Under institutions refers to the rules that are established for the subjects of the economy. They may be formal in the form of laws and regulations or informal in the form of traditions and customs.

Advantages formal institutions:

- formalization of rules allows expanding their normative function, enables individuals to save on information costs, makes clearer sanctions for violation of these rules, eliminates the contradictions contained in them;

- formal rules are mechanisms for solving the free rider problem. If the relationship is not constantly recurring, then its participants cannot be forced informally to comply with the rule, since reputation mechanisms do not work. For such a relationship to be effective, the intervention of a third party is required. The third party is the formal rules;

- formal rules can counteract discrimination. As experience shows, informal institutions of network trade and finance contribute to economic development only up to a certain level, and then only formal institutions can provide returns on scale, because only they are able to create an atmosphere of trust and enable newcomers to freely enter the market.

Advantages and disadvantages informal institutions:

The advantages of informal institutions include, firstly, the ability to adapt to changing external conditions, preferences within the community, and other exogenous or endogenous changes. Secondly, the possibility of applying different sanctions in each specific case (after all, someone needs a strict warning, but someone has to be excluded from the group). The disadvantages of informal institutions are an extension of their strengths. Informal institutions are often characterized by ambiguous interpretation of the rules, a decrease in the effectiveness of sanctions, and the emergence of discriminatory rules.

The importance of institutions lies in the fact that they are the framework within which human relationships take place. If there is a goal of developing certain areas, then the state must first create rules for future interaction.

Main economic institutions Keywords: property, money, banks, trade, production.

Functions of economic institutions:

- integrating contributes to the realization of individuals as subjects of social production and significantly

facilitating the establishment of economic ties, providing savings on transaction costs.

- informational consists in the accumulation, selection and transmission of information in space and time. Performing an information function, economic institutions ensure the continuity of social reproduction.

- regulatory directs the activities of economic entities in the direction that is most useful to the economy as a whole and

tries to suspend the activities of subjects that bring negative consequences.

- negentropic the function is manifested in ensuring stability, increasing the level of organization of the national economy, and the ability to extinguish emerging fluctuations to a certain extent.

Question number 12. The concept of ownership. Subjects and objects of property. Types and forms of ownership. Modern theories of property. Property reform. Transformation of property relations in the Republic of Belarus.

From an economic point of view, PROPERTY is the relationship between people regarding the appropriation of the means of production and the wealth created with their help. The nature of the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods depends on who owns the means of production.

object property is always things. In the system of economic relations, the object of ownership is the means of production.

Subject ownership can be: the state, citizens, collectives.

From this one can distinguish three property type:

- private property means that the rights to the object of ownership for the subject guarantees not only the freedom of its use, but also protection from interference by other subjects or states;

- communal property(general or corporate) differs from private sharing of ownership;

- state assumes that all accounting of property rights belongs simultaneously to all citizens of the country.

Within the framework of these types of ownership, their forms may exist: state, family, joint-stock, joint ventures, farming, etc. The procedure for the functioning of a particular form of ownership in the state is determined by the relevant legal laws.

In Western economics, there is a widespread property rights theory, whose founders were R. Coase and A. Alchian.

The peculiarity of this theory is that, firstly, it does not use the concept of "property", but "property right". It is not a good in itself that is property, but a bundle or a share of the rights to use it - that is what constitutes property.

Reforming state property is to produce on a significant scale the denationalization of property - the transformation of the state form of appropriation into various other forms of economy. However, the reform of state property should not lead to its complete elimination, since common indivisible property is everywhere used in the national interest. Therefore, we are talking about the correct definition of the boundaries of denationalization and the establishment of normal relations between the state and non-state sectors of the country's economy.

In all countries, the reform of state property is called privatization, which means the denationalization of property.

One of the main tools for reforming property in the Republic of Belarus is denationalization and privatization.

Denationalization and privatization in Belarus is carried out in two directions - “ small" (privatization of trade and services, small enterprises in industry and construction) and " big» (privatization of large enterprises). Privatization is a reform of property relations aimed at transforming state and municipal enterprises into private ones. It should be noted that large Belarusian enterprises are not privatized, because they are the basis of our economy, the leaders of technical progress in the industries.

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INTRODUCTION

Social practice shows that it is vital for human society to consolidate certain types of social relations, to make them obligatory for members of a certain society or a certain social group. This primarily applies to those social relations, entering into which the members of a social group ensure the satisfaction of the most important needs necessary for the successful functioning of the group as an integral social unit. Thus, the need for the reproduction of material goods forces people to consolidate and maintain production relations; the need to socialize the younger generation and educate young people on the samples of the culture of the group makes it necessary to consolidate and maintain family relations, the relationship of training young people. Systems of social roles, statuses and sanctions are created in the form of social institutions, which are the most complex and important types of social ties for society.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that combines significant social values ​​and procedures that meet the basic needs of society. These are fairly stable forms of organizing and regulating the joint activities of people. Social institutions perform in society the functions of social management and social control as one of the elements of management. Social institutions guide the behavior of members of society through a system of sanctions and rewards. In social management and control, institutions play a very important role. Their task is not only to coercion. In every society there are institutions that guarantee freedom in certain types of activity - freedom of creativity or innovation, freedom of speech, the right to receive a certain form and amount of income, housing and free medical care.

Social institutions are classified on the basis of the content and functions they perform - economic, political, educational, cultural, religious.

Social institutions can also be divided into formal and informal. The criterion for division is the degree of formalization of the connections, interactions, relations existing in them.

CHAPTER 1.THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS IN ECONOMIC THEORY

1.1 Rvariousscientists' views on the concept of "andInstitute"

It is difficult to overestimate the role of institutions in modern economic life, because it is thanks to them that the interaction between people is streamlined, and conflicts that arise in a world of limited resources are resolved. In economic theory there is no clear and unambiguous definition of the concept of "institution", but, as Arrow notes, "since research in this area is still in its infancy, excessive precision should be avoided. Nevertheless, let's try to consider the most interesting approaches to the definition of this phenomenon in foreign economic thought.

One of the founders of the new institutional economic theory is the economist John Rawls. The concept of the institution in his works is one of the central ones, in particular, in the article “Theory of Justice”, he describes this category as a public system of rules that define the position and position with the corresponding rights and duties, power and immunity, and the like. These rules specify certain forms of action as permitted and others as forbidden, and they also punish some acts and protect others when violence occurs. As examples, or more general social practices, we can cite games, rituals, courts and parliaments, markets and property systems.

Thorstein Veblen was the first person to introduce the concept of institution into economic theory. By institutions, he understood a certain widespread way of thinking about the individual relations between society and the individual and the individual functions they perform; moreover, an institution for him is a system of the life of society, which is composed of a totality of those active at a certain time or at any moment in the development of any society. This system can be characterized from the psychological point of view in general terms as a prevailing spiritual position or a widespread idea of ​​the way of life in society.

However, at present, within the framework of modern institutionalism, the most common interpretation is Douglas North: “institutions are the “rules of the game” in society, or, more formally, the restrictive framework created by man that organizes relationships between people”, these are “rules, mechanisms, behaviors that structure repetitive interactions between people”, “formal rules, informal restrictions and ways of ensuring the effectiveness of restrictions”, or “humanly invented restrictions that structure human interactions.

North here includes formal restrictions (rules, laws, constitutions), informal restrictions (social norms, conventions and codes of conduct adopted for oneself) and enforcement mechanisms for their implementation. Together, they, according to North, determine the structure of incentives in society, including the economy.

Consider a few more approaches to the phenomenon of "institution".

For example, John Commons defines an institution as follows: an institution is a collective action to control, liberate and expand individual action. Another classic of institutionalism, Wesley Mitchell, has the following definition: institutions are the dominant, and highly standardized, social habits.

Nobel Prize winner Elinor Ostrom gives a rather detailed definition, by institutions she understood the totality of existing rules, on the basis of which it is established who has the right to make decisions in the relevant areas, what actions are allowed or restricted in the relevant areas, what actions are allowed or restricted, what general rules will be used, what procedures should be followed, what information should be determined and what should not, and how individuals will benefit depending on their actions… All rules contain prescriptions that prohibit, allow or require certain actions or decisions. Rules in force are those that are actually used, monitored, and protected by appropriate mechanisms when individuals choose the actions they intend to take...

In economic theory, there are several approaches to the formation of institutions. According to one of them, institutions arise spontaneously on the basis of the personal interests of individuals. Austrian economist Karl Menger is a supporter of this approach. He argued that individuals can organize themselves "without any agreement, without legislative inducement, and even without regard to the interests of society" .

At the same time, another Austrian economist Friedrich August von Hayek, describing this approach, used the term evolutionary rationalism.

The opposite approach to the emergence of institutions is based on the fact that institutions are the result of deliberate design. Some subjects with a certain influence (parliament, dictator, entrepreneur) can independently create an institutional structure, pursuing a specific goal. Describing this model, the Nobel Prize winner in economics and one of the brightest representatives of neo-institutionalism Oliver Williamson uses the terms of the “intentional” type of management.

At the same time, it should be noted that individuals who use this or that institution play an important role. Popper argued that “institutions are like fortresses. They must be well designed and manned."

The existence of institutions implies that the actions of people depend on each other, thereby forming an information impulse that will be taken into account by other economic agents when making a decision. When it comes to institutions, it is necessary to note one characteristic feature of the behavior of economic agents, namely, following this or that rule, economic entities demonstrate a certain regularity. However, not in all cases the repetition of the actions of individuals is due to institutions, since there are other mechanisms not created by people. The importance of distinguishing patterns of behavior into those caused by institutions and those determined by other causes is associated with a correct understanding of the significance of institutions in the economy and other spheres of society. formal economic institute

The significance of institutions is manifested in the fact that, for example, laws adopted by the government determine various rules for the functioning of economic entities, which in turn directly affects the structure and level of costs, the efficiency and results of economic activities of enterprises, etc.

1.2 Rvariousinfluence of institutions on economic entities

Why, then, do certain institutions have a different and sometimes even unexpected impact on economic entities? To answer this question, it should be noted that the legally established rules can be considered, first of all, as a special type of restrictions imposed on the possibility of using resources, which will ultimately affect the economic result.

Next, it is necessary to determine whether the behavior of economic agents is affected by rules that are not related to state regulation, that is, are those institutions that do not directly prescribe or limit the actions of individuals to delimit and use resources matter for the development of the economy?

To answer this question, we can cite an example mentioned in the book by D. North "Institutions, institutional changes and the functioning of the economy." North compared the economic development of England and Spain, trying to highlight the reasons that helped to achieve economic growth in England, and led to stagnation in Spain. By the 17th century the countries were approximately at the same level of economic development, however, in England, the possibilities in the field of seizure of income and other property by the royal power were significantly limited by Parliament. Having thus reliable protection of their property from power encroachments, the nobility could make long-term and profitable investments, the results of which were expressed in impressive economic growth. In Spain, the power of the crown was purely formally limited by the Cortes, so that the expropriation of property from potentially economically active subjects was quite possible. Accordingly, it was very risky to make significant and long-term capital investments, and the resources received from the colonies were used for consumption, and not for accumulation. As a long-term consequence of the basic political and economic (constitutional) rules adopted in these countries, Great Britain became a world power, and Spain was transformed into a second-rate European country.

Thus, it is possible to establish a relationship between the country's economic growth and the quality of functioning institutions, that is, a more developed system of institutions guarantees higher rates of economic growth.

The essence of institutions is manifested in their functions. The first function, as noted earlier, is related to the restriction of access to resources and their use case. In turn, the restrictive function is associated with the function of coordinating economic agents, that is, the description of the content of the institution contains knowledge of how economic agents should behave when they find themselves in a particular situation. Based on it, the agents will form their own line of behavior, taking into account the expected actions of the other side, which means the emergence of coordination in their actions. An important condition for such coordination is the awareness of agents about the content of the institution that regulates behavior in a given situation.

The function of coordination is inextricably linked with the emergence of a coordination effect, the essence of which is to provide savings for economic agents on the costs of studying and predicting the behavior of other economic agents that they encounter in various situations. Thus, the coordination effect of institutions is realized through a decrease in the level of uncertainty of the environment in which economic agents operate. It is important that the coordinating effect of institutions has a positive impact on the economy only when the institutions are coordinated with each other.

The next function - distributive - is related to the fact that the institution, by limiting the possible ways of action, also affects the distribution of resources. It is important to emphasize that the allocation of resources, benefits and costs is affected not only by those rules that directly relate to the transfer of benefits from one agent to another (for example, tax laws or rules for determining customs duties), but also by those that do not directly address these issues.

In the system of institutions, it is customary to distinguish two types of them - formal and informal. We will look at them in more detail in the next chapter.

So let's sum it up. The institution is the basic concept of the new institutional economic theory and an integral part of the general economic theory. In general, institutions can be defined as a set of formal and informal rules, including the mechanisms that enforce them. The significance of the institution lies in directing individual behavior in the right direction by fixing the norms of behavior of economic agents, as well as limiting the use of resources by individuals and options for their use.

CHAPTER 2THE CONCEPT OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS

2.1 FnormalandnWithtitles

In all societies, people impose limits on themselves that allow them to structure their relationships with other people. With insufficient information and cognitive abilities, these limitations reduce the costs of interaction between people. It is easier to describe the formal rules created by a developed society and follow them than it is to describe the informal rules developed by people and follow those rules.

Formal institutions are institutions in which the scope of functions, means and methods of functioning are regulated by the prescriptions of laws or other regulatory legal acts, formally approved orders, regulations, rules, charters, etc. Formal social institutions include the state, the court, the army, family, school, etc. They carry out their management and control functions on the basis of strictly established formal regulations, negative and positive sanctions. Formal institutions play an important role in the stabilization and consolidation of modern society. “If social institutions are mighty ropes of a system of social ties, then formal social institutions are a fairly strong and flexible metal frame that determines the strength of society.”

Formal social institutions include:

economic institutions - banks, industrial establishments;

political institutions - parliament, police, government;

educational and cultural institutions - family, institute and other educational institutions, school, art institutions.

Formal institutions are those that are fixed in written law (constitutions, decrees, laws, etc.).

Even in the most advanced societies, formal economic rules constitute a small part of the constraints that guide economic choice. The same formal rules in different societies have different manifestations. Revolutions, wars and occupations can completely change the system of formal rules (Japan, Russia).

Classification of formal rules:

(1) positional - a set of status positions and the number of people who can occupy them,

(2) restrictive - how people get into and out of positions,

(3) sphere of influence rules - what can be influenced by a person's action, what are the benefits and costs of certain actions,

(4) management rules - a set of actions that an individual can perform in a certain position,

(5) aggregation rules - how the actions of a person in a certain position are transformed into the activities of a firm or society,

(6) information rules - how officials communicate and exchange information.

Formal rules can complement informal restrictions and increase their effectiveness. They can reduce the costs of obtaining information, surveillance and enforcement, that is, regulate more complex exchanges. Finally, formal rules may be introduced to redefine informal restrictions.

Formal rules include political (legal) rules, economic rules, and direct contracts. Political and legal rules determine the structure of society and decision-making in it, as well as ways to control compliance with these rules. Economic rules define property rights (including the use of property, earning residual income, and restricting unauthorized access to property). Contracts establish the specific fact of the exchange of property rights and its conditions.

The function of the rules is to facilitate political or economic exchange in the interests of some of its participants (who seek to establish these rules). Sometimes players find it beneficial to spend resources on transforming existing formal institutions in order to change the rights they have.

Formal rules usually provide a mechanism for their protection, allowing to establish the fact of a violation, measure the extent of the violation and its consequences for the parties, and also punish the violator. But if the costs of evaluating the properties of the goods exchanged and the behavior of individuals exceed the gain, then there is no point in observing the rules and clarifying property rights. One of the reasons for enforcing and maintaining norms is the intervention of the law. Norms often precede laws but are then supported, governed, and extended by laws. The law supports the rule in several ways. The most obvious of them is that the law, by the power of the state, supports the mechanisms of private enforcement of norms. Under the influence of the law, the problem of enforcement of the norm as a collective good disappears, since special individuals (judges, policemen, inspectors) receive selective opportunities to find and punish violations.

2.2 Hinformalinstitutions

When the functions, methods of a social institution are not reflected in formal rules, laws, an informal institution is created.

Informal institutions are a spontaneously formed system of social connections, interactions and norms of interpersonal and intergroup communication. Informal institutions arise where the malfunction of a formal institution causes a violation of functions important for the life of the entire social organism. The mechanism of such compensation is based on a certain commonality of interests of the organizations of its members. An informal institution is based on a personal choice of connections and associations among themselves, assuming personal informal service relations. There are no hard and fast standards. Formal institutions are based on a rigid structure of relations, while in informal institutions such a structure is situational.

Informal organizations create more opportunities for creative productive activity, development and implementation of innovations.

Examples of informal institutions - nationalism, interest organizations

Rockers, hazing in the army, informal leaders in groups, religious communities whose activities are contrary to the laws of society, a circle of neighbors.

From the 2nd floor. 20th century In many countries, many informal organizations and movements (including the Greens) have emerged that deal with environmental activities and environmental issues, an informal organization of television drama lovers.

Informal restrictions arise from information transmitted through social mechanisms and are part of the culture. Through learning or imitation, culture transmits knowledge and values ​​from one generation to another that influence behavior. Through communication, culture sets the conceptual framework for cognition and learning (including the coding and interpretation of information). Culture provides continuity by which informal solutions to exchange problems found in the past carry over into the present and make former informal constraints an important source of continuity in lasting social change.

The informal norms are:

(1) the continuation, development and modification of formal rules (as in political institutions),

(2) socially sanctioned norms of behavior (under the threat of ostracism),

(3) norms of behavior internally binding on a person (including altruism and ideology).

Some of the informal norms are self-sustaining, the other part is more complex, since they must be accompanied by additional norms that reduce the costs of monitoring, controlling and fulfilling the conditions of exchange.

So, an institution is a peculiar form of human activity based on a clearly developed ideology, a system of rules and norms, as well as developed social control over their implementation. Institutional activities are carried out by people organized into groups or associations, where the division into statuses and roles is carried out in accordance with the needs of a given social group or society as a whole. Institutions thus maintain social structures and order in society.

CHAPTER 3IMPACT OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS ON THE EFFICIENCY OF THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Institutions are a set of formal and informal rules created by people, acting as a restriction for economic agents, as well as corresponding to the mechanisms for monitoring their observance and protection.

A control mechanism is a set of means by which it is possible to identify compliance with or violation of a rule, as well as the application of stimulating or discouraging sanctions.

Institutions are both formal laws (constitutions, laws, property rights) and informal rules (traditions, customs, codes of conduct). Institutions were created by people to ensure order and eliminate uncertainty in exchange. Such institutions, together with the standard constraints adopted in the economy, determined the set of alternatives, the costs of production and distribution, and, accordingly, the profitability and likelihood of being attracted to economic activity.

Modern institutional economics is in its infancy, although much research has been done over the past two decades. In 1993, D. North was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics as one of the pioneers of the new institutional economics.

Institutions are rather debatable concepts. Scientists have not given them a clear definition. Moreover, from an economic perspective, institutions have been defined in different ways. For example, Elster writes that an institution characterizes a law-enforcement mechanism that changes behavior through the use of force, which is its most striking aspect. J. Knight believes that institutions are a set of rules that structure social relationships in a special way, the knowledge of which should be shared by all members of a given community.

Using the terminology developed by K. Menger, institutions can be defined as public goods of a higher order. This is explained as follows. If institutions ensure the production of information necessary for coordinating the actions of individual economic agents, then it is this information that turns out to be a public good. Thus, the market price, which is the carrier of information, is formed on the basis of the interaction of economic agents, which is built on certain rules.

Institutions, providing agents with the necessary information, contribute to the formation of mutually compatible expectations, which determine the coordination of their actions and the achievement of mutually beneficial results. In this case, institutions as a set of rules have the properties of self-sufficiency, voluntary compliance, and no external body is required to ensure compliance with the established rule.

Institutions can be seen as social capital that can change through depreciation and new investment." Formal laws can change quickly, but coercion and formal rules change slowly. And here Russia can serve as an example, adapting the economic institutions of capitalism to suit the market model. Informal rules , norms, customs are not created by the authorities, they often develop spontaneously.

Institutions are slow to adapt to changes in the environment, so institutions that were effective become ineffective and remain so for a long time, since it is difficult to turn a society from a historical path set a long time ago.

The role of institutions in economic life is extremely great. Institutions reduce uncertainty by structuring everyday life. They organize relationships between people. Institutions define and limit the set of alternatives in economic behavior that each person has. They include all forms of restrictions created by people in order to give a certain order to human relationships.

Institutions are either formal or informal. Formal institutions are rules invented by people, while informal ones are generally accepted conventions and codes of conduct (customs, traditions, etc.). They may be the product of conscious human design (for example, a constitution) or simply take shape in the process of historical development.

Formal institutions are often created to serve the interests of those who control institutional change in a market economy. The pursuit of self-interest by some may have a negative effect on others.

Social institutions that fulfill ideological or spiritual needs often influence social organization and economic behavior. Attempts by the state to manipulate social institutions, such as norms, for their own purposes often proved unsuccessful. An example is the upbringing of Soviet people in the spirit of the moral code of the builders of communism.

Institutional restrictions include both prohibitions on individuals from doing certain actions and sometimes instructions under what conditions certain individuals are allowed to do certain actions. Therefore, institutions are the framework within which people interact with each other. An important element of the way institutions function is that the establishment of a violation does not require special efforts and that the violator is subject to severe punishment.

CONCLUSION

The role of social institutions is very great in modern society.

It is social institutions that support joint cooperative activities in organizations, determine sustainable patterns of behavior, ideas and incentives.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that combines significant social values ​​and procedures that meet the basic needs of society. These are fairly stable forms of organizing and regulating the joint activities of people. Social institutions perform in society the functions of social management and social control as one of the elements of management. Social institutions guide the behavior of members of society through a system of sanctions and rewards. In social management and control, institutions play a very important role. Their task is not only to coercion. In every society there are institutions that guarantee freedom in certain activities - freedom of creativity or innovation, freedom of speech, the right to receive a certain form and amount of income, housing and free medical care.

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Social institutions, as well as social connections and interactions, can be formal and informal.

A formal institution is an institution in which the scope of functions, means and methods of action are regulated by the prescriptions of laws or other legal acts of formally approved orders, regulations, rules, regulations, charters, etc. The formal social institutions are the state, the army, the court, the family, the school, and so on. These institutions carry out their managerial and control functions on the basis of strictly established formal negative and positive sanctions. Formal institutions play an important role in the consolidation of modern society. On this occasion, A.G. Efendiev wrote that "if social institutions are the mighty ropes of a system of social ties, then formal social institutions are a sufficiently strong and flexible metal frame that determines the strength of society" .

An informal institution is an institution in which the functions, means and methods of activity are not established by formal rules (that is, they are not clearly defined and not enshrined in special legislative acts and regulations), so there is no guarantee that this organization will be sustainable. Despite this, informal institutions, just like formal ones, perform managerial and control functions in the broadest social sense, as they are the result of social creativity and the will of citizens (amateur associations of amateur creative activity, associations of interests, various funds for social and cultural purposes and etc.).

Social control in such institutions is carried out on the basis of informal sanctions, i.e. with the help of norms fixed in public opinion, traditions, and customs. Such sanctions (public opinion, customs, traditions) are often a more effective means of controlling people's behavior than the rule of law or other formal sanctions. Sometimes people prefer punishment from the authorities or official leadership than the unspoken condemnation of their friends and colleagues.

Informal institutions play a very important role in the field of interpersonal communication in small groups. For example, a group of playing guys chooses a leader and his assistants and establishes specific “rules of the game”, i.e. norms that will allow resolving conflicts that arise in the process of this game. In this case, the goals, methods and means of solving problems are also not strictly established and not fixed in writing.

The existing system of social institutions of society is very complex. This is due, firstly, to the fact that human needs that stimulate the creation of these social institutions are very complex and diverse, and secondly, to the fact that social institutions are constantly changing, since some elements of the structure of an institution in the course of the historical development of society are either lost or filled with new content, new tasks and functions appear. As an example, consider the production function of a family. If earlier only the family was engaged in preparing young people for professional work, then with the development of production relations and the complication of the division of social labor, the family was no longer able to perform this function. The restoration of private property in Russia at the present time, the development of entrepreneurship and farming have again partially restored the productive function of the family, mainly in rural areas.

All social institutions of any society are united and interconnected to varying degrees, representing a complex integrated system. This integration is mainly based on the fact that a person, in order to satisfy all his needs, must participate in various types of institutions. In addition, institutions have a certain influence on each other. For example, the state influences the family through its attempts to regulate the birth rate, the number of marriages and divorces, and the establishment of minimum standards for the care of children and mothers.

An interconnected system of institutions forms a coherent system that ensures the satisfaction of group members of their diverse needs, regulates their behavior and guarantees the further development of the group as a whole. Internal consistency in the activities of all social institutions is a necessary condition for the normal functioning of the whole society. The system of social institutions in the social aggregate is very complex, and the constant development of needs leads to the formation of new institutions, as a result of which there are many different institutions next to each other.

The development of society is possible only if it has well-established, regulated, controlled and sustainable interactions. The presence and content of institutions, as well as the system of social regulators determine the existing social system. That is, if it is necessary to understand a society, then, having studied its social institutions and regulatory mechanisms, one can understand the nature of social ties in the society of interest. A.G. Efendiev, considering social ties in his work, compared them with thousands of invisible threads through which a person is connected with other people and society, continuing this analogy with respect to social institutions, he wrote that “social institutions in the system of social ties are the strongest, mighty ropes that decisively determine its viability.

Thus, social institutions act for sociologists as one of the most important objects of analysis, they are the object of specialized sociological research.

Question 8. The content of motivation as a general function of management. The main methods of labor motivation.

Staff motivation from the standpoint of process theories

Question 9. The content of control as a general function of management. Types and tasks of control.

Question 10. Essence and classification of motivational theories.

Question 11. The concept and characteristics of the main types of organizational structures of management.

Question 12. Management principles. The evolution of scientific ideas about the principles of management.

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Question 15. Requirements for management decisions.

Question 16. The process of development, adoption and implementation of management decisions.

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Question 18. The concept and characteristics of organizational culture. Factors that determine the culture of the organization.

Question 19. Managing the process of adaptation of a person and an organization.

Question 20. The nature and types of conflicts in the organization. Phases of the development of the conflict.

Stages of conflict development - the process of conflict interaction, characterized by varying degrees of severity of contradictions in goals, values ​​and methods for achieving goals.

21. Causes of conflicts in the organization and methods of their resolution.

23. The concept and characteristics of the main styles of management.

24. Management grid of R. Blake and J. Mouton (grid). Characteristics of the main and additional (types) management styles.

25. The content of the concept of leadership in the management of the organization. traditional leadership theories.

26. The structure of strategic management in the management system of the organization.

27 Reference (basic) strategies for the development of the organization.

28. Strategic business units. The main approaches to the formation of the commodity portfolio of the enterprise.

29. Business environment of the organization. Strategic groups of competitors and business partners

30. Factors and indicators of the organization's competitiveness, assessment of its competitive position.

31. Stages and main directions of modern economic theory.

33. Ownership and forms of management. Methods of changing forms of ownership.

34. Money. The evolution of the forms of money. The law of money circulation.

35 Market: content, functions, structure and infrastructure.

36. Economic mechanism of supply and demand. Elasticity and its types.

37. Competition: concept, forms, types, role in a market economy. Antimonopoly law.

38. The behavior of the firm in conditions of imperfect competition.

39. The market for factors of production and the distribution of factor income.

40. Costs and profits of the firm. Classification, calculation methods.

42 Pricing in the market of factors of production. Price level. Price indices.

43. Place and purpose of the consumer in a market economy

1.Tabular

2.Graphic

3. Analytical

44 Macroeconomics, its most important indicators. System of National Accounts (SNS).

45 Models, factors and indicators of economic growth.

46 Macroeconomic instability. Cyclical fluctuations in the economy. Long waves in the economy.

47 Labor market: employment and unemployment.

48 Incomes of the population and social policy of the state in conditions of economic instability.

Question #49 Inflation is a multifactorial process. anti-inflation measures.

Question No. 50 Monetary policy. New trends and problems in the banking system of Russia.

51. The securities market and its regulation. Stock market.

Financial system and its structure. Types of fiscal policy.

State budget, budget deficit and public debt. Ways to overcome the budget deficit and public debt.

International trade. Payment balance. The level of Russia's participation in world trade in modern conditions.

08/05/2010 21:16:41 Russia will tighten its position on meat quotas in negotiations with the WTO - Medvedkov (RIA Novosti, 08/04/2010).

23.07.2010 21:00:41. Wto: Russia leads in trade in commodities (Voice of Russia, 07/23/2010).

Currency market. International monetary systems. currency intervention.

World Trade Organization (WTO): positions, consequences, conditions and regional aspects of accession.

57. International movement of capital and the consequences of capital flight from Russia.

58. Mixed economy and its models. Priorities of the socio-economic policy of Russia in the modern period.

59. The concept of entrepreneurship and the main features of entrepreneurial activity. Types of entrepreneurial activity.

60. GDP and how to measure it.

61. Organization as a subject and object of management. The main parameters of a highly effective organization.

62. Personality in organizational behavior. Teaching principles and types.

63. The essence and significance of perception. Attribution, errors in perception. Impression management.

64. The nature of the installation. Types, functions, change of installation, its importance in management activities.

65. Comparative analysis of various theories of motivation.

66. Factors of group behavior. Schechter's research. Team cohesion and effectiveness.

67 Conflicts, typology, causes. Conflict Management.

68 The concept of leadership, approaches, styles. situational leadership.

69. Stress and stressors, causes of stress. Organizational and personal ways of managing stress.

1. Environment

2. Behavior

3. Ability

4. Beliefs and values

5. Identity

Question 70. Business negotiations, types, principles, stages of the negotiation process. Negotiation tactics.

Question 71:

Question 72

Question 73

Question 74

Question 75 Analysis of certification results.

Question 76. Career: concepts and stages, types of business career. Business career planning.

Question 77 adaptation management technology.

Question 78

Question 79 Incentive system, basic forms, functions

80. Evaluation of the activities of the personnel service.

81. Mission and vision of the organization. Building a tree of organization goals. Basic requirements for goals.

82. Basic competitive strategies of the company and the main prerequisites for their use. M.Porter's competition matrix.

83. Company value chain and value system. The main directions of use in the process of strategic planning.

84. The main directions and tools for analyzing the external environment of the organization.

85. Analysis of competitive drivers and key success factors in the industry.

1. Kfu based on scientific and technological excellence:

2. KFU related to the organization of production:

3. Cfu based on marketing:

4. Kfu based on knowledge and experience:

5. Kfu related to organization and management:

6. It is possible to highlight other kfu, for example:

86. The concept of the life cycle of the industry and the life cycle of the product.

87. The main directions and tools for analyzing the internal environment of the organization.

88. The concept of key competencies of the organization. SWOT-analysis methodology.

89. The main tools of portfolio analysis of the company's activities.

90. Competitiveness of the goods: the essence of the concept and the method of calculation

91 . Financial management as a management system.

92. The system of accounting and reporting indicators used in financial management

The concept of an economic institution is found already in the first works on classical political economy.

Thus, Thomas Hobbes, in his famous work Leviathan (1651), interprets the formation of basic institutions as a result of the conclusion of a social contract between people who lived in a society without a state and inflicted damage on each other in pursuit of profit.

Unlike Hobbes, who emphasizes the intentional nature of the formation of institutions, David Hume, in his Treatise on Human Nature (1748), writes that institutions such as justice and property arose spontaneously as a by-product of social interactions. In his opinion, an important factor in the formation of an institution is the repetition of certain interactions, which fixes stable rules, and the institutions that arise in this way benefit the whole society.

The same position is held by Adam Smith. He believes that markets contribute to the formation of institutions that are beneficial to society as a whole, and unsuitable institutions are forced out of the market by competition.

Thus, the classical approach to economic institutions is characterized by one common feature - its supporters talk about the social efficiency of any institutions, regardless of the way they are formed. But all of them analyze only separate fragments of institutions, due to which different things fall under this concept. That is, it is difficult to talk about any relatively unified classical approach to this phenomenon.

Objects of economic institutions – various economic spheres (for example, property).

Subjects of economic institutions - people in the system of economic relations.

The nature of the rules that make up the essence of institutions allows us to divide them into formal and informal. formal institutions correspond to formal rules, sanctions, for the violation of which are of an organized nature. Against, informal institutions the informal rules correspond, and the punishment for deviation from them is implemented spontaneously.

Advantages and disadvantages of informal institutions

To benefits Informal institutions include, firstly, the ability to adapt to changing external conditions, preferences within the community, and other exogenous or endogenous changes. Secondly, the possibility of applying different sanctions in each specific case (after all, someone needs a strict warning, but someone has to be excluded from the group).

Flaws informal institutions are an extension of their virtues. Informal institutions are often characterized by ambiguous interpretation of the rules, a decrease in the effectiveness of sanctions, and the emergence of discriminatory rules.

The problem with the interpretation of the rules arises when people of different cultures, different experiences interact, and also when information is disseminated with distortions. The effectiveness of sanctions is low when people are not afraid of being ostracized, assessing the likelihood of punishment as negligible compared to the benefits of deviant behavior, when they know that the implementation of punishment is associated with costs. In addition, during the functioning of informal institutions, discriminatory rules may arise against certain groups (for example, against redheads, gypsies, or short people).

Benefits of Formal Institutions :

First, the formalization of the rules makes it possible to expand their normative function. The codification of the rules, their official fixation and recording in the form of a prescription or law enables individuals to save on information costs, makes the sanctions for violation of these rules clearer, and eliminates the contradictions contained in them.

Second, formal rules are mechanisms for dealing with the free rider problem. If the relationship is not constantly recurring, then its participants cannot be forced informally to comply with the rule, since reputation mechanisms do not work. For such a relationship to be effective, the intervention of a third party is required. For example, as a member of society, a person derives certain benefits from such a position, but he may refuse to bear the costs associated with this position. The more numerous the society, the higher the incentives for the manifestation of the free rider strategy, which makes this problem especially acute for large groups with impersonal relationships and necessitates external intervention.

Third, formal rules can counteract discrimination. Institutions that spring up spontaneously within a group are often designed to give insiders an edge over outsiders. For example, the main condition for the effectiveness of commercial networks is a small number of participants and exclusivity of participation due to high barriers to entry. As experience shows, informal institutions of network trade and finance contribute to economic development only up to a certain level, and then only formal institutions can provide returns on scale, because only they are able to create an atmosphere of trust and enable newcomers to freely enter the market. And such intervention, from the outside, counteracting discrimination and creating conditions for economic growth, is required quite often.

Rice. 1. Functions of institutions

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Market as an economic system of institutions

As you know, all economic agents (the state, private companies, citizens, businessmen, etc.) act according to certain, strictly fixed rules. They show what can and cannot be done, how to build relationships with other economic agents. These rules are called .

Institutions are the rules by which economic entities interact with each other and carry out economic relations. The totality of formal and informal institutions forms the economic system.

Formal institutions - these are all regulated rules that are related to economic activity: the Constitution, Codes, laws, decrees, decrees and orders of state power.

Informal institutions are :

• firstly, traditions and socio-cultural stereotypes;
• secondly, rules and procedures that are not permitted or authorized by the state, but practiced by economic entities.

It should be noted that informal institutions play a crucial role in regulating economic behavior, sometimes determining the fate of economic transformations (reforms) launched “from above”.

The significance of institutions for the economy lies in the fact that they determine the nature and direction of economic activity. Institutions can contribute to economic growth. In this case, the country will develop rapidly. Institutions may also be socially inappropriate (for example, speculative or criminal activity).

Hence, a very important condition for the development of the economy of any country is the creation of an expedient institutional system, including a system of economic institutions. From this point of view the market is one of the most important economic institutions, the functions of which are to determine the ways of coordinating the activities of economic agents .

Like any economic institution, the market in its existence relies on a system of norms of behavior. The market system is stable and capable of reproduction only to the extent that individuals use in their daily economic behavior the norms on which it is based.

The system of norms that makes it possible to make transactions in the market and achieve market equilibrium includes :

• complex utilitarianism - involves the maximization by the individual of his utility on the basis of productive activity;
• goal-oriented action (behavior) - involves the use by an individual of objects of the external world and people as "conditions" and "means" to achieve his rationally set and thought-out goal;
• depersonalized trust - the possibility of a purposeful rational action is directly conditioned by the presence of trust between market participants, and, in market conditions, trust must be depersonalized, since among market participants there cannot be only personally familiar people;
• empathy - the ability to understand the position of the counterparty, which is an element of culture - there is no contradiction with the norm of complex utilitarianism, since the rules of morality (“do not lie”, “do not steal”, “keep promises”) contain the collective wisdom of generations: compliance with the rules contributes more to achieving usefulness than any attempt to pursue the goal directly;
• freedom in a positive sense - due to behavior based on empathy: the more active a person, the smarter (successfully) he interacts with the outside world, the greater the degree of his freedom;
• voluntary obedience to the law is the main prerequisite for the system of market norms to go beyond the local framework and spread to an unlimited number of potential participants in transactions. Government guarantees that market participants will comply with the norms of conduct enshrined in the law increase the level of counterparty confidence and facilitate mutual understanding of interests and intentions.

Thus, the system of norms that support the market is a long-term guideline for public leadership. Their perception and sharing by society are the most important conditions for successful functioning