Classification of engineering ammunition and minefields.

Purpose of engineering barriers:

1. Inflict losses on the enemy;

2. Delay the advance of the enemy;

3. Forge the maneuver of the enemy;

4. Ensure defeat by fire;

5. Cover the gaps between strong points to cover the command post and large warehouses.

Barriers are characterized by density - the number of barriers per 1 km.

The barriers are divided into:

1. Mine-explosive (characterized by the arrangement of different minefields, object mines and remote mining systems - aviation, artillery, missile);

2. Non-explosive(using wire ditches);

3. Electrified barriers;

4. Water barriers (undermining dams, bridges);

5. Combined

By appointment:

1. Anti-tank (minefields (MP), remote MP, groups of mines in the nodes of obstacles, anti-tank ditches, scarps and counterscarps, gouges, pieces of piles, hedgehogs, barricades);

2. Anti-personnel (MP, wire barriers, booby traps, MZP, electrified barriers);

3. Anti-vehicle (from individual mines and object mines, blocks);

4. River (sea, river mines, floating mines, mining of fords);

5. Anti-landing (at a depth of up to 5 m).

Minefields: guided and unguided

Mines: contact and non-contact

Mines: anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious, anti-vehicle, sabotage

Topic 2

Purpose, main performance characteristics, general arrangement, procedure for installing and neutralizing the TM-72 anti-tank mine with MVN-80.

TM-72 anti-tank anti-bottom mine. An explosion occurs when the projection of a tank (BMP, BMD, armored personnel carrier, car) hits a mine, its magnetic field acts on the reacting device of the fuse. The defeat of vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the bottom with a cumulative jet during the explosion of a mine charge at the moment when the tank or some other vehicle is above the mine.

Housing material………................................................ steel

Weight……………………………………………… 6 kg.

Weight of explosive charge (TG-40)…………………………. 2.5 kg.

Diameter…………………………………………. 25 cm.

Height…………………………………………..12.6 cm

Armor penetration………………………. 100 mm from a distance of 0.25-0.5 m

Fuse……………………………………………………….

Installation

TM-72 mines with MVN-80 fuse are installed only manually; to set the mines manually, you must: install the mine in the hole, move the fuse transfer handle to the combat position and secure with a pin, remove the pin and tear off the fuse cover with the key, holding the cover with your hand, pull the thread from the fuse by 0.5 ... 1 m, disguise the mine by taking the cover and moving away from the mine, pull the thread out of the fuse completely and leave the installation site.

Withdrawal

Search and removal of mines installed with the MVN-80 fuse. Allowed only with the help of the control device PUV-80.

PROHIBITED: search for mines with probes; remove a mine that has visible mechanical damage to the fuse; remove the mine if the signal from the fuse is not heard by the control device or the proximity sensor of the fuse target is not turned off by a signal from the control device

To search for and remove mines, it is necessary: ​​to prepare the control device for operation; turn on the device and moving in the required direction, search for mines; having found a mine with a fuse by a characteristic signal in the head phones, give a signal to turn off the fuse; make sure that the fuse is turned off (the signal in the phones should disappear), remove the camouflage layer of soil, and holding the fuse from displacement with your hand, move the fuse transfer handle to the transport position and fix it with a pin.

2. Purpose, main performance characteristics, general arrangement, procedure for installation and disposal of the TM-83 anti-tank mine.

Anti-tank anti-aircraft mine. Designed to disable enemy tracked and wheeled vehicles. The defeat of enemy vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the side armor with an impact core formed from the lining of a cumulative funnel during a mine explosion. When the impact core penetrates into the tank, the crew members and equipment of the tank are affected by drops of molten armor, high pressure that occurs inside and high temperature of the core. This causes a fire inside the tank, detonation of ammunition is possible
The mine can only be placed on the ground or attached to local items manually. The cork box or its lid serves as the base for the mine. The range of destruction of the tank is up to 50 meters, so the mine is installed on the side of the probable route of the tank at a distance of 5-50 meters from the axis of the route. With the help of the sight, the mine is aimed at the place of destruction.
Mina has two target sensors - seismic and infrared. The seismic sensor ensures the operation of the mine in the target standby mode, which saves energy from power sources.

seismic sensor, which has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is installed in the ground near the mine and is connected to the infrared sensor and PIM by a wire line, and the infrared sensor, which also has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is mounted on the mine body above. The safety-actuator (PIM) is screwed to the MD-5M fuse, which in turn is screwed into a socket on the back of the mine.
The main task of the PIM is to receive an electrical impulse from the infrared sensor of the target, to ignite the electric igniter, the gases of which will send the drummer forward. The drummer, in turn, will prick the fuse of the MD-5M, from which the mine will explode.
On the top of the PIM there is a safety pin in the form of a safety pin holding the safety rod. This rod, in the event of an accidental issuance of an electric pulse while the mine is in a safe position, will not allow the striker to chop the fuse. After the safety pin is removed, under the action of the spring, the rod begins to move upward, freeing up space for the striker to move. The movement of the rod is carried out slowly due to the hydraulic resistance of the rubber in the cavity of the rod. The time of movement of the rod is, depending on the temperature, from 1 to 30 minutes. After this time, nothing prevents the striker from moving if the electric igniter fires.

Mina can be installed in an unmanaged (autonomous) version and in a managed version.
The controllability of the mine lies in the fact that with the help of a 100-meter wire line and a control panel (the control panel of the MZU mine is used), it can be repeatedly transferred to a safe (safety) mode or to a target standby mode. In safety mode, the mine is retrievable and defuseable.
If the mine is installed in an unguided version, then it is considered non-removable and non-disposable due to the high sensitivity of the seismic sensor and the likelihood of the infrared sensor being triggered by the thermal radiation of the human body when a person approaches the mine (on any side closer than 10 meters). The destruction of such a mine is possible only by shooting it from a heavy machine gun.
Also, in an unguided version, a mine can be installed with an MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse. In this case, seismic, infrared sensors and PIM are not used, but a breakaway target sensor of the MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse is used. The firing mechanism of the fuse is screwed onto the MD-5M fuse instead of the PIM. In this version, the TM-83 mine is installed similarly to the TM-73 mine.

Mine clearance, installed in the controlled version, is made after it is transferred to a safe position with the help of the MZU control panel. Defusing includes disconnecting the PIM from the mine, disconnecting the wire line from it and removing the batteries from the SD and ID.
It is impossible to neutralize a mine installed in an unguided version and it must be destroyed by firing it from a heavy machine gun or a large-caliber sniper rifle from a distance of at least 30 meters.
TTX mines TM-83:
Mine type ............................................ anti-tank anti-aircraft on the principle of impact core
Frame................................................. ................... metal
Weight................................................. ...................... 28.1 kg.
The mass of the explosive charge (TG 40/60) .............................. 9.6 kg.
Dimensions ............................................... ............... 45.5x37.7x44 cm.
Range of destruction of the target .............................. from 5 to 50 meters
Armor penetration .............................................. 100mm.
Hole diameter .................................................................. 80mm.
Main fuse ....................... own non-contact two-channel fuse MD-5M
Fuze target sensors ................................. seismic and infrared
The term of the combat operation of the mine ................................................... not less than 30 days
Application restrictions due to weather conditions. Fog (heavy snowfall, heavy rain) with visibility less than 50 m.
Controllability................................................. ...... managed/unmanaged
Neutralization ............................................... only in controlled option
Retrievability ............................................... ...... only in controlled version
Installation Methods ................................................................ manual
Long cocking time .............................................. 1-30 min.
Type of long-range cocking mechanism .................... hydromechanical

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Engineering ammunition

Engineering weapons containing explosives. I.b. designed to destroy manpower and equipment, destroy structures (fortifications) and perform special tasks. Depending on the field of application, directly determined by the intended purpose, the following classes of I.b. are distinguished: means of blasting; explosive charges; engineering mines.

Explosive devices, class I.b., used to initiate detonation in explosive charges. Means of blasting I.b. subdivided into means of initiation and mine fuses. The means of initiation include: igniter caps, blasting caps, electric igniters, electric detonators, piercing mechanisms, detonating and igniter cords, incendiary tubes and fuses. Mine fuses, depending on the purpose, are divided into delayed action fuses, fuses for simultaneous explosion, fuses for anti-tank, anti-personnel and anti-vehicle mines. Delayed fuses are mechanical, electrochemical and electronic. According to the principle of operation, mechanical fuses are divided into hourly and based on a metal element. Fuzes for anti-tank, anti-personnel and anti-vehicle mines, depending on the nature of the impact leading to the explosion, can be contact (pressure, tension and reverse action) or non-contact (magnetic, seismic, optical, etc.). In addition, contact fuses, depending on the device, are divided into mechanical and electromechanical.

Explosive charges, class I.b., which are a certain amount of explosive prepared for the production of an explosion. Depending on the shape, they can be concentrated, elongated, flat, figured and ring; for installation on the object of destruction - contact and non-contact; by the nature of the action - high-explosive and cumulative. They come from industry in finished form or are made in the army. Usually they have a shell, sockets for placing explosives, devices for carrying and fastening on objects.

Engineering mines, class I.b., which are structurally combined explosives with blasting devices. Them. are intended for the installation of mine-explosive barriers and, according to the method of actuation, are divided into controlled and uncontrolled (see Mine).

In this section you will be able to get acquainted with various types of ammunition, both modern and those that were used in the past. The range of ammunition used by any modern army is truly enormous. These include artillery shells of various types and purposes, ammunition for armored vehicles, small arms, bombs and rocket weapons of aircraft and helicopters, tactical and anti-aircraft missiles, torpedoes, sea and land mines, grenades and much more.

The device of ammunition differs, they perform different tasks, there are guided and unguided ammunition. Weapons of mass destruction also belong to military supplies: there are nuclear weapons and shells filled with poisonous substances.

Ammunition is one of the most important components of any weapon, which is directly designed to defeat the enemy. It is the characteristics of the ammunition that largely determine the effectiveness of any weapon, the function of which, in essence, is only to fire a shot. The main revolutions in gunsmithing were associated with significant improvements in ammunition. An example is the invention of a unitary cartridge, the creation of smokeless powder, the appearance of an intermediate cartridge.

The long evolution of ammunition has led to the creation of automatic weapons systems, modern small arms and artillery.

Artillery ammunition has a difficult history. The first guns appeared in Europe around the 13th century, at first they fired stone cannonballs, but gradually the type of artillery ammunition changed. Cast iron and lead cores began to be used, and later explosive ammunition was invented. A real revolution in artillery was the invention of a unitary cartridge and breech-loading guns. The appearance of armored vehicles on the battlefield forced the designers to develop special ammunition to combat it.

In the last century, many types of ammunition were invented: cluster, sub-caliber, cumulative and chemical. The advent of military aviation led to the creation of aerial bombs and missiles.

Missile weapons have a no less long and difficult history. The first rockets were invented in ancient China, they were quite widely used in the 18th and 19th centuries, but the advent of rifled artillery and smokeless powder turned rockets into an anachronism. Only after the First World War, engineers returned to this type of weapon.

Rocket ammunition began to develop rapidly after the next world war, and today missiles are the basis of the armament of any modern army. Both infantrymen on the battlefield and strategic submarines are armed with missiles.

Russia has the latest technology in the field of rocketry, Russian missiles are considered the best in the world and are in high demand in the global arms market. The main competitor of our country in this area is traditionally the United States. Here you will find a description of the products of the American military-industrial complex and the technical characteristics of US combat missiles.

Today, one of the main directions in the development of ammunition is the creation of guided projectiles, bombs and missiles. The era of carpet bombing and the use of cluster munitions is coming to an end. Each projectile fired must hit the target, in addition, many modern systems work on the principle of "fire and forget." Today, the United States is developing guided bullets for sniper systems. Munitions are being developed that work based on unusual physical principles.

Engineering ammunition - means of engineering weapons containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions. They were divided into explosives, explosive charges and engineering mines.

Explosive(BB) - an individual chemical substance or a mixture of several substances that can spontaneously or as a result of external influence explode with the release of heat and the formation of highly heated gases. Depending on the chemical composition and external conditions, explosives can be converted into reaction products in the modes of slow (deflagration) combustion, rapid (explosive) combustion, or detonation. Traditionally, explosives also include compounds and mixtures that do not detonate, but burn at a certain speed (propellant gunpowder, pyrotechnic compositions). Pyrotechnic the substance is intended to produce the effect of heat, fire, sound, or smoke, or a combination thereof, through self-sustaining exothermic chemical reactions without detonation.

The characteristics of explosives include: explosive transformation rate (detonation rate or burning rate); detonation pressure; heat (specific heat) of the explosion; composition and volume of gaseous products of explosive transformation; maximum temperature of explosion products (explosion temperature); sensitivity to external influences; critical detonation diameter; critical detonation density.

Explosives are classified according to a number of criteria.

According to the composition, they are distinguished: individual chemical compounds and explosive mixtures-composites. The composition of explosives also includes various regulatory additives to change physical and chemical processes.

By physical state: gaseous; liquid; gel-like; suspension; emulsion and solid. In military affairs, mainly solid explosives were used: monolithic (thol), powdered (RDX), granular (ammonium nitrate explosives), plastic, elastic. Plastic explosives were a relatively new type and were used to a limited extent, but in England, Germany and the USA. Three types of plastic explosives were produced in Germany under the Hexoplast brand. For example, "hexoplast-75" is known, containing 75% RDX, 20% liquid mixture of dinitrotoluenes, 3.7% TNT and 1.3% nitrocellulose. In England, a plastic explosive was produced under the designation "PE-2", consisting of 87.7% RDX, 6.2% mineral oil, 4.1% paraffin oil, 0.5% lecithin and 1.5% carbon black. The soot was a modifier that prevented the oil from spreading at elevated temperatures typical of the tropics. "PE-2" was widely used by special units of Great Britain against Germany. In the USA, plastic explosives were produced on the basis of the British one under the designation "C-1" and "C-2". It contained 77% RDX and 23% plasticizer - a eutectic mixture of 12% dinitrotoluene, 5% TNT, 2.7% mononitrotoluene, 0.3% nitrocellulose and 1% residual solvent - dimethylformamide.

According to the form of the explosion, they are distinguished: initiating (primary) and blasting (secondary). Initiating explosives were intended to initiate explosive transformations in charges of other explosives. They were distinguished by increased sensitivity and easily exploded from simple initial impulses (impact, friction, prick with a sting, electric spark). They were based on: mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead trinitroresorcinate, tetrazene, diazodinitrophenol and other substances with a high detonation velocity (over 5000 m/s). In military affairs, they were used to equip igniter caps, primer bushings, ignition tubes, various electric igniters, artillery and explosive blasting caps, electric detonators, etc. They were also used in various pyroautomatic devices: pyrochargers, squib cartridges, pyro locks, pyro pushers, pyromembrane, pyrostarters , catapults, explosive bolts and nuts, pyro-cutters, self-liquidators. Brisant substances had a high speed of propagation of the blast wave in the substance. They are less sensitive to external influences, and excitation of explosive transformations in them was carried out with the help of initiating explosives. Various nitro compounds (TNT, nitromethane, nitronaphthalenes), N-nitramines (tetryl, hexogen, octogen), alcohol nitrates (nitroglycerin, nitroglycol), cellulose nitrates, etc. were usually used as blasting explosives. Often these compounds are used as mixtures between themselves and with other substances. Many of these compounds also have explosive properties and under certain conditions can detonate.

According to the method of preparation of charges, explosives were divided into: pressed, cast (explosive alloys) and cartridgeed.

During the Second World War, more than 10 million tons of explosives of all kinds were produced in the warring countries.

Explosives- special mechanisms and devices for excitation (initiation) of an explosion of explosive charges and engineering mines. These included igniter caps, blasting caps, electric igniters, electric detonators, detonating and igniter cords, incendiary tubes, fuses and mine fuses. According to the principle of action, mechanical, electrical, radio engineering and chemical means of blasting were distinguished. They could be instant or delayed action.

Depending on the source of transmission of the initial impulse to the explosive charge, the means of blasting were divided into four groups: means of fire blasting (detonator caps, fire cords, incendiary cartridges and means of igniting fire cords); means of electrical blasting (electric detonators, connecting wires, current sources and instrumentation); means of electric fire blasting: (blasting caps, fire cords and electric igniters); means of blasting with the help of detonating cords (detonating cord and means of fire, electric or electric fire blasting).

Under primer-igniter understood a primer, similar to the primer of a small arms cartridge, sufficient in power to initiate the detonation of an explosive directly or by means of a fuse or a fuse.

blasting cap- a device for initiating the detonation of explosives from a igniter cord. It was a metal (steel, copper, aluminum) or paper sleeve, equipped with initiating explosives. The bottom of the sleeve could be flat or concave (with a cumulative funnel). The sleeve was filled with explosive about 2/3 of its length, the unfilled part served to introduce a igniter cord.

Electric igniter- a device representing an incandescent bridge with a drop of combustible composition applied to it. When a current is passed through it, the droplet instantly burns out and causes the detonation of the primary initiating explosive or ignition of the core of the igniter cord. As a rule, the electric igniter was part of the electric detonator. Electric igniters were more often used in blasting. Their advantage consisted in producing an explosion from any distance, ensuring the simultaneous detonation of charges, as well as at intervals in series, etc. The disadvantages of this blasting method were the complexity of preparing electrical networks, splicing wires, the danger of liquidating failed charges and explosion from stray currents, and the high cost of blasting tools.

Electric detonator- a device for creating an initial detonation pulse and initiating an explosive chemical reaction in the bulk of the explosive charge. The electric detonator was detonated electrically. Electric detonators were divided into "spark" and "incandescent". In spark electric detonators, the "activation" of the initiating explosive occurred under the influence of an electric arc current flowing between special electrodes. In this case, the “supplying” voltage reached values ​​of the order of several thousand volts. In "incandescent" electric detonators, "activation" occurred under the influence of an electric current flowing through the incandescent bridge. According to the response time, electric detonators were divided into "instantaneous", "short-delayed" and "slowed down". As a rule, the electric detonator consisted of a detonator cap and an electric igniter. It was widely used to explode electric detonators. explosive machine (subversive)- a portable source of electric current. The principle of its operation is based on the accumulation of electrical energy from a source of direct or alternating current and its rapid return to the explosive network at the time of the explosion. There were such types of explosive machines: magnetoelectric, dynamoelectric and capacitor. The latter are the most widely used.

detonating cord- a device for transmitting an initiating pulse to a distance to initiate detonation in explosive charges. The initiating impulse is usually excited by a blasting cap and transmitted by a detonating cord to one, more often to several charges, which must work simultaneously. The cord was also used to transmit momentum from one charge to another. It was an elastic waterproofed tube, polymer or consisting of several filament or fiberglass braids with an explosive core. The rate of detonation of numerous types and brands of detonating cord is different. The cord did not detonate from impact or open fire.

Fuse- a means for transmitting a fire impulse to a detonator cap or powder charge. There were several types of cord: wick, stop, fickford cord. The wick was a cotton rope impregnated with a solution of acetate or lead nitrate. Its burning rate is only 1 cm in 2-3 minutes. Stopin powder - a bunch of cotton threads soaked in potassium nitrate and smeared on the outside with a creamy mixture of powder pulp with glue. Burning speed ~ 4 cm/sec. Encased in a paper tube (stop drive), it served to quickly transfer fire, since its burning speed was more than 1 m / s.

All these types of cords were vulnerable to moisture, in addition, they gave a weak flame force. In the fickford cord, the stop, covered with powder pulp, was enclosed in a double textile braid, the top layer, which served to protect against dampness, was impregnated with bitumen. Stopin ensured the stability of the burning of the cord, the powder pulp provided sufficient flame strength, the double braid the flexibility and integrity of the core, bitumen, in addition to protecting against dampness, also allowed the powder gases to break out during combustion, and oxygen to enter the combustion zone. However, the fickford cord also had a number of disadvantages: it was extinguished in water, the burning rate was unstable, bitumen cracked and lost its qualities at low temperatures.

In later cords, the stop was replaced by a guide thread twisted from three cotton threads, each of which had a different impregnation. This ensured accurate control of the burning rate of the cord. The pyrotechnic composition with which the cord was filled did not need external oxygen and burned without an open flame. The outer diameter of the cord is 4-6 mm. The burning rate is about 1 cm/s. The transfer of combustion between the contacting segments of the cords was excluded.

incendiary tube- a device consisting of a detonator cap fastened in a sleeve with a piece of igniter cord for fire or electric fire initiation of a single explosive charge.

fuse- a mechanical-chemical device for igniting a charge during mine and blasting operations. The fuses are instant or delayed action.

Fuse- a device designed to detonate the main charge of a mine. According to the principle of operation, fuses were divided into contact, remote, non-contact, command, as well as combined action. Contact explosive devices were designed to provide contact action, that is, triggering due to the contact of the ammunition with a target or obstacle. According to the response time, contact fuses were divided into three types: instant action (0.05-0.1 ms); inertial action (1-5 ms); delayed action (from microseconds to several days); multi-installation (they may have not one, but several settings for the response time). Proximity fuses were used to provide non-contact action, that is, the fuse was triggered due to interaction with a target or obstacle without contact with the ammunition. These included magnetic, radio fuses, sentries, electromechanical.

Demolition charges were structurally designed (checkers, briquettes, etc.), defined by volume and mass, the amount of explosives produced by industry. They were intended for blasting during the fortification of positions and areas in conditions of frozen soils and rocks, the construction of barriers and making passages in them, as well as the destruction and destruction of objects and structures. The shape is concentrated, elongated and cumulative. As a rule, explosive charges have shells, nests for explosives, devices and devices for carrying and fastening on objects undermined. For the explosion of charges, as a rule, fire or electric methods were used. Mine clearing charges were intended for making passages in minefields.

engineering mines were explosive charges, structurally combined with the means for their detonation. They were intended for the installation of explosive barriers in order to destroy enemy manpower and equipment, destroy roads and various structures.

Mines are classified according to a number of criteria.

According to their purpose, mines were divided into three main groups: anti-tank, anti-personnel and special. In turn, special mines included: anti-vehicle (railway, road, airfield), anti-airborne, object, signal, traps, special. It should be noted that military personnel of all branches of the armed forces were required to be able to use anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, and only sappers worked with all other mines.

According to the method of causing harm, the mines were divided into: high-explosive (inflict defeat by the force of the explosion); fragmentation (inflict damage with fragments of their body or ready-made lethal elements (balls, rollers, arrows); cumulative (inflict defeat with a cumulative jet or impact core).

According to the degree of controllability, guided and unguided mines were distinguished. The essence of controllability was to switch the operator from the control panel of the target sensor to a combat or safe position. Management could be carried out by command radio or wire line. Guided mines allowed their troops to pass through themselves or to work selectively on command.

According to the type of target sensor, mines are: push action (triggered when the sensor is pressed by a machine or a person), tension action (mine triggered when the wire sensor is pulled); breakaway action (triggered when the integrity of a thin low-strength wire is violated);
magnetic (triggered by the influence of the magnetic field of the machine on the sensor), inclined action (triggered when the antenna (rod) deviates from the vertical position by the machine body) and seismic action (triggered by shaking, ground vibration). Various combinations of target sensors are possible, and it is not necessary that the operation of the target sensor cause the mine to explode. The operation of one target sensor may have the task of activating the sensor of the second stage. Typically, the stepwise use of sensors is aimed at saving the resource of the main target sensor or power supply. There were target sensors with multiplicity elements. Such a sensor initiates a mine only on the second or subsequent impact of the target on the mine.

A mine may have not one, but two or three target sensors, each of which can trigger the mine independently of the others.

According to the time of bringing into the combat position, the mines are divided into two main groups: those brought into the combat position instantly after the removal of the safety blocking devices; brought into combat position after the removal of safety blocking devices after a certain period of time (from 2 minutes to 72 hours).

By recoverability and neutralization, mines are divided into: recoverable decontaminated (a mine can be removed from a combat platoon, and then removed); retrievable non-defeatable (a mine can be removed and then blown up without causing damage or in a safe place, it is impossible to defuse); non-recoverable non-disposable (if you try to remove it, an explosion will occur; such a mine is blown up on the spot, or, one by one, the elements of non-removability are neutralized).

Mines may or may not have a self-destruct system. Self-destruction provides for, after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal), the production of a mine explosion or the transfer of the fuse to a safe position.

The self-neutralization system provides for the transfer of the fuse to a safe position after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal).

According to the method of installation, mines are distinguished: manually installed by soldiers, sappers, by means of mechanization (tracked and trailed mine spreaders) or remote mining (rocket, aviation, artillery systems). As a rule, most of the mines laid by means of mechanization can be placed manually and vice versa. Remote mines are usually used only by this method of delivery and installation.

Mines are serial and home-made, the latter can be made from shells, bombs and similar ammunition, from explosive charges and various submunitions. They could have a sector of directed defeat and circular. Mines of directional destruction were placed on the paths of movement of the enemy, they covered their positions, approaches to objects. They were considered very convenient for organizing booby traps.

Below we consider the characteristics, design and use of some types of mines in more detail.

anti-tank mine was intended to destroy or disable enemy tanks and other armored vehicles. Distinguished anti-track (destroy the tracks of the caterpillar, the wheel and thereby deprive the tank of mobility), anti-bottom (pierce the bottom of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members), anti-aircraft (pierce the side of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members) and anti-roof mines (hit the tank from above).

anti-personnel mines designed to destroy or disable enemy personnel. As a rule, these mines are unable to cause significant damage to enemy tanks, armored vehicles and vehicles. The maximum is to damage the car wheel, trim, glass, radiator. Mines were placed as part of anti-personnel or combined minefields, in groups and individual mines, they covered the approach to their positions and objects, the withdrawal of their units or blocked the paths of movement behind enemy lines, fettered his maneuver or forced him to move into a "fire bag", "protected" anti-tank mines, used as traps or means of undermining land mines, and so on.

Anti-vehicle mines were intended to destroy or disable enemy vehicles moving along transport routes (roads, railways, parking lots, runways and platforms, taxiways of airfields). They could also disable both unarmored and armored vehicles. These mines are not intended to destroy or injure personnel, although very often damage to vehicles leads to the simultaneous defeat of personnel.

The design features of anti-vehicle mines made it possible to use many of them as multi-purpose mines. As a rule, as objective mines, i.e. mines that explode after a certain predetermined period of time, or are exploded by the operator from the control panel via a command wire or radio link. Often, magnetic mines were used as such mines, which were fixed on an object (wagon, ship, tank) with the help of magnets.

Antiamphibious the mine was installed under water in the coastal zone of reservoirs in order to combat floating military equipment and landing ships. The destruction or injury of personnel for this type of mine is a side, secondary result of the operation of the mine.

Object mines were intended for destruction or incapacitation, damage to various fixed or moving enemy objects. The destruction or incapacitation of personnel was usually an incidental, but not an accidental task of object mines. And in a number of cases, the destruction or damage of an object was carried out with the aim of inflicting maximum losses on both personnel and combat and other equipment of the enemy. Mines were set only manually.

Signal mines are not designed to destroy or damage anyone or anything. Their task is to give out the presence of the enemy in a given place, to designate it, to draw attention to this place of their units. In terms of size, characteristics, installation methods, signal mines are close to anti-personnel mines.

The following mine signals are distinguished: sound (when triggered, they emit loud sounds that can be heard at a considerable distance); light (when triggered, they give bright flashes of light, or a bright light burns for a certain time, or the mine throws up lighting rockets (stars); smoke (when triggered, a cloud of colored smoke forms); combined (sound and light, sometimes smoke); radio signal ( transmit a signal about the detection to the control panel.The signal mines did not have explosives, the systems of self-destruction (self-neutralization) too.All signal mines, as a rule, are transferred to the combat position instantly after the removal of the safety blocking devices

Booby traps (surprises) were intended to disable or destroy enemy personnel, equipment, weapons, objects; creating an atmosphere of nervousness, fear in the enemy (minophobia); deprivation of his desire to use local or abandoned (trophy) household items, premises, means of communication, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition and other objects; suppression of enemy work on the neutralization of mines of other types, clearance of terrain or objects. As a rule, booby traps were triggered as a result of an attempt by the enemy to use household items, premises, means of communication, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition, and other objects; clear the area, objects, neutralize mines of other types. Such mines were divided into two main types: non-provoking (they work when trying to use an object, neutralize a mine of a different type, etc.); provocative (their behavior prompted the enemy to perform actions that would lead to a mine explosion. The types of target sensors are diverse and are determined by the design features of each specific sample of a booby trap. Basically, they can be divided into the following types: devices); unloading action (triggered when trying to lift an object, open a box, box, open a package); reacting to a change in the position of an object with a mine enclosed in it in space (tilt, move, rotate, lift, push); inertial action (triggered when change in the speed of movement of an object with a mine enclosed in it); photo-action (triggered by the action of light on a photosensitive element); seismic action (triggered by the vibration of a person, machine); acoustic action (triggered by a person's voice, motor noise, sound of a shot); thermal actions (triggered by heat lovek, car motor, heating device); magnetic action (triggered when exposed to the magnetic fields of a machine, a metal that a person has); baric action (triggered by the pressure of the environment - air, water). The main installation method is manual. The use of booby traps was of a special, specific nature. The use of mines by their own troops was carefully disguised (including from their own military personnel), and their use by the enemy was advertised and exaggerated in every possible way. This is due, firstly, to great difficulties in determining the moment when this mining can begin (otherwise, losses may be incurred by their own troops); secondly, it is usually impossible to determine subsequently the effectiveness of mining and the degree of harm to the enemy; thirdly, a significant part of these mines inflicted defeat not on enemy soldiers, but on local residents, which in some cases is inexpedient; fourthly, most mines are adapted for use in populated areas, premises, and facilities. The mines used - surprises during the Second World War, were not able to have any noticeable effect on the course of the battle, on deterring the enemy or inflicting significant losses on him. Usually, when they were used after several explosions, the enemy quickly identified the types of surprise mines and avoided being hit by these mines in the future. At most, these mines can make it difficult to use local items, equipment, abandoned weapons, premises.

To the group special mines included those that cannot be more or less unambiguously attributed to any of the above. They are designed to harm the enemy in specific ways. The most common ones were: under-ice (designed to destroy the ice cover of reservoirs in order to exclude the crossing of enemy troops on ice); anti-mine (perform the protective task of conventional minefields, groups of mines, single mines. They are triggered when mine detector fields (magnetic, radio frequency) are exposed to the mine sensor); ); floatable (discharged into the river upstream and explode upon contact with a bridge, dam, lock, watercraft); self-propelled mines. In other respects, special mines are close to anti-tank or anti-personnel mines.

Mining- the process of laying mines in order to inflict losses on the enemy, make it difficult to maneuver, and carry out sabotage. Mines could be used in various ways: the installation of single mines, including booby traps, the creation of minefields. Minefields were usually arranged in such a way that the troops who laid them had the opportunity to completely survey the minefield and shoot through it, preventing the enemy from making passes. Minefields were used in both field and long-term fortification, often in combination with wire and other barriers. They were characterized by the size along the front and in depth, the number of rows of mines, the distance between the rows and mines in the rows, the consumption of mines per 1 km, the probability of hitting manpower and military equipment.

Groups of mines (individual mines) were placed on roads, detours, fords, gats, mountain paths, in hollows, cuts and in settlements. Minefields could consist only of anti-personnel or anti-tank mines, or they could be mixed. In anti-tank minefields, mines were placed in three to four rows with a distance between rows of 20-40 m and between mines in a row of 4-5.5 m for anti-track and 9-12 m for anti-bottom. Their consumption per 1 km of the minefield, respectively, was 750-1000 and 300-400 pieces. Anti-personnel minefields were established from high-explosive and fragmentation mines. They could be installed in front of anti-tank minefields, in front of non-explosive obstacles or in combination with them, and in areas of terrain inaccessible to mechanized troops. Along the front, minefields ranged from several tens to hundreds of meters, and in depth - 10-15 meters or more. Minefields could consist of 2-4 or more rows with a distance between rows of more than 5 m, and between mines in a row for high-explosive mines - at least 1 m. Consumption per 1 km of a minefield - 2-3 thousand minutes. Single mines were often used by various kinds of sabotage groups and partisans, and were installed in the settlements abandoned by the retreating troops. During the war, mining of railways, objects (buildings) and mining of areas (minefields) were used.

Under demining understood the reverse process of mining. To detect mines, they mainly used a mine detector - a device that emits waves of a certain spectrum, and gives a signal to a sapper if the nature of the reflected waves changes. To make it difficult to detect mines during World War II, mines with a glass or wooden case were used. In this regard, specially trained animals with a keen sense of smell - service dogs and even rats - were used to detect them.

Most mines consisted of three main elements - an explosive charge, a fuse and a body. In mines for various purposes, mainly blasting substances that are sensitive to detonation were used. These included products of organic chemistry: TNT, tetryl, hexogen, heating elements, and others, as well as cheap ammonium nitrate explosives. Pyrotechnic compositions were used in signal and incendiary mines. According to the principle of operation, fuses are divided into contact, requiring direct contact with the object, and non-contact, according to the timing of operation - instantaneous and delayed action. The fuse served to directly initiate the detonation of the charge and could be part of the fuse or inserted into the mine separately - when it was installed.

Mine-explosive injuries are usually combined, caused by several factors at once, but two are distinguished as the main ones - fragmentation and high-explosive damage. High-explosive action consists in hitting the target with hot high-speed explosion products - at close distances, and then with excess pressure in the front and the velocity head of the shock wave. A fragment weighing only 0.13-0.15 grams was considered lethal at its speed of 1,150 - 1,250 m / s.

Considering the development and production of engineering ammunition, in particular mines, by country, the following can be noted. Mine weapons developed mainly in Germany, Finland and the USSR. It should be noted the high degree of safety of mines and fuses in Germany and the USSR, although their design was often primitive. At the same time, British, American, Italian and French mines and fuses, with the high manufacturability of the structures, required extremely careful handling and qualified training of sappers. The safety of miners when handling mines in Japan was not taken into account at all.

The range of British mine weapons in the field of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines is very small. At the same time, the variety of perfect, exquisite fuses is quite large, which indicates the focus of the British army on mine and sabotage activities. The British began mass production of mines only in 1940. In total, 19.6 million mines were manufactured during the war years, incl. 15.8 million anti-tank mines and 3.7 million anti-personnel mines.

Germany was distinguished by the production of sufficiently advanced and technological mines, explosive charges and fuses. The range of mines produced was quite large and multifunctional. At the same time, their production took into account both the availability of materials and labor, and their functionality. In Germany, during the war years, 76.6 million mines of various types were fired. The literacy of the use of mines by the German troops should also be noted.

In the USSR, when producing mines, the main attention was paid to simplicity and reliability, combined with cheapness and mass production. According to the nomenclature of mines, the USSR surpassed even Germany. A separate direction in the development of mines in the USSR was a mini sabotage direction: anti-vehicle, object and radio-controlled. During the war years, the USSR produced 66.5 million mines of all types, including: 24.8 million anti-tank and 40.4 million anti-tank.

The United States did not pay due attention to mine weapons and only with the outbreak of war began to develop them. In France, mines were practically not produced. In Japan, in the absence of mass production of engineering mines, components of sabotage explosives, incendiaries and booby traps were produced in sufficient quantities to commit sabotage behind enemy lines.

According to expert estimates, the total number of mines fired by all countries during the war exceeded 200 million mines.