. Now the capture of the giant Australian cuttlefish in False Bay in Australia is prohibited.