Geography of climates. What climate is typical for Russia: arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical. Mode and amount of atmospheric precipitation, mm

climatic zones. The circulation of heat, moisture and the general circulation of the atmosphere form the weather and climate in the geographical envelope. The types of air masses, the peculiarities of their circulation in different latitudes create the conditions for the formation of the Earth's climates. The dominance of one air mass during the year determines the boundaries of climatic zones.

Climatic zones- these are territories that encircle the Earth with a continuous or intermittent strip; they differ from each other in temperature, atmospheric pressure, amount and mode of precipitation, prevailing air masses and winds. The symmetrical placement of climatic zones relative to the equator is a manifestation of the law of geographical zoning. Allocate main and transitional climatic zones. The names of the main climatic zones are given according to the prevailing air masses and the latitudes in which they are formed.

There are 13 climatic zones: seven main and six transitional. The boundaries of each belt are determined by the summer and winter positions of the climatic fronts.

There are seven main climatic zones: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate and two polar (Arctic and Antarctic). In each of the climatic zones, one air mass dominates throughout the year - respectively equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic (antarctic).

Between the main belts in each hemisphere, transitional climatic zones are formed: two subequatorial, two subtropical and two subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic). In transitional zones there is a seasonal change of air masses. They come from neighboring main belts: in summer, the air mass of the southern main belt, and in winter, the northern one. The proximity of the oceans, warm and cold currents, and relief affect climatic differences within the belts: climatic regions with different types of climate are distinguished.

Characteristics of climatic zones. equatorial belt formed in the region of the equator as a discontinuous band dominated by equatorial air masses. Average monthly temperatures are from +26 to +28 sС. Precipitation falls 1500-3000 mm evenly throughout the year. The equatorial belt is the most humid part of the earth's surface (the Congo river basin, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea of ​​Africa, the Amazon river basin in South America, the Sunda Islands). There are continental and oceanic types of climate, but the difference between them is small.

For subequatorial belts , encircling the equatorial belt from the north and south, monsoonal air circulation is characteristic. A feature of the belts is the seasonal change of air masses. Equatorial air dominates in summer, tropical air dominates in winter. There are two seasons: summer wet and winter dry. In summer, the climate differs slightly from the equatorial one: high humidity, an abundance of precipitation. In the winter season, hot dry weather sets in, grasses burn out, trees shed their leaves. The average air temperature in all months ranges from +20 to +30 °С. The annual rainfall is 1000-2000 mm, with maximum precipitation in summer.

tropical belts are between 20¨ and 30¨ s. and yu. sh. on both sides of the tropics, where trade winds prevail. (Remember why in tropical latitudes the air sinks and high pressure prevails.) Tropical air masses with high temperatures dominate here throughout the year. The average temperature of the warmest month is +30…+35 ¨C, the coldest month is not lower than +10 ¨C. In the center of the continents the climate is tropical continental (desert). Cloudiness is negligible, precipitation in most parts is less than 250 mm per year. A small amount of precipitation causes the formation of the greatest deserts in the world - the Sahara and Kalahari in Africa, the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, Australia.

In the eastern parts of the continents, which are under the influence of warm currents and trade winds blowing from the ocean, intensified by monsoons in the summer season, a tropical humid climate is formed. The average monthly temperature in summer is +26 ¨C, in winter +22 ¨C. The average annual rainfall is 1500 mm.

subtropical belts (25-40¨ N and S) are formed under the influence of tropical air masses in summer and moderate air masses in winter. The western parts of the continents have a Mediterranean climate: summers are dry, hot, the average temperature of the warmest month is +30 ¨C, and winters are humid and warm (up to +5 ... +10 ¨C), but short-term frosts are possible. On the eastern coasts of the continents, a subtropical monsoon climate is formed with hot (+25 ¨C) rainy summers and cool (+8 ¨C) dry winters. The amount of precipitation is 1000-1500 mm. Snow rarely falls. In the central parts of the continents, the climate is subtropical continental, with hot (+30 ¨C) and dry summers and relatively cold winters (+6…+8 ¨C) with little precipitation (300 mm). The subtropical humid climate is characterized by a more uniform course of temperatures and precipitation. In summer +20 ¨C, in winter +12 ¨C, precipitation is 800-1000 mm. (Determine the differences in the climates of the subtropical zones on the climate map.)

temperate zones stretched in temperate latitudes from 40¨ s. and yu. sh. almost to the polar circles. Moderate air masses dominate here throughout the year, but arctic and tropical air masses can penetrate. In the Northern Hemisphere, in the west of the continents, westerly winds and cyclonic activity prevail; in the east - monsoons. With advancement inland, the annual amplitude of air temperature increases (the coldest month - from +4 ... +6 °С to -48 °С, and the warmest - from +12 °С to +30 °С). The climate in the Southern Hemisphere is mostly oceanic. There are 5 types of climate in the Northern Hemisphere: maritime, temperate continental, continental, sharply continental, monsoon.

The maritime climate is formed under the influence of westerly winds blowing from the ocean (Northern and Central Europe, the west of North America, the Patagonian Andes of South America). In summer the temperature is about +15…+17 °С, in winter - +5 °С. Precipitation falls throughout the year and reaches 1000-2000 mm per year. In the Southern Hemisphere, in the temperate zone, an oceanic climate dominates with cool summers, mild winters, heavy rainfall, westerly winds, and unstable weather (“roaring” forties latitudes).

The continental climate is characteristic of the interior regions of large continents. In Eurasia, a temperate continental, continental, sharply continental climate is formed, in North America - temperate continental and continental. On average, the temperature in July varies from +10 °С in the north to +24 °С in the south. In a temperate continental climate, the January temperature drops from west to east from -5° to -10°C, in a sharply continental climate - to -35 ... -40°C, and in Yakutia below -40°C. The annual amount of precipitation in the temperate continental climate is about 500-600 mm, in the sharply continental climate - about 300-400 mm. In winter, moving eastward, the duration of stable snow cover increases from 4 to 9 months, and the annual temperature amplitude also increases.

The monsoon climate is best expressed in Eurasia. In summer, a stable monsoon from the ocean prevails, the temperature is +18 ... +22 °С, in winter - -25 °С. In late summer - early autumn, typhoons from the sea are frequent with gusty winds and heavy rainfall. Winters are relatively dry as the winter monsoon blows in from the land. Precipitation in the form of rains prevails in summer (800-1200 mm).

subpolar belts (subarctic and subantarctic) located north and south of the temperate zone. They are characterized by a change in air masses by season: moderate air masses dominate in summer, arctic (antarctic) in winter. The continental subarctic climate is characteristic of the northern outskirts of North America and Eurasia. Summer is relatively warm (+5…+10 °С), short. Winter is severe (up to -55 °C). Here is the pole of cold in Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk (-71 °C). A small amount of precipitation - 200 mm. Permafrost, excessive moisture are common, and large areas are swampy. The oceanic climate in the Northern Hemisphere is formed in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas, in the Southern Hemisphere - around Antarctica. Cyclonic activity is developed throughout the year. Cool summer (+3…+5 °С), floating sea and continental ice, relatively mild winter (–10…–15 °С). Winter precipitation is up to 500 mm, fogs are constant.

Rice. 16. Characteristic types of annual

polar belts (arctic and the course of air temperatures of various Antarctic) located around the climatic zones of the poles. The continental climate prevails in Antarctica, in Greenland, on the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Freezing temperatures throughout the year.

The oceanic climate is observed mainly in the Arctic. The temperatures here are negative, but during the polar day they can reach +2 °C. Precipitation - 100-150 mm (Fig. 16).

Bibliography

1. Geography grade 8. Textbook for the 8th grade of institutions of general secondary education with the Russian language of instruction / Edited by Professor P. S. Lopukh - Minsk "Narodnaya Asveta" 2014

The climate within the Earth's surface varies zonal. The most modern classification, which explains the reasons for the formation of a particular type of climate, was developed by B.P. Alisov. It is based on the types of air masses and their movement.

air masses- These are significant volumes of air with certain properties, the main of which are temperature and moisture content. The properties of air masses are determined by the properties of the surface over which they form. Air masses form the troposphere like the lithospheric plates that make up the earth's crust.

Depending on the region of formation, four main types of air masses are distinguished: equatorial, tropical, temperate (polar) and arctic (antarctic). In addition to the area of ​​formation, the nature of the surface (land or sea) over which air accumulates is also important. In accordance with this, the main zonal types of air masses are divided into maritime and continental.

Arctic air masses are formed in high latitudes, above the ice surface of the polar countries. Arctic air is characterized by low temperatures and low moisture content.

moderate air masses clearly divided into marine and continental. Continental temperate air is characterized by low moisture content, high summer and low winter temperatures. Maritime temperate air forms over the oceans. It is cool in summer, moderately cold in winter, and constantly humid.

Continental tropical air formed over tropical deserts. It is hot and dry. Sea air is characterized by lower temperatures and much higher humidity.

equatorial air, forming a zone at the equator and over the sea and over land, it has a high temperature and humidity.

Air masses constantly move after the sun: in June - to the north, in January - to the south. As a result, territories are formed on the surface of the earth where one type of air mass dominates during the year and where air masses replace each other according to the seasons of the year.

The main feature of the climate zone is the dominance of certain types of air masses. subdivided into main(during the year, one zonal type of air masses dominates) and transitional(air masses change seasonally). The main climatic zones are designated in accordance with the names of the main zonal types of air masses. In transitional belts, the prefix "sub" is added to the name of the air masses.

Main climatic zones: equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic (antarctic); transitional: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic.

All climatic zones, except for the equatorial one, are paired, that is, there are both in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

In the equatorial climate zone equatorial air masses dominate all year round, low pressure prevails. It is humid and hot throughout the year. The seasons of the year are not expressed.

Tropical air masses (hot and dry) dominate throughout the year. tropical zones. Due to the downward movement of air that prevails throughout the year, very little precipitation falls. Summer temperatures are higher here than in the equatorial zone. Winds are trade winds.

For temperate zones characterized by the dominance of moderate air masses throughout the year. Westerly air transport prevails. Temperatures are positive in summer and negative in winter. Due to the predominance of low pressure, a lot of precipitation falls, especially on ocean coasts. In winter, precipitation falls in solid form (snow, hail).

In the Arctic (Antarctic) belt Cold and dry arctic air masses dominate throughout the year. Characterized by downward movement of air, north- and south-east winds, predominance of negative temperatures throughout the year, constant snow cover.

In the subequatorial belt there is a seasonal change of air masses, the seasons of the year are expressed. Summer is hot and humid due to the arrival of equatorial air masses. In winter, tropical air masses dominate, so it is warm but dry.

In the subtropical zone moderate (summer) and arctic (winter) air masses change. Winter is not only severe, but also dry. Summers are much warmer than winters, with more rainfall.

Climatic regions are distinguished within the climatic zones with different types of climates maritime, continental, monsoon. Marine type of climate formed under the influence of sea air masses. It is characterized by a small amplitude of air temperature for the seasons of the year, high cloudiness, and a relatively large amount of precipitation. Continental type of climate formed away from the ocean coast. It is distinguished by a significant annual amplitude of air temperatures, a small amount of precipitation, and a distinct expression of the seasons of the year. Monsoon type of climate It is characterized by the change of winds according to the seasons of the year. At the same time, the wind changes direction with the change of season, which affects the precipitation regime. Rainy summers give way to dry winters.

The largest number of climatic regions is within the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere.

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Russia is a country that occupies a huge area. Many peoples and ethnic groups live on its territory. But, in addition to this, it is also subdivided into various climatic zones. Depending on this, various flora and fauna settle in different parts of the country. What are the climatic zones of Russia, according to what criteria is the division and what are the features of these zones - read about all this in the presented article.

Total number of climate zones

Initially, you need to understand how many climatic zones exist in general. So, in nature there are four of them (the countdown comes from the equator line):

• Tropical.
• Subtropical.
• Moderate.
• Polar

Generally speaking, the division into climatic zones occurs in accordance with the average temperature of the surface heating by the sun's rays. At the same time, it should be noted that such zoning took place on the basis of long-term observations and conclusions drawn from analytical data.

About the climatic zones of Russia

What are the climatic zones of Russia? The territory of the country is very large, which allowed it to be located in three of them. So, if we talk about belts, then there are three of them on the territory of Russia - moderate, arctic and subarctic. However, the natural and climatic zones of Russia are divided into meridians, of which there are 4 on the territory of the state, related to the 20th, 40th, 60th and 80th meridians. That is, there are four climatic zones, the fifth is called special.

Table of climatic zones

There are 4 climatic zones in Russia. The table is presented for easier perception of information:

Considering the climatic zones of Russia, it should be noted that most of the country is located in the arctic and subarctic zones. Also, quite a lot of territories occupy a moderate zone. There are not so many subtropics, it is less than 5% of the entire territory of Russia.

arctic climate

Considering the climatic zones of Russia should begin with the Arctic climate. It is characteristic for a special, and also partially 4th zone. Mostly arctic deserts and tundras are located here. The soil almost does not warm up, the sun's rays just glide over the surface, which prevents the flora from growing and developing. The fauna is also scarce, the reason for everything is the lack of food. Winter takes up most of the time, which is about 10 months. During the summer period, the soil does not have time to warm up, since the heat in the region of 0- + 3 ° C lasts no more than a couple of weeks. During the polar night, the temperature can drop to -60 °C. Precipitation is practically absent, it can only be in the form of snow.

subarctic climate

Widely distributed in Russia. So, it includes the 4th zone, as well as partially special and third. Winter is also long, cold, but less severe. Summer is short, but the average temperature is 5 degrees higher. Arctic cyclones cause strong winds, cloudiness, there are precipitations, but not heavy.

Temperate climate

The 3rd, as well as the 2nd climatic zone of Russia belong to a temperate climate. Covers most of the country. The seasons here are pronounced, there are spring, summer, autumn and winter. Temperatures can range from +30°C in summer to -30°C in winter. For convenience, scientists divide this zone of Russia into 4 more:

• Moderate continental. Summer is hot, winter is cold. Natural zones can replace each other from the steppes to the taiga. Atlantic air masses prevail.
• Continental. The temperature fluctuates from -25 °С in winter to +25 °С in summer. A large amount of precipitation. The zone is formed mainly by western air masses.
• Sharply continental. Partly cloudy, little precipitation. In summer, the soil warms up well, in winter it freezes deeply.
• Maritime as well as monsoonal climates. Strong winds are characteristic, which are called monsoons. Precipitation is heavy and there may be flooding. Summer is not hot, the average air temperature is +15...+20 °С. Winters are very cold, the air temperature can drop to -40 °C. In coastal areas, winter and summer are smoother.

subtropical climate

1 climatic zone of Russia partially covers a small area of ​​the country in the region of the Caucasus Mountains. Summer here is long, but not hot. In winter, the temperature does not fall below 0 °C. Due to the proximity of the mountains, there is quite a lot of precipitation, they are plentiful.

There are no tropics and the equatorial zone on the territory of Russia.

Road-climatic zones

Few people know, but there are also road-climatic zones in Russia. They are divided according to the features of the construction of roads for a certain territory (depending on temperatures, precipitation and other climatic indicators). In this section, you can find 5 zones.

The benefits of division into climatic zones

Why single out the climatic zones of Russia? Table 1 and Table 2 indicate that there are many of them. All this is for convenience. Thus, this division is important for many areas of activity and knowledge. Most often, such zoning is important:

• For tourism business, resort planning.
• When constructing buildings, roads (including railways), designing communications.
• When assessing the possibility of living in the area of ​​people.
• When planning the extraction of minerals, natural resources.
• When organizing agriculture, farming.

Well, speaking in general, knowledge of climatic zones helps many people improve their lives in various parts of the country. This knowledge helps many to optimize and master this or that territory for living. For example, cold areas are expensive, in a temperate climate it is best to breed livestock and grow useful vegetation.

The climate of Russia has a special differentiation, incomparable with any other country in the world. This is due to the wide extent of the country across Eurasia, the heterogeneity of the location of reservoirs and the great variety of relief: from high mountain peaks to plains lying below sea level.

Russia is predominantly located in middle and high latitudes. Due to this, the weather conditions in most of the country are severe, the change of seasons is clear, and the winters are long and frosty. The Atlantic Ocean has a significant influence on the climate of Russia. Despite the fact that its waters do not come into contact with the territory of the country, it controls the transfer of air masses in temperate latitudes, where most of the country is located. Since there are no high mountains in the western part, the air masses pass unhindered up to the Verkhoyansk Range. In winter, they help to mitigate frosts, and in summer they provoke cooling and precipitation.

Climatic zones and regions of Russia

(Map-scheme of climatic zones of Russia)

On the territory of Russia there are 4 climatic zones:

arctic climate

(Islands of the Arctic Ocean, coastal regions of Siberia)

Arctic air masses prevailing year-round, combined with extremely low solar exposure, are the cause of severe weather conditions. In winter, during the polar night, the average daily temperature does not exceed -30°C. In summer, most of the sun's rays are reflected off the surface of the snow. Therefore, the atmosphere does not warm up above 0 ° C ...

subarctic climate

(Region along the Arctic Circle)

In winter, weather conditions are close to arctic, but summers are warmer (in the southern parts, the air temperature can rise up to +10°C). Precipitation exceeds evaporation...

Temperate climate

• Continental(West Siberian Plain in the south and in the central part). The climate is characterized by low rainfall and a wide range of temperatures in winter and summer.
• temperate continental(European part). The western transport of air masses brings air from the Atlantic Ocean. In this regard, winter temperatures rarely drop to -25 ° C, thaws occur. Summer is warm: in the south up to +25°С, in the northern part up to +18°С. Precipitation falls unevenly from 800 mm per year in the northwest to 250 mm in the south.
• sharply continental(Eastern Siberia). The inland position and the absence of the influence of the oceans explain the strong heating of the air during the short summer (up to +20°C) and the sharp cooling in winter (reaches -48°C). The annual rainfall does not exceed 520 mm.
• Monsoon continental(Southern part of the Far East). With the onset of winter comes dry and cold continental air, due to which the air temperature drops to -30 ° C, but there is little precipitation. In summer, under the influence of air masses from the Pacific Ocean, the temperature cannot rise above +20°C.

subtropical climate

(Black Sea coast, Caucasus)

A narrow strip of subtropical climate is protected by the mountains of the Caucasus from the passage of cold air masses. This is the only corner of the country where the air temperature is positive during the winter months, and the duration of the summer is much longer than in the rest of the country. Marine humid air produces up to 1000 mm of precipitation per year ...

Climatic zones of Russia

(Map of climatic zones of Russia)

Zoning takes place on 4 conditional areas:

• First- tropical ( Southern parts of Russia);
• Second- subtropical ( Primorye, western and northwestern regions);
• Third- moderate ( Siberia, Far East);
• 4th- polar ( Yakutia, more northern regions of Siberia, the Urals and the Far East).

In addition to the four main zones, there is the so-called "special" zone, which includes areas beyond the Arctic Circle, as well as Chukotka. The division into areas with approximately similar climate occurs due to uneven heating of the earth's surface by the Sun. In Russia, this division coincides with meridians that are multiples of 20: 20th, 40th, 60th and 80th.

The climate of the regions of Russia

Each region of the country is characterized by special climatic conditions. In the northern regions of Siberia and Yakutia, negative average annual temperatures and a short summer are observed.

A distinctive feature of the Far Eastern climate is its contrast. Traveling towards the ocean, one notices a change from continental to monsoonal climate.

In Central Russia, the division into seasons is distinct: a hot summer gives way to a short autumn, and after a cool winter, spring comes with an increased level of precipitation.

The climate of the South of Russia is ideal for recreation: the sea does not have time to cool much during the warm winter, and the tourist season begins at the end of April.

Climate and seasons of the regions of Russia:

The diversity of the climate of Russia is due to the vastness of the territory and openness to the Arctic Ocean. The large length explains the significant difference in average annual temperatures, the uneven effects of solar radiation and heating of the country. For the most part, severe weather conditions are noted with a pronounced continental character and a clear change in temperature regimes and precipitation according to the seasons.

The concept of "climate"

Unlike the concept of "weather", climate is a more general concept. The term was introduced into the scientific literature as early as the $II$ century. BC. ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Literally translated, the term means "tilt". Surprisingly, ancient scientists were well aware of the dependence of the physical and geographical conditions of the surface on the inclination of the sun's rays. They compared the climate of the planet with the position of Greece and believed that a temperate zone lies to the north of it, and icy deserts are already further north. To the south of Greece, hot deserts are located, and in the Southern Hemisphere, climatic zoning will be repeated.
The ideas of ancient scientists about climate dominated until the beginning of the $19th century. For many decades, the concept of "climate" has been transformed, and every time a new meaning has been put into it.

Definition 1

Climate is the multi-year weather pattern.

This short definition of climate does not mean that it is final. To date, there is no single, generally accepted definition of it, and different authors interpret it differently.

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The climate depends on major processes on a planetary scale - on solar irradiation of the Earth's surface, on heat and moisture exchange between the atmosphere and the surface of the planet, atmospheric circulation, the action of the biosphere, on the characteristics of long-term snow cover and glaciers. The uneven distribution of solar heat on the Earth's surface, its spherical shape and rotation around its axis led to a huge variety of climatic conditions. Scientists combined all these conditions in a certain way and singled out $ 13 $ latitudinal climatic zones, which are located more or less symmetrically relative to each other. The heterogeneity of climatic zones depends on their geographical location - they are located near the ocean or in the depths of the continent.

The climate is a complex system of all components, which in one way or another exert their influence and cause changes in vast areas.

These components are:

• Atmosphere;
• Hydrosphere;
• Biosphere;
• Underlayment surface.

Atmosphere is the central component of the climate system. The processes that occur in it have a strong influence on the weather and climate.

The World Ocean is very closely connected with the atmosphere; the hydrosphere, which is second important component climate system. By mutually transferring heat, they affect weather and climatic conditions. The weathers that originate in the central parts of the ocean spread to the continents, and the ocean itself has a huge heat capacity. Slowly heating up, it gradually gives off its heat, being the heat accumulator of the planet.

Depending on which surface the sun's rays fall on, they will either heat it up or be reflected back into the atmosphere. Snow and ice are the most reflective.

The continuous interaction of living and non-living matter occurs in one of the largest shells of the Earth - biosphere. It is the environment for the existence of the entire organic world. The processes operating in the biosphere contribute to the formation of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and eventually enter the atmosphere, exerting their influence on the climate.

climate-forming factors

The diversity of the climate and its features are determined by different geographical conditions and a number of factors, called climate-forming.

These main factors include:

• Solar radiation;
• Atmospheric circulation;
• The nature of the earth's surface, i.e. terrain relief.

Remark 1

These factors determine the climate anywhere on Earth. The most important is solar radiation. Only $45$% of radiation reaches the Earth's surface. All life processes and such climate indicators as pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, atmospheric circulation, etc. depend on the heat entering the surface of the planet.

Through the circulation of the atmosphere, not only the interlatitudinal exchange of air takes place, but also its redistribution from the surface to the upper layers of the atmosphere and back. Due to air masses, clouds are transported, wind and precipitation are formed. Air masses redistribute pressure, temperature, and humidity.

The influence of solar radiation and atmospheric circulation qualitatively changes such a climate-forming factor as terrain. For high forms of relief - ridges, mountain rises - their own specific features are characteristic: their own temperature regime and their own precipitation regime, which depends on the exposure, orientation of the slopes and the height of the ridges. Mountain relief acts as a mechanical barrier to air masses and fronts. Sometimes mountains act as the boundaries of climatic regions, they can change the nature of the atmosphere or exclude the possibility of air exchange. Due to the high landforms on Earth, there are many such places where there is a lot of rainfall or not enough. For example, the outskirts of Central Asia are protected by powerful mountain systems, which explains the dryness of its climate.

In mountainous areas, climate change occurs with height - the temperature becomes lower, atmospheric pressure drops, air humidity decreases, up to a certain height the amount of precipitation increases, and then decreases. As a result of these features, for mountainous regions, high-altitude climatic zones. Plain territories of the direct impact of climate-forming factors practically do not distort - they receive the amount of heat corresponding to the latitude and do not distort the direction of movement of air masses. In addition to the main climate-forming factors, a number of other factors will also affect the climate.

Among them one can name:

• Distribution of land and sea;
• Remoteness of the territory from the seas and oceans;
• Sea and continental air;
• Sea currents.

Changing of the climate

At present, the world community expresses great concern about climate change of the planet in the $21st century. An increase in the average temperature in the atmosphere and in the surface layer is the main change that can have a negative impact on natural ecosystems and on humans. Global warming is becoming an important problem for the survival of mankind.

This problem is being studied by specialized international organizations and widely discussed at international forums. Since $1988$ under the auspices of UNEP and WHO the International Commission on Climate Change (IPCC) is functioning. The Commission evaluates all data on this problem, determines the possible consequences of climate change and outlines a strategy for responding to them. In $1992, a conference was held in Rio de Janeiro, at which a special Convention on climate change was adopted.

As evidence of climate change, a number of scientists cite examples of an increase in the average global temperature - hot and dry summers, mild winters, melting glaciers and rising sea levels, frequent and destructive typhoons and hurricanes. The conducted studies have shown that in the $20$-s and $30$-s of the XX$ century, warming covered the Arctic and adjacent regions of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Remark 2

Brooks' research suggests that the climate has become more humid since the mid-17th century, with mild winters and cool summers. The increase in winter temperatures in the Arctic and mid-latitudes began from $1850$. Winter temperatures in Northern Europe increased by $2.8$ degrees in three months over the first $30$ years of the $20th century, with southwesterly winds prevailing. Average temperature in the western part of the Arctic for $1931-1935$ increased by $9$ degrees compared to the second half of the $19th century. As a result, the border of ice distribution receded to the north. How long these climatic conditions will continue no one can say, just as no one can name the exact causes of these climatic changes. But, nevertheless, there are attempts to explain climate fluctuations. The sun is the main driver of the climate. As a result of the fact that the earth's surface is heated unevenly, the formation of winds and currents in the ocean occurs. Solar activity is accompanied by magnetic storms and warming.

Changes in the Earth's orbit, changes in the magnetic field, changes in the size of the oceans and continents, volcanic eruptions have a great impact on the planet's climate. These reasons are natural. It was they who changed the climate in geological epochs and until recently. They determined the beginning and end of long-term climatic cycles, such as ice ages. Solar and volcanic activity explains half of the temperature changes prior to $1950$ - the rise in temperature is associated with solar activity, and its decrease is associated with volcanic activity. In the second half of the $XX$ c. scientists added another factor - anthropogenic associated with human activity. The result of this factor was an increase greenhouse effect, which had an impact on climate change $8$ times greater than the impact of changes in solar activity over the past two centuries. The problem exists, and scientists from different countries, including Russia, are working on its solution.