What animal uses caustic substances for protection. The most non-standard ways of protection in the animal world. Pygmy sperm whale: muddy water

04.04.2020

The fight against pests in the garden or in the garden is becoming more and more fierce and fierce every year, the old means of extermination cease to work, you have to try new ones, sometimes ineffective, or very expensive. And it should be borne in mind that everyone is under the impact of processing, not only pests, but also beneficial insects. Unfortunately, the former multiply and restore their numbers much faster than the latter.

Biological methods of pest control of gardens and orchards have long been known not only to scientists, but also to gardeners and gardeners. These methods allow you to balance the pest population with the help of their natural predators.

Of course, there are no absolutely useful or harmful animals, insects and birds, but the dominance of pests brings undeniable harm. It is possible to make garden plantings healthy and high-yielding without resorting to the help of modern poisons, which can accumulate in fruits and significantly reduce their quality characteristics.

To do this, it is enough to protect and attract beneficial insects, birds and animals to home gardens. Their optimal amount can significantly reduce the need for the use of protective preparations and concentrate on the use of non-toxic preparations that increase the overall resistance of green spaces to adverse environmental conditions and various diseases.

In pest control will help:

Birds in the garden

Birds, from the Latin Aves, are able to make any garden "alive". Caterpillars, butterflies, beetles and larvae serve as food for feathered insectivores.

A special period of activity for the destruction of garden pests occurs during the season of feeding their offspring.

It is known that only two titmice are enough to protect 35-40 fruit trees from pests.

Some types of birds are most useful in pest control:

starling;
tit;
woodpecker;
martin;
wagtail;
flycatcher;
redstart;
rook.

The benefits of birds in the garden are undeniable. One rook eats almost 500 wireworm larvae per day, and the titmouse destroys about 100 thousand pests during the summer period. The starling, when feeding its chicks, transfers about 8 thousand larvae and adults of the May beetle to its nest.

How to attract birds to the garden

Most of the feathered defenders die in a harsh and frosty winter, not only from the cold, but also from lack of food.

Equipping the garden with various feeders and planting mountain ash contribute to the preservation of the population of wintering individuals. The greatest effect is achieved when placing titmouse and birdhouses on the territory of the garden.

When living in a country house all year round, do not forget to fill the feeders in winter, either with bird food, or with grain and berries, you can hang out a piece of lard for titmouse, they love it very much.

Useful amphibians

The largest detachment of amphibians, or Anura, has long been a habitual inhabitant of gardens and orchards. Frogs and toads usually cause a feeling of disgust and disgust. Meanwhile, they invisibly help our plantations, freeing them from the dominance of numerous pests.

Experienced gardeners know that the vision of frogs and toads allows them to react only to moving objects, so numerous harmful insects and slugs become their prey. The benefits of frogs in gardening are very great. For a day, one individual destroys about 2 grams of flying and crawling pests.

They eat even those insects that insectivorous birds "disdain". And the ability to hunt in the dark makes them simply indispensable in the fight against scoop butterflies, moths, caterpillars and slugs. The appearance of frogs and toads on the site is an excellent biological indicator of plant health.

How to attract frogs to the garden

In order to attract amphibious defenders to help the garden and the garden, it is necessary to place containers with water in shaded areas or arrange a small pond with gentle banks.

As a small artificial "reservoir" you can use an old basin, trough or bath. They must be provided with small boards that will help frogs and toads to easily get out of the water.

Beneficial insects

The word "insect" is translated as "animal with notches" and is mentioned in 1731 dictionaries.

Many gardeners regularly face the problem of low yields and the death of young seedlings and already fruiting trees. In most cases, this is the result of various garden pests.

Many insects that live in our gardens are natural enemies of pests. The impact of predatory insects, or entomophages, can reduce the number of major garden pests by almost 40%.

According to biologists, modern gardeners practically do not take into account the fact that the use of beneficial insects helps to get rid of aphids, caterpillars, snails and other pests much more effectively than the use of expensive pesticides.

Arachnids (Araneae)

Some species weave webs, some live in earthen burrows, and there are species that hide on the back of leaves. All of them feed on various harmful insects and eat caterpillars, wood lice, fleas and cabbage butterflies.

lacewing

An adult insect resembles a moth with delicate transparent wings, folded in a house, and shiny golden-green eyes, its larva is not inferior in its predatory habits to a ladybug larva.

The female lays about 20 greenish eggs individually or in groups on the bark or leaves. The larvae hatched from eggs develop within 2-3 weeks depending on weather conditions. Their length is only 7 mm, the jaws are long, sickle-shaped and pointed. Huge - for its size, with curved jaws, it grabs aphids and sucks them out, leaving only an empty skin.

For its habits, the lacewing used to be proudly called the "smoldering lion". The larvae of this insect are very aggressive predators and exterminate aphids, mites and other small pests in large quantities. The grown larva, like a fur coat, is covered with a layer of empty skins, which it carries on itself for protection from the sun and for better camouflage. Individual individuals are capable of destroying up to 500 aphids during development.

After 18 days, the larvae hide in a protected place, wrap themselves around and turn into a white round cocoon. After the lacewing emerges from the cocoon, the next generation begins. In total, 2 generations can appear in a year. Adults feed, as a rule, on honeydew and pollen, on occasion they do not disdain small insects. The adult lacewing hibernates in secluded corners, so sometimes it can be found in residential areas. During the wintering period, the insect may acquire a yellow or brown color, but in the spring it turns green again.

The use of lacewing for targeted biological plant protection in greenhouses and protected ground has been tested with good results. To do this, it is necessary to place 20 lacewing eggs for each square meter of surface, which can be purchased at special biological laboratories.

Settlement in the garden: prefer areas rich in flowering plants. Green-eyes need shelter for the winter in the form of small wooden houses stuffed with straw.

Ladybug

Not everyone knows that creatures harmless to humans are voracious predators, zealously exterminating smaller animals, mainly aphids. The appetite of the larvae is especially great. The ladybug larva is not a very pleasant creature without wings, with bright spots on a dark back. But when you see such a "worm" on a leaf, resist the temptation to destroy it.

In many countries, ladybugs are bred specifically for sale to gardeners. Several dozen bugs are capable of causing serious havoc in the ranks of aphids. An adult ladybug destroys hundreds of aphids, mealybugs, mites and thrips during its lifetime.

Adult ladybugs hibernate outdoors, such as under foliage or dry grass. In spring, ladybugs lay 10-20 eggs vertically in a group on branches or on the inside of a leaf close to aphid colonies. The larvae from the eggs go through 4 stages.

Settlement in the garden: when using a ladybug as a plant protection, its development cycles should be taken into account. For wintering, provide an insect with a shelter (foliage, stones, bark, etc.).

Hoverflies are of great importance in horticulture because their larvae feed on aphids. Larvae develop in different conditions - in soil, slurry or on plants. Visually, the hoverfly looks like a wasp, the length of an adult is 8-15 mm. The peculiarity of hoverflies, reflected in their name, is that in flight they can, as it were, hover in place, while making a sound that vaguely resembles the murmur of water.

Egg laying occurs in aphid colonies. Eggs are 1 mm long and white. The larvae hatched from the eggs do not have legs and move like snails. They are white or yellow in color and look like fly larvae.

To hunt for aphids, hoverflies use their hook-shaped jaws, with which they firmly hold prey, sucking it out. The development of the larva to the pupal stage lasts 2 weeks. During this time, the larva eats up to 700 aphids. Hoverfly larvae are active mainly at night and do not go hunting until dusk. The hoverfly survives the pupal stage in a shell in the form of a droplet, located near the aphid colony on leaves or on the ground. Some species breed several generations, most - up to 5 per year. In some species, females hibernate in the same way as larvae or pupae. The hoverflies themselves feed on flower and honeydew, as well as aphid secretions.

Settlement in the garden: areas with flowering plants are most suitable for hoverflies, but not well-groomed lawns. Plants that bloom with yellow flowers are especially fond of hoverflies. For overwintering hoverflies, you can leave small wooden boxes filled with dry grass or shavings.

Riders

In appearance, the riders resemble wasps and in most cases have a dark or variegated color. Their size varies and ranges from less than 1 mm to more than 10 mm. The rider lays eggs on the insect, its larva, caterpillar or in their bodies with the help of a special sting that pierces the body of the victim with lightning speed. The larva of the corresponding species of rider hatches from the egg and sucks out the “owner”.

Ichneumonid riders, true riders (Ichneumonidae)

One of the largest representatives of ichneumonids or true riders is the Ephialtes emperor (Dolichomitus imperator). It is found both in Europe and here, in the European part of Russia.

It is easy enough to recognize by its black coloration, strongly elongated abdomen and red or dark red legs. The body length of the "emperor" can reach 3 centimeters, and the length of the ovipositor sometimes reaches 4 centimeters, otherwise nothing. After all, its main “specialization” concerns the larvae of tree pests, who like to burrow deeper into the wood and think that they are completely safe here, but no! Nature has found control over them.

Just imagine that with this ovipositor, as thick as a hair, a rider is able to pierce a thick layer of bark! But it really is. Such a "drilling" operation sometimes lasts several hours.

But before proceeding to this stage, you first need to complete another, no less difficult task - to determine the location of the future "cradle" for your kids. Thus, we smoothly move on to discussing another unique ability of these ichneumons - the exact location of these larvae.

First, the female runs along the tree trunk and, in search of the location of the victim, taps it with her long antennae. But just locating it is not enough. The main difficulty lies in the fact that you need to lay your eggs in a certain place on the body of the larva, and not just anywhere. Therefore, the female ichneumon, it is not clear how, calculates the desired angle of inclination, under which it is necessary to introduce its ovipositor into the wood. In this case, it is also worth considering the speed of movement of the larva.

Having introduced her eggs into the victim, the female rider leaves a special scent mark. This is done so that other females know that it is already “busy” here. But the most annoying thing is that it is possible to find out about this only by drilling another hole and reaching the body of the victim.

But if another female neglects this signal and lays her eggs (egg) in an already “occupied” larva, then after a while real hostilities flare up inside her.

Trichogramma

A variety of insects from the trichogrammatid family. Very small insects, usually less than 1 mm long, that lay their eggs in pest eggs and destroy them. At present, trichogramma is grown in special laboratory nurseries and released into gardens and orchards at the rate of 50-60 thousand individuals per 1 ha.

Her females lay eggs on sawfly larvae, caterpillars, bedbugs and beetles. Hatching insects destroy the pests on which they are located.

Tahini, hedgehogs

These flies love sunny but not hot weather. At this time, tahini can most often be seen on plant flowers, where they feed on pollen and nectar. But not all species are most active during daylight hours.

If adult flies are true vegetarians, then their larvae are 100% predators.

According to the method of infecting other insects with their larvae, all acorns can be divided into 3 groups:

♦ The first ones lay their eggs on the leaves of plants, where sawfly caterpillars, butterfly caterpillars and other insect pests crawl nearby. Their eggs are so small that caterpillars, eating a leaf, may not even notice them.

Tahini, hedgehogs

♦ The latter specialize in soil insects and lay their eggs in the ground, where the larvae that hatch after a while begin to independently search for their future food base (adult insects or their larvae).

♦ Still others lay their eggs directly "in" or "on" the body of the insect.

They are especially good for fighting the Colorado potato beetle, gypsy moths, May beetles, bedbugs, butterflies and other pests.

Settlement of riders in the garden: it is necessary to arrange wintering “apartments” in tall grass or in roots under bushes, etc. Riders like to settle in umbrella plants (dill, coriander, lovage, cumin, kupyr, etc.).

Phytoseiulus (Phytoseiulus)

A predatory mite that destroys the spider mite. Features of nutrition and reproduction of phytoseiulus lead to the rapid destruction of the bulk of the pest. The predator is especially effective at high humidity and moderate temperatures.

Adult females lay up to 6 eggs per day, in their entire life they bring up to 100 eggs. Oval eggs. The color of the eggs is milky white, with a yellow tint.

The eggs hatch into yellowish-orange larvae with six pairs of legs. The body length of the larvae is approximately 0.2 mm. The larvae are inactive, they do not eat anything. The larva turns into a nymph without feeding.

The nymph has 4 pairs of legs, it actively moves. Over time, the nymph turns into a mobile deutonymph, and the next stage is an adult.

Body color can be different: orange, cherry or dark red. The limbs are designed in a special way so that the mites can glide between the spider webs. Predators are adult phytoseiulus nymphs and deutonymphs, regardless of gender. Fitoseiulus feed not only on adult spider mites, but also on their eggs.

They are bred on vegetable crops in greenhouses. Phytoseiulus are indispensable protectors of tomato, sweet pepper, eggplant, strawberries, melons and ornamental plants.

Red-legged soft-boiled

The female lays her eggs in rotten stumps or soil and after some time dies along with the male. After a couple of weeks, dark-colored larvae hatch from them, covered with thick hairs and in appearance resembling beads connected to each other.

The larvae live and feed by running fast in their shelter and stay there until spring, at the end of which they turn into a chrysalis. After 2 weeks, an adult beetle crawls out of the pupa, ready to continue life in a month.

A small insect with powerful jaws, Iis a predator and preys on small insects such as aphids, flies, various larvae, caterpillars, leaf-eating pests, attacking them, biting and injecting poison, like a snake. After that, they release a digestive fluid that liquefies the tissues of the victim, and then suck the food into themselves. As for the larvae, they are also predators and catch any small living creatures that they can catch.

Also, beetles can eat flower petals and leaves, but very rarely.

The praying mantis is practically omnivorous in its taste preferences, and not only aphids, mealybugs, thrips, caterpillars, corn bore bugs, but also small lizards and young snakes become the subject of its hunting.

The female lays from 10 to 400 eggs, which, like cockroaches, she packs in ootheca. Ooteka are hung on the grass or on the branches of trees and shrubs. In regions with fairly cold winters, ootheca are the overwintering stage.

The praying mantis in the first larval stage has a worm-like shape, and, having left the ootheca, it molts and acquires the characteristic appearance of a praying mantis.

Praying mantis prey - vole mouse

In the middle of the 20th century, attempts were made in the USSR to enhance the useful role of praying mantises in agriculture, using them for biological pest control. In the US and some South Asian regions, praying mantises are kept at home as fly killers, and ootheca praying mantises are also sold to farmers who set them up in their gardens. Praying mantises are one of the most popular pet insects today.

Earwig

The common earwig, belonging to the leather-winged order, is well known to gardeners and gardeners. The length of the body is 3.5-5 mm, the front wings are solid, the hind wings are membranous. There are also wingless forms. Its claws located in the back of the body are impressive. The earwig hunts mainly at dusk and at night, and during the day it hides in dark narrow crevices.

By exterminating harmful insects, such as dahlia woodlice, earwigs can damage delicate young dahlia plants.

In spring and autumn, the female lays up to 100 eggs in a mink, which she pulls out herself, protects them and takes care of her offspring - first the eggs, and later the larvae. Earwigs overwinter in shelters - in the bark of trees, cracks in buildings, in the soil, flower pots filled with small chips or some other material, such as moss.

Settlement in the garden: as shelters, you can use flower pots filled with wood chips, moss or hay. Such pots are displayed between vegetable crops or hung on trees. For the winter, the pots should be cleaned out, and refilled in the spring. Digging near the trunk circles of trees contributes to the normal functioning of the insect. Often, earwigs also seek shelter for the winter precisely under the trees, in its fallen leaves.

bedbugs

The predatory bug belongs to the class of weevils. Its various species have specific food sources. For some, it is the juice of a plant, for others, insects. For the gardener, the latter are primarily interesting, which, among other things, destroy aphids. These include soft-bodied and false bugs, among which some species feed mainly on spider mites.

Flower bugs are small predatory insects 3-4 mm long. For 1 time, the female lays up to 8 eggs, mainly along the edges of the leaves. For a year, bugs breed 2 generations, and in areas with a warm climate even 3. Predatory bugs overwinter as adults. Larger species of flower bugs also feed on gall midge larvae.

Settlement in the garden: no special requirements and recommendations, except for the exclusion of the use of chemical plant protection products.

Some types of wasps

First type: for all their sluggishness, wasp larvae are insectivorous, although they do not hunt on their own, but feed only on those insects that adults bring them. Adult wasps of these species feed on the nectar of flowers, sweet juices of berries and fruits, but for the younger generation they catch insects, chew them and feed them in the form of a mushy mass.

The brood is fed by social wasps:

paper;
European and Asian hornets;
Polybean wasps in the USA.

Second type: in most solitary wasps, the female prepares for the larvae a small nest in the form of a mink in the ground or a small paper shelter attached to a vertical surface. The female brings a paralyzed but not poisoned insect into this chamber and lays an egg on it. A wasp larva hatched from an egg slowly eats an insect, and begins to do this from those organs, the loss of which does not lead to the instant death of the victim.

In some of these wasps, the female sacrifices once, lays an egg, and clogs the burrow. In others, an adult may visit the nest from time to time and bring additional insects into it.

Settlement in the garden: put a Fabre hive in the garden, etc. (see information below)

Gallica

Various species of the family of gall midges are better known to amateur gardeners as harmful insects (the larvae of a number of species develop in plant tissues, causing the formation of galls) than help in pest control. The body length of gall midges varies from 1 to 5 mm. Known pests in the garden include, for example, pear gall midge.

Useful gall midges feed at the stage of aphid larvae. The most important species is the Galicia aphidimiza (Aphidoletes aphidimyza). The female (about 2-3 mm in size) lays 50-60 eggs in one life span of 1 week not far from the aphid colony. Orange-red larvae hatch on the 4-7th day. The latter bite the aphids by the legs and inject a paralyzing fluid. The bitten aphid dies and is used by the larva for food. After 2 weeks, a fully formed larva falls to the ground and turns into a cocoon on the ground. After 3 weeks, a second brood hatches, whose cocooned larvae overwinter on the ground and hatch in the spring as adults.

Settlement in the garden: no special conditions are required, except for the complete exclusion of the use of chemicals.

The main natural enemy of caterpillars, scoops, beetles and fleas.

Ground beetle larvae feed on vegetable fly eggs, small insects and their larvae, worms, and slugs. These beetles are rarely seen in the garden during the day, they hide in shelters. The length of the ground beetle is up to 4 cm, it is very mobile. Many species cannot fly and therefore are active at night. The color of the ground beetle is the most varied: large black and completely yellow shimmering species are known. Adult insects hibernate in the garden in secluded protected corners, for example, under the house or woodpile.

Large ground beetles lay 40-60 eggs separately in shallow holes in the ground. The eggs hatch into larvae after a few days and hatch, depending on the species, 2-3 years before the pupa.

After a pupal period lasting approximately 2-3 weeks, adult (developed) ground beetles hatch from them. Along with ground beetles, which live mainly on the ground, there are also arboreal and flying species. They feed on small insects and worms and therefore live in decaying organic matter, such as compost.

Settlement in the garden: ground beetles should be provided with shelter (foliage, sawdust and shavings, small heaps of stones), they live on open ground, sometimes hiding in earth cracks. Pesticides are the most terrible enemy of ground beetles!

The best living space that can attract beneficial insects are boards and sawdust, as well as tree bark and foliage.

The "ladybug" and "butterfly" houses sold in Europe usually look like little birdhouses or mailboxes. They are sometimes interestingly decorated and serve as decoration for a summer cottage. You can make such a house yourself. However, it must be admitted that this building is purely decorative, since neither ladybugs nor butterflies need houses in the summer. Unless you specifically attract them with pheromones or a nutrient mixture, they will only get there by accident.

As for wintering, wintering insects really need shelter where they can survive the cold. In our climate, it is desirable to arrange such shelters closer to the ground so that they are covered with snow. Old woodpile, boards laid on the ground, pieces of bark, heaps of leaves and shavings gather a motley company under their roof. Here are centipedes - drupes and nods, worms, and, of course, insects - ground beetles, various larvae, earwigs. Earwigs are usually considered pests, although they only begin to damage plants if they multiply strongly. At the same time, the earwig is not averse to hunting for harmful insects.

Several cardboard tubes with a diameter of a little finger or a pencil and a length of 15–20 cm, tightly closed at one end, will serve as an apartment building for solitary bees. Unlike social bees and wasps, they are completely non-aggressive even near their homes, while pollinating plants no worse than a domestic honey bee. Some species of bees have also become rare in the European part of our country.

A bunch of tubes (in a horizontal position) can be hung under the roof of a house, a barn, in any other place protected from rain. Or make a house like for ladybugs and fill it with tightly packed tubules. Instead of paper tubes, you can take segments of stems of umbrella, reed or other similar plants. It is in them that single bees settle in nature.

You can drill holes in a piece of wood. Such a building is called beehive fabre"- the famous French naturalist Jean Henri Fabre was the first to decide in such a simple way to settle single bees literally under the roof of his house. It is very interesting to watch their work and habits.

Specialized predatory insects are looking for their "owner" i.e. pest, regardless of its abundance. Therefore, in the garden there should always be a certain number of different pests, no matter how paradoxical it sounds! Usually, plants are planted in a hedge around the garden, on which pests develop and predatory insects survive. Only in this case can they prevent pest outbreaks. Polyphagous predatory insects show interest in one or another type of pest only when its abundance is high, so they are usually late.

Therefore, a variety of predatory insect species is necessary for sustainable pest control. And to expand the species composition and reproduction of predatory insects, their fodder nectar-bearing plants should be sown. These are usually compound umbelliferous and paniculate plants whose many small flowers provide many sources of nectar and together form a place where beneficial insects, including bees, and butterflies can sit.

Among the plants that attract insects - the defenders of the garden, the following should be noted:

The advantage of tansy is that the infusion of tansy leaves repels the Colorado potato beetle. I’ll add from myself, abundant herbage of tansy is good to use in composts. In such compost, the larvae of the bear and the May beetle do not start.

Decoctions from the leaves and flowers of tansy contain many different vitamins, essential substances, improve the taste of kvass, dough, and jam is made from flowers.

Chamomile. Perennial plant, attractive to wasps and flies. During the flowering period, it is covered with many yellow flowers.

Lemon marigolds. Attracts small wasps and spiders. Seedlings are planted in the ground at a time when the danger of frost has passed.

Caraway. Attracts cunning bugs, spiders, small wasps, hoverflies and lacewings during the flowering period. Its fragrant seeds are used in bread baking and for making marinades.

Dill fragrant. Attracts ladybugs, hoverflies, small wasps, nestlings and spiders.

Buckwheat. It is an effective soil-forming plant that increases the content of organic matter when plowed.

honey plant. It attracts not only pollinating bees, but also flies, ladybugs, hoverflies, predatory bugs.

Spearmint used to make refreshing teas and as fragrances. Mint is attractive to flies and spiders.

Many types of legumes have the ability to attract beneficial insects, for example, crimson clover, creeping clover, and vetch. They provide beneficial insects with constant food and moisture, enrich the soil with nitrogen.

To ensure that there are flowering plants that are attractive to beneficial insects for the whole season, you need to start with those that bloom earlier, for example, buckwheat, which will be replaced by fragrant dill. Immediately you need to plant marigolds, calendula, so that they bloom in the middle of summer. You should grow tansy, sweet clover and navel, which bloom for a long time from year to year.

It is advisable not to dig up plots of land with such plants in autumn so that beneficial insects overwinter there.

The task of using beneficial insects is not to completely destroy pests, but to control their numbers.

By creating conditions that would combine a favorable environment for beneficial insects and decorativeness, a natural balance can be achieved between the number of harmful and beneficial insects.

Ecology

They say that the best means of defense is an attack, although some prefer to flee in case of danger, covering their tracks. However, some animals have adapted to defend themselves in completely different ways, more original. Find out what methods of protection some living creatures of our planet have.

1) Possum: The best defense is a coma

Virginian opossum ( Didelphis virginianus), which lives over a fairly large area from Canada to Costa Rica, usually reacts in times of danger in the way that many mammals do: it hisses, growls and shows its teeth. If you touch it, it can hurt to bite. However, in case this does not help and the situation becomes more dangerous, this beast pretends to be dead, it falls to the ground, drools, and then stops moving, remaining with its mouth open. The animal also begins to exhale an eerie, corpse-like odor from its anal glands.

Many predators prefer to eat fresh meat, so when they see an already dead, and even smelly beast, they quickly lose interest and leave it alone. But the most interesting thing about this method of protection is that the animal does it unconsciously, this is just a reaction to a severe stressful situation, the opossum falls into a coma that can last several hours. The opossum returns to consciousness only after the enemy has disappeared. How his mind knows when to return remains a mystery.

2) Potto: secret sharp weapon

Living in the jungles of Africa, pottos look like cute little bear cubs, but they belong to the primate group. They are nocturnal and feed on tree sap, fruits, and insects. Due to their slow movements, pottos are very vulnerable to danger from predators, so they invented an unusual way of protecting themselves.

Pottos have elongated vertebrae in their necks. These appendages have sharp ends, and animals use them as weapons, because predators that cling to the throat of these primates can choke.

3) Pangolin: better to curl up

Pangolins are very strange mammals, whose bodies are almost completely covered with large scales, so the animal resembles a giant living pine cone. They mainly feed on cones and live in Africa and Asia. Although they have large and powerful claws on their front paws, pangolins rarely use them as weapons. Instead, in case of danger, the animals curl up into a ball, and so tightly that it is almost impossible to unfold them. The sharp edges of the scales allow them to defend themselves against most predators. They can also strike with their powerful and heavy tail, which can severely injure with sharp scales.

And that is not all. Sumatran pangolins can curl up into balls and then roll down slopes at high speed to hide from the enemy. And the pangolins' last resort is the disgusting smell that the animals emit through the anus. Needless to say, this animal has very few enemies?

4) Armadillo: transformation into a perfect ball

As the name suggests, these animals have a special kind of armor that helps them protect their delicate body, as does the shell of turtles, but in most armadillos, the shell does not help protect against large predators. These animals prefer to burrow into the ground to hide from the enemy. The South American three-banded armadillo is the only species of these creatures that can curl up into a perfect ball. This is possible due to the special structure of the armor, which allows the animal to move freely, and the tail and head perfectly block the "construction". This allows animals to become invulnerable.

With such abilities, a three-banded armadillo does not need to be able to dig well and quickly burrow into the ground, it often "borrows" other people's holes and does not bother digging its own.

5) Crested Porcupine: Saving Quills

Inhabitant of Africa and southern Europe (mainly Italy), the crested porcupine is one of the largest rodents on the planet, as well as one of the creatures with the best protection. Its needles with white and black stripes are seen by predators from a great distance. This is actually modified hair, covered with layers of hard keratin. In the front of the body, the needles are longer; the porcupine can raise its mane in case of danger, thus scaring off the enemy. However, the most dangerous needles are shorter, located on the back. When the animal is threatened by a predator, the porcupine begins to shake its tail with quills, which make a rattling sound, as they are hollow. If that doesn't help, the porcupine tries to stab with its quills on its back.

Porcupine quills break quite easily once they enter an enemy's body. The tiny burrs push them deeper into the body of the enemy, so predators can die from wounds, infection, or because the needles damage blood vessels or internal organs. Porcupines also live in North America, but they are usually much smaller than their African relatives and spend most of their time in trees. Interestingly, porcupines have very powerful natural antibiotics in their blood. They often fall from trees while searching for food and can get hurt by their own quills. If they did not have such protection, most porcupines would die from self-inflicted wounds during such falls, but nature took everything into account!

6) Pygmy sperm whale: muddy water

Unlike its more famous relative, the giant sperm whale, which can reach 20 meters in length, the rarer pygmy sperm whale is only 1.2 meters long. This makes it especially vulnerable to the enemy - sharks and killer whales. For its own protection, this sperm whale uses an unusual method: it secretes a stream of reddish, syrup-like liquid from the anus, and then with the help of its tail stirs it into the water, resulting in a large dark cloud. This allows the sperm whale to gain time and, while the predator tries to see at least something in the "fog", the animal quickly hides in the depths of the ocean, swimming away to a safe distance.

Among mammals, this method of protection is not so common. Usually mollusks resort to it - squid and octopus, which, ironically, are the main delicacy for this sperm whale.

7) Dormouse: it is better to lose a tail than a head

These small edible rodents are found in Europe, some of their species can also be found in Africa and Asia. Usually, sleepyheads flee from enemies, but they have one more trick in their arsenal, which they use in extreme cases. The skin on the dormice's tail dangles freely, and if a predator grabs the rodent by the tail, the skin is easily separated, allowing the mouse to escape. This is a type of autotomy where the animal loses a body part for protection. Autotomy is often seen among reptiles, such as lizards shedding their tails, or among invertebrates, but this is a very rare occurrence among mammals.

Unlike other animals, dormouse can use the trick only once. Exposed bones without skin usually fall off, or are bitten off by the dormouse itself, because the skin cannot be restored and a new tail, like in lizards, does not grow in them. Some species of dormouse have fluffy tails that act as bait, attracting the attention of a predator and distracting it from the animal's head.

8) Skunk: chemical attack

Everyone is familiar with skunks and their original method of defense, their chemical weapons are unusually powerful. The skunk's protective fluids are produced by a pair of glands located near the anus. Although many carnivorous predators also have such glands, especially members of the mustelid family, skunk glands are more developed and they have powerful muscles that allow them to spray a smelly liquid up to 3 meters away.

Skunks also prefer to spray it directly into the face of the enemy, and this liquid is so poisonous that it can deprive the poor fellow of sight, including a person, so it is better not to touch the skunks out of harm's way. Because of their unique abilities, skunks have made very few enemies for themselves, the most dangerous for them is the virgin eagle owl, which is devoid of smell and can attack a skunk unexpectedly from above. The poor skunk does not have time to catch himself, as it turns out to be dead.

The method of protection with a smelly liquid is a last resort, since the skunk has a limited supply of this liquid, and it takes about 10 days for the glands to recover.

9) Platypus: poisonous spurs

The bizarre platypus creature, once thought to be fiction and the only mammal to lay eggs these days, also has unique defenses. The male platypus has a sharp, retractable spine on each hind leg that contains venom glands. If the platypus is caught by an enemy or a curious ignoramus, it stabs with its spikes, injecting enough venom to escape. Although platypus venom can kill animals as large as dogs, it is not fatal to humans. However, the feeling of this is not pleasant. Those stung claimed that it was such severe pain that they did not experience anything like it, and the effect of the poison could last for several days. Pain can lead to fainting.

Interestingly, only male platypuses have poisonous spines; females cannot harm other creatures, with the exception of small invertebrates that they feed on. This suggests that the venomous spikes were originally an intraspecific weapon used by males against each other during the breeding season to ward off rivals.

10) Slender Loris: Poison Fur

This nocturnal animal lives in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Lori has an average body length of 35 centimeters and feeds on various small animals that he manages to catch, and can also drink tree sap. Due to their small size and slowness, lorises are very vulnerable in the face of the enemy, so they have developed an original way of protection. Slender lorises have venom glands on their elbows, making them a poisonous primate. Moreover, the animal licks the poison that these glands produce and spreads it throughout its coat. Female slender lorises apply their venom to the body of their cubs before they go hunting and leave them alone.

Since the animals lick off the poison, their bite also becomes poisonous, so it is especially painful and causes swelling. Some people have died from anaphylactic shock after being bitten by a slender loris, although the venom itself is not fatal to humans and large animals.

The way of life and life forms of beetles are so diverse that almost all protective devices known in insects can be found in representatives of the order.

For many species of beetles, as a means of protection, thanatosis is characteristic - temporary immobility, in which the beetles pretend to be dead. In case of a possible danger, the beetles usually freeze and fall from the plants onto the litter. This behavior is typical for many groups of beetles, including weevils, leaf beetles, sawflies, etc.

A number of species escape from predators by fast movements: running (ground beetles), flying (bronze), swimming (whirlwinds). Mounts use instant takeoff. In danger, stag beetles and scarites use threatening movements and postures - for example, male stag beetles, in danger, lift the front of the body up, open their mandibles and spread their antennae widely to the sides.

Some beetles, such as many species of barbels, can make sharp creaking sounds, reproduced by rubbing the rib on the posterior edge of the prothorax against the rough surface of the mesothorax. These creaking sounds are used by beetles in the event of an attack by predators, and are frightening in nature.

Adaptive coloration and body shape

The ladybug (Coccinella septempunctata) is a typical example of a warning bright body coloration.

Aposematism- warning coloration and body shape. A classic example is the bright and memorable coloration, predominantly represented by a combination of red or yellow with black, in beetles with poisonous hemolymph - in ladybugs (Coccinellidae), blister beetles (Meloidae), redwings (Lycidae), and many others. An example of this phenomenon can also serve as a protrusion in case of danger of red blisters on the sides of the body in babies (genus Malachius).

Synaposematism- false or Müllerian mimicry - a consistent, similar body shape in several different species that have developed other means of protection against predators.

Pseudo-aposematism- true, or Batesian mimicry. With this form of mimicry, species that do not have protective mechanisms have the same color and body shape as one or more protected species. A number of species of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) often imitate the stinging hymenoptera. Interestingly, in addition to similarities in color and body shape, sometimes they also have similarities in behavior: barbels move quickly and impetuously, “feeling” the substrate with their antennae stretched forward, imitating wasps with their behavior.

Protective features of the body structure

Many goldfishes (Buprestidae), bronzes (Cetoniinae) and others have very hard and durable body covers that protect them to one degree or another from predators. A number of beetles have frightening and sometimes very unsafe jaws: stags (Lucanidae), ground beetles (Carabidae), some barbels (Cerambycidae). Some groups are characterized by the presence of sharp and long spines on the pronotum and elytra - barbels (Cerambycidae), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae: Hispinae), fungi (Erotylidae).

Among beetles, species with poisonous hemolymph are quite common. The most common poisonous components are cantharidin and pederin. The most poisonous (when eaten by a predator) beetles usually belong to representatives of blister beetles (Meloidae), ladybugs (Coccinellidae), red-winged beetles (Lycidae), soft beetles (Cantharidae), small beetles (Melyridae), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae).

Bombardier beetle (Brachinus sp.)

Some have glands with poisonous and odorous secretions. The most striking example of such a method of defense is bombardier beetles (Brachininae). They have glands that secrete a mixture of chemicals that, interacting with each other in a special chamber of the abdomen, cause an exothermic reaction and cause the mixture to heat up to 100 ° C. The resulting mixture of substances is thrown out through the holes at the tip of the abdomen. Representatives of the Paussin subfamily (Paussinae) have a less mobile abdomen and, if necessary, to attack an enemy located in front, they release hot liquid onto special protrusions of the elytra that direct it forward. These protrusions are best seen in beetles of the tribe Ozaenini. Goniotropis nicaraguensis throws out a non-pulsating jet at a speed of 2.4 m/s. A more primitive defense mechanism is described among representatives of the tribe Metriini - they do not form jets, like other scorers, but emit a bubbling and splashing liquid in different directions

Ground beetles of the genus Carabus are also capable of spraying a very caustic liquid that can irritate human skin. In case of danger, slowlings of the genus Blaps take a certain position and secrete a liquid with an unpleasant odor from special glands. A poisonous secret with an unpleasant odor is also secreted by the mammary glands of swimmers (Dytiscidae: Dytiscus).

Features of biology that have a protective value

A number of species practice cohabitation with protected animals. An example is myrmecophilia - a beneficial cohabitation for beetles with ants in their nests, where they find not only protection, but also food (some species of palps (Pselaphidae: Clavigerinae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), karapuziks (Histeridae)). Other species of beetles prefer to lead a secretive lifestyle, living in hard-to-reach places, reliably protected from enemies - bark beetles (Scolytidae), species living in the soil). Others are nocturnal, which effectively protects them from possible attacks by birds and other daytime predators, including ants. Examples of beetles active at night can be found among most families.

natural enemies

Beetles serve as food for many species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. They can also feed on other insects and arthropods. Many birds, such as raven, gray crow, black crow, magpie, as well as Hobbies, Rollers, owls and others like to feast on large beetles.

Role in ecosystems

Due to the huge diversity, large numbers and wide distribution, the role of beetles in nature is exceptionally great. Imagoes and larvae of species inhabiting the soil and forest litter take an active part in the processes of soil formation and humification of dead wood.

In natural and slightly modified ecosystems, xylophagous beetles (horned beetles, gold beetles, etc.) perform a sanitary role, eliminating dead wood and utilizing weakened, dead wood affected by root fungus (Heterobasidion annosum), tinder fungi, root rot trees, in a certain least regulating the spread of these fungi. They will play a special role in windbreaks and clearings, where they accelerate the decomposition of dead wood. The elimination of such trees makes room for young growth and contributes to the restoration of ecosystems.

Many beetles also act as pollinators of flowering plants, because a significant part of these insects is characterized by the development of anthophily. Imagoes of such species are often found on flowers, where, unlike "classical" pollinators (bees, bumblebees, lepidoptera, dipterans, etc.), they spend much more time, and, accordingly, the pollination efficiency is higher. Also, these species are regulators of the number of those flowering plants that they pollinate. This is due to the fact that adult insects require pollen to live, while beetles often eat gynoecium and androecium, reducing plant seed production.
Four-spot dead eater (Xylodrepa quadripunctata Linnaeus)

Large representatives of the subfamily Scarabaeinae can be intermediate hosts for a number of helminths, including those pathogenic for domestic animals and less often for humans. Also, scarabs are the main natural orderlies, cleansing the surface of the soil from a variety of excrement. Utilization of manure masses by beetles contributes to their movement into the lower layers of soils, which are loosened and fertilized. Species that feed on various decomposing substances (staphylin, dead-eaters, peanuts, etc.) perform a sanitary role and contribute to the utilization of animal and plant residues.

Many representatives of the animal world of our planet are endowed with completely unusual ways of protection. This is the purposeful structure of the body, and defensive behavior, which ensures the safety of a living being, and passive-defensive reactions (such as the use of protective coloring and shape).

Sometimes nature clearly warns that you have met a dangerous creature, but sometimes quite peaceful in appearance, inconspicuous creatures can cause a lot of trouble by using their secret weapons hidden for the time being.

The most interesting way of self-defense is used by the brachinus bug living in Africa, which is otherwise called the scorer.

This creature is capable of accurately dousing the enemy with a jet of burning liquid, which has the temperature of boiling water and the composition corresponding to that used in binary chemical weapons.

In appearance, the brachinus is completely harmless. Nature did not endow the bug with any marks indicating its extraordinary abilities and the fact that it emits an “explosive mixture” not once, but with powerful rapid-fire volleys. Therefore, many insectivores, when meeting with this creature, strive to immediately include it in their menu.

Only already lying on the ground with bulging eyes and burnt oral mucosa, the predator realizes that he was wrong and made a mistake with the choice of “dish”. In the future, the aggressor will prefer to bypass the literally explosive beetle by the tenth road. The brachinus also obtains food for itself by an original method: it shoots drops of liquid from the abdomen, with which, like artillery shells, it knocks down flies.

Scientists call this insect a direct challenge to the theory of evolution. A real "chemical laboratory" works in his body. An explosive mixture - hydroquinone (aka the substrate of respiration) and a 25% solution of hydrogen peroxide - is produced by a special pair of glands. Both substances enter the storage bag with a valve and an opening muscle.

The third additional gland produces a special respiratory enzyme-catalyst hydroquinone oxidase, which is necessary for the components stored in the storage bag to enter into an oxidation reaction. The enzyme is contained in a so-called reactor chamber lined with fabrics very similar in properties to asbestos.

At the moment when the situation requires decisive action from the insect, the contents of the storage bag are thrown into the chamber and ... the instantly boiled substance with a noise that resembles a shot from a scarecrow flies out of the posterior end of the insect's abdomen and turns into a small puff of caustic "smoke".

So, shooting back from the ground beetle, the brachinus releases 12-15 "chemical volleys" with an insignificant interval. And in the event of a collision with a more dangerous enemy, the beetle is capable of delivering from 500 to 1000 emissions per second! Such "shelling" leaves serious burns on the attacker's body.

By the way, scientists are convinced that such an original and effective apparatus of attack and defense did not “develop gradually” in the process of evolution (the first insects that decided to play with fire would have died before they had time to improve this weapon), but was part of the beetle’s body from the moment it appeared of this type. So, evolution has nothing to do with it, and there is Someone who provided a harmless and defenseless creature with a flamethrower? Perhaps, as always, we missed something in the structure of the universe.

The field horse beetle also has the ability to actively protect its life. This insect at the moment of danger prefers to simply run away to hell. At the same time, the baby not only flies fast, but also runs great. For a predator to catch such a sprinter lunch is not too much pleasure. Moreover, it is practically impossible to achieve a positive result of hunting in this case. But if the field horse can be caught, this will not bring joy either.

The beetle will begin to violently break out and bite furiously. The crescent-shaped powerful jaws of an insect can cause trouble even to humans, not to mention other representatives of the fauna! Medvedka behaves in a similar way in critical situations. But the earwig does not try to run. Instead, she takes on a menacing look and raises the ends of impressive pincers above her head. By the way, they are so strong that they pierce the skin of a person to the point of blood.

Many insects, to intimidate predators and for hunting, prefer to use poisons - secretions of special glands that can scare away, paralyze or kill the enemy. Wasps, bees, bumblebees and ants are familiar to everyone. These creatures received from nature as a gift special stings for injecting poison.

True, in the honey bee it is jagged and therefore gets stuck in the body of the attacker; the bee dies. So in this case, we can talk not about individual, but about social protection, which develops a persistent reflex in those around us in relation to a whole species of insects. But a wasp can easily sting many times in its life. And to remind you that you have a poisonous creature in front of you, nature has endowed bees and wasps with a special, warning color.

As for ants, representatives of some species of these insects not only pour formic acid on the enemy, but also add a mixture of two complex chemical compounds to the caustic “cocktail”.

They are specially synthesized in the body of an insect and have a pleasant smell of lemon.

This mixture is poisonous in itself, besides, it promotes the penetration of formic acid through the outer integument of the animal. Interestingly, in the "chemical laboratory" of a small aggressor, not only "weapons" are created, but also many protective substances. Some of them can cope with the pathogens of cholera, tuberculosis and typhoid!

The ant does not have to bite the enemy at all. Many hit the enemy at a decent distance, spraying a poisonous mixture. For example, worker ants from the furmicin subfamily are able to “shoot” an aggressor who is half a meter away from them! This distance is 500 times the length of the body of the warrior insect itself.

With the help of poison, leaf beetles also protect themselves. They release a yellow-orange liquid with a pungent odor through the joints of their body. A microscopic dose of this substance, getting into the blood, kills a small animal. Larger enemies of the leaf beetle have big health problems, so that in case of recovery, the reflex to the "inedible" beetle is developed persistent.

Biologists had to observe how a toad or lizard, accidentally grabbing this insect, try to spit it out as soon as possible, and then wipe their tongues and muzzles for a long time and carefully on various objects and plants.

Skolopendra are also seriously "armed". Poison centipedes living in Africa, according to eyewitnesses, reach 47 centimeters in length. But we can reliably speak only about 5-30-centimeter specimens. Usually these creatures sit in the ground or under a stone in anticipation of prey - spiders, worms, cockroaches.

The centipede's venom also kills frogs and lizards that inadvertently tried to eat centipedes. But the mouse already has a chance to survive. A person after a scolopendra bite feels general malaise, pain and fever. A serious threat to children is posed only by giant individuals that dig into the neck with poisonous jaws.

Bug bugs, despite their small size, are very dangerous. Their poison is so strong that even large domestic animals, having eaten this crumb along with the grass, often die.

In the old days, pharmacists used dried abscesses to make an abscess patch.

Poisonous foam protects some wingless grasshoppers. In case of danger, foam begins to climb from their mouth and breast with a whistling hiss - a mixture of quinine, air bubbles and phenol. The cicada larvae do the same. But sawfly larvae have even more original "weapons" against aggressors.

Feeding on needles, they collect tree resin in special bags associated with the intestines. In a moment of danger, the caterpillar allocates a piece of the "strategic reserve", inflates it and shoots at the enemy. The sticky substance glues the legs of the ants and makes the birds lose interest in such a "nervous" prey.

In addition to poison, predators can also be scared away by the smell. And not any, but especially unpleasant. In the "arsenal" of many insects there are special glands responsible for the formation of a secret that emits a rare stench and leaves the enemy with long memories of the meeting.

To scare away enemies, insects often use some behavioral techniques. For example, the Apollo butterfly, in case of extreme danger, falls to the ground, begins to cross its legs and hiss menacingly. At the same time, she strenuously spreads her wings, on which there is a sign notifying the attacker that the insect is poisonous - bright red spots.

But the praying mantis, if necessary, rises, assumes a threatening posture, spreads its hind wings, begins to creak with its abdomen and click with grasping legs. After that, there are few people who want to get acquainted with the main "argument" of the praying mantis - its jaws. Defensive postures (often combined with a frightening odor or poison) are also widely used by various caterpillars.

Marine inhabitants also know how to defend themselves from an attack. Many of them are extremely poisonous. Needles, skin, mucus, special stinging threads, unexpectedly sharp "scalpels" filled with poisons, before which the possibilities of even the famous curare fade - all this "arsenal" of a number of representatives of the sea people is dangerous not only for animals, but also for humans. And the electric stingray is quite capable, if not to kill, then to stun its victim. As for the electric eel, it’s better not to meet such a “living power plant”!

Unlike other "armed" inhabitants of the sea, the octopus is quite an intelligent creature. He does not try to stun the enemy with a current or treat him with a horse dose of poison. If a cephalopod encounters danger, it prefers to… evaporate by releasing a dark cloud. The ink-like liquid, which the octopus “shoots out of a special bag, quickly spreads into a dirty fog, hiding the escape routes of the marine life.

True, there is no rule without exceptions. An extremely cute, but malicious, tiny ringed octopus, a resident of the Indian Ocean, can cause the death of a person. Its poison, injected with a sharp "beak", in a matter of seconds causes paralysis of the heart muscle.

Snakes are a separate article. Many of the reptiles are dangerous because of their poison. At the same time, there are individuals that can cause major trouble or even kill both with a bite and ... spitting! But among the poisonous creatures, the famous black mamba stands out, "from the bite of which a person dies five minutes before the bite."

Believe me, this is just the case when there is only a fraction of a joke in a joke ... And non-poisonous individuals - by the way, the vast majority of them - use serious muscle strength to attack, which allows the snake to strangle its prey. "Secret weapons" are also endowed with some lizards and members of the spider family, such as the notorious "black widow", crosses, tarantulas and scorpions.

In mammals, too, you can find unusual ways of self-defense.

The mammals of the skunk family are probably best known for their way of protecting themselves from predators. Skunks usually do not try to hide from enemies. Instead, the animal first raises its fluffy tail and sometimes stamps its paws on the ground.

If the warning does not help, the skunk will turn its back on the enemy and "shoot" at him with an oily yellowish liquid, usually aiming at his eyes. Some skunks (Mephitis mephitis) are able to hit the enemy from a distance of more than 6 m.

This liquid is the secret of two glands located to the right and left of the anus of the skunk, and is a mixture of sulfur-containing organic substances (methane and butaniols (mercaptans)), which have an exceptionally strong, persistent and unpleasant odor. The muscles surrounding the mouths of the glands make it possible to accurately shoot the secret at a distance of 2-3 m. The main component of the skunk "jet" - butylselenomercaptan (C4H9SeH) - can be determined even in the amount of 0.000000000002 g.

If it gets into the eyes, this liquid causes a burning sensation and even temporary blindness. However, the glands of a skunk contain liquid for only 5-6 "charges", and it takes about 10 days to restore them, so the skunk spends the "charges" reluctantly, preferring to scare away potential predators with its contrasting coloring and threatening postures. As a rule, skunks are attacked by young predators who are unfamiliar with their method of protection. The exception is the virgin eagle owl, which hunts skunks systematically.

The smell of a skunk is so persistent that the spoiled clothes, as a rule, have to be burned. Folk remedies like tomato juice, vinegar or gasoline do not eliminate the smell, but only mask it. Dry cleaners use hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to combat it.

The platypus is one of the few venomous mammals (along with some shrews and flint teeth that have toxic saliva, as well as slow lorises, the only genus of known venomous primates).

Young platypuses of both sexes have rudiments of horn spurs on their hind legs. In females, by the age of one year, they disappear, while in males they continue to grow, reaching 1.2-1.5 cm in length by the time of puberty. Each spur is connected by a duct to the femoral gland, which during the mating season produces a complex "cocktail" of poisons.

Males use spurs during courtship fights. Platypus venom can kill a dingo or other small animal. For a person, it is generally not fatal, but it causes very severe pain, and edema develops at the injection site, which gradually spreads to the entire limb. Pain (hyperalgesia) can last for many days or even months.

Other oviparous - echidnas - also have rudimentary spurs on their hind legs, but they are not developed and are not poisonous.

Slow lorises are the only known genus of venomous primates and one of only seven known venomous mammals. The poison is secreted by glands on the forelimbs.

Mixed with saliva, the venom is either smeared over the head to scare off predators, or held in the mouth, allowing the loris to bite especially painfully. The poison of slow loris can cause suffocation and death not only in small animals, but even in humans.

So, many of our "smaller brothers" own a whole arsenal of sometimes very unexpected means of defense and attack. In this way, nature made life easier for them and forced larger predators to respect the little "warriors".

Judgments about the relationship between predatory animals and humans often lie in the realm of myths and prejudices. Speculation is connected with the fact that people live outside of nature and have a weak theoretical and practical base in this matter. In our society, such knowledge is not a necessity. Even most professional hunters do not perceive the wild as natural for their habitat. A priori, it is accepted as hostile.

On the other hand, wildlife can indeed be a difficult environment for us to survive. Not because there are more dangers than in the city, but because of our unaccustomedness to them.

In relation to the potential aggression of wild animals, a person is prone to two extremes - its excessive exaggeration and vice versa - its denial. Both extremes are formed from different ideas about the surrounding world and the individual's own place in relation to it, but both are equally dangerous.

Why are extremes dangerous?

Exaggeration of the danger from predatory animals creates a constant feeling of fear. It fluctuates along the route from permanent blunt to sharp on eye contact. This condition is dangerous for two reasons.

Fear pushes to rash acts, easily turns into panic and accumulates in a snowball, often going beyond the boundaries of objectivity. At such moments, a person is a danger to himself, significantly increasing the likelihood of injury or accident. An action performed under the influence of fear is easily fixed at the subconscious level and subsequently forms the same reaction with a similar nature of the stimulus.
Our fear is felt by predators and for them we automatically become more accessible prey. Fear in this case is not read through the smell, but through the movements and behavior patterns. However, when tracking or observing, additional information about us is given to the predator by urinary marks and other traces. With their help, the predator determines the number of people, gender, the absence or presence of injuries / serious diseases, the speed of movement and the degree of fatigue. If we are not talking about a sudden attack, but about a time-stretched assessment of the acceptability of a hunting attempt, then for a predator it consists of different components - where the manifestation of fear plays a certain role.

Fear, in turn, leads to significant biochemical shifts and physical reactions aimed at survival - for example, an increase in heart rate, an increase in blood sugar levels, improved oxygen supply to muscles, acceleration of instantaneous reflexes, and the like.

In the short term, they are useful, but with a constant feeling of fear, exhaustion of the body occurs, suppression of the immune system and a decrease in the intensity of anabolism processes. A tourist who is constantly in a state of fear - regardless of its source - on a difficult route is a potential suicide bomber in principle and, being a loner, usually leaves the route.

Note: everyone has fear as such and we need it not only as a tool for survival, but also as a measure of danger. The only question is how we react to it and how much we control it.

The other extreme is the denial of the danger of attack by wild animals, or neglect of it. Stupidity and lack of common sense often take the outward form of fearlessness. What they are caused by - ignorance, bravado, low intelligence and the like - is completely unimportant. A person is able to sincerely consider the forest and mountains as a paradise, where all the animals are friends with each other. He wants to take a selfie with a bear, cuddle a cute kitten, set up a tent next to pack animals, and so on. Inspired by the books of naturalists and experimenters who live near wild predatory animals, such people periodically end their life path only because of the violation of elementary rules of safety and behavior.

The concept of "predator" and what it means

What does the term "predator" mean?

In our case, predation refers to trophic relations between organisms, in which one of them (the predator) attacks the other (the prey) and feeds on parts of its body. There must be an act of killing the victim.

There is always a connection between specific types of predators and their prey. For example, the population size of predators affects the population size of their prey and vice versa. In the process of co-evolution, predators and prey adapt to each other and a dynamic balance is achieved in the predator-prey system. Predators develop and develop means of detection and attack, while prey develop means of concealment and protection.

From here, positive processes for populations also occur. Predators cull defective individuals among their prey, thereby becoming an important factor in the regulation of their numbers. This explains why attacks on humans are so rare in the remote taiga, teeming with animals - humans simply lie outside the food chain of predators hunting there, and the attack is mainly not due to the hunger factor.

Bear and man are characterized as omnivores and meat is not considered the main diet of their menu. This approach significantly increases the chances of survival of the species.

Note: a person is able to eat and easily digest raw, not thermally processed, animal meat. Many peoples have fresh, frozen or dried meat and fish dishes. Also, some northern peoples (Nenets, Chukchi, Eskimos) are resistant to ptomains (cadaveric toxins), which allows them to use even specific foods.

Predators attack each other relatively infrequently, for this it is necessary either to have a predominant size compared to an opponent, or an extreme degree of hunger - with the chances of success. An example is bears.

Despite being omnivorous, other animals unequivocally regard the bear as a predator at the top of the food chain. Only in isolated regions does he meet with a natural enemy capable of hunting him on a permanent basis - the tiger. In this case, hunting is carried out by adult tigers for sick or not too large bears.

However, although rarely, a bear can also be the object of a one-time hunt for hungry, relatively small predators. On the territory of the Russian Federation, wolves are able to act as such - in winter, raising a bear from a den; and snow leopards - united as a pair. In North America, cougars and jaguars are able to hunt young bears alone.

Most wild animals consider man as a predator, which has become entrenched in the last millennia of evolution. But even in the modern world, it is still possible occasionally to meet remote corners where animals have not yet seen a person and are not able to assess the danger on his part.

I gave an example of a bear for a better understanding of the factors of aggression of some predators towards others in general and animals towards humans in particular.

Causes of aggression of wild animals towards humans

The main factors of aggression of wild animals in relation to human individuals are as follows:

1) Specific topredator id. Different types of wild animals have different attitudes both to coexistence next to a person, and to the perception of him as a source of food or competition on his part. Within the Russian Federation, a bear, for example, is much more dangerous for humans than the Amur tiger. Within a species, the degree of aggression of a particular individual depends both on its size and the influence of other factors. If we consider only bears, then, all other things being equal, large adult males show aggression rather than juveniles. However, some predators, in principle, do not attack humans - for example, lynxes.

2) Place in the food chain for a specific predator, applicable to a specific area. This situation determines the general behavioral traits of a species living in certain areas or in different regions. For example, wolves in different regions are able to evaluate a person as a potential breakfast in different ways, depending on the density of the population and the quality of the available food supply, as well as the degree of competition with other predators.

3) Prolonged hunger. If there is no other source of food, then potentially dangerous predators are more likely to attack a person. A contributing factor here is the size of the victim. An attack on women and, especially, children, is always preferable for a predator. Wolves can attack people if they are unable to feed their offspring. A hungry adult bear is more likely to attack people, and if it is impossible to hibernate in winter - almost always. However, healthy individuals of many predators do not attack even when they are hungry - lynxes and snow leopards, for example.

4) rabies disease. Animals with rabies in the wild die quickly, but there is little chance of them attacking people. A sick animal attacks regardless of the hunger factor, close enough eye contact.

5) Illness or old age when a predator becomes unable to hunt its usual game and tries to survive by hunting any available prey in principle.

6) Self-defense. A predator can decide, objectively or subjectively, that a person is preying on it. Here the protection of offspring stands out; fear of an unexpected meeting with a person; the absence, from the predator's point of view, of escape routes. At the same time, some species, when hunting for them, seek to eliminate the threat - like the tiger and individual bears. In case of fright from an unexpected meeting, the attack is purely instinctive and rarely ends in the death of a person.

7) Identification error. A predator can confuse a lone traveler with its usual prey, usually within a forest zone - with limited visibility and bad wind direction. The likelihood of such a case, however, is low.

8) The nature of the individual. Each animal has its own character, leaving its mark on its behavior. Also, animals differ in experience and the ability to extrapolate it, in thinking and in intelligence, even within the same species. Roughly speaking, where one bear treats a tourist with maximum indifference, the other will show aggression.

9) Model of human behavior. If a person behaves insecurely and fearfully, then he can naturally turn into a victim. Also, a predator is able to attack if a person does not give him the opportunity to freely pass along the path, creates a threat to his offspring or prey. In the case of a person fleeing from a predator, that almost always triggers the instinct of pursuit, even if he was not going to attack at all.

10) Resentment and evaluation of human actions. In the event of harm to him - the ruin of the lair, the destruction of offspring, an attempt to kill - some predators are able to remember the "offender" and spare no time and effort to track down and kill. On the territory of the Russian Federation, the tiger and individual bears are distinguished by vindictiveness.

All of these factors can complement each other perfectly.

Why is it always more dangerous to be alone?

A loner is more at risk of attack than a tourist in a group. Predators living within the Russian Federation most often try not to get involved with pack animals, because the potential risk of injury increases, which is never necessary for a predator. In addition, animals hear and smell a noisy group of unwashed travelers at a great distance and prefer to get away.

The participants in the group are attacked by animals with rabies or very hungry large individuals, as well as individuals that already have experience of successfully hunting a person. In the latter case, the predator easily adapts to the available game. Not because he likes the taste of meat and does not accept anything else, but because of its relative availability. Other factors listed above actually disappear for obvious reasons.

Also, if a person in the taiga is weak or sick, then the likelihood of an attack on him increases many times over. This is one of the tools of evolution, natural selection. Even a small predator can attack a dying person if he considers that the amount of meat obtained will justify the efforts and will not harm him.

Assessing the danger of predators living within the Russian Federation

Of the wild predators living on the territory of the Immeasurable, the bear should be called the most dangerous. The bear is a very unpredictable animal in its behavior. Therefore, it is considered the most dangerous wild animal in our country.

The danger of the bear is relatively high due to the density of its settlement and wide habitat. However, unprovoked attacks on humans are rare.

Example: for three years of observations in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, meetings with a bear were recorded 241 times, of which 70 were tourist groups. Physical contact between a bear and a person occurred 87 times. Of these: cases of human hunting for a bear (including illegal) 61; in the case of human hunting for other animals, 19 attacks; predatory attack on a person 3 times; self-instigated attack on tourists 4 times. Something like this.

Actually, there are no other predatory animals dangerous for an adequate person in the Russian Federation. With a stretch, the Amur tiger can be considered potentially dangerous. In the history of the USSR and the Russian Federation, about fifteen attacks are known, of which only two were unprovoked.

The wolverine, lynx, snow leopard and Far Eastern leopard are not dangerous to humans.

Why the bear attacks and the prevention of attacks

If we exclude the protection of offspring, as well as cases of deliberate or accidental hunting for us and our products, then the bear is able to attack in the following cases:

During the rut, if we happen to be near a bearish pair by chance or not by chance. Podofigevshie from their own love of love, the bears can pile on only out of a sense of beauty.
On the trail, when the bear is walking towards. The bear in this case is like a car raider from Mad Max - to turn off the path for him means to drop his social status, prestige or something else like that. I don’t know, maybe the animals will tease him later or the squirrels will throw cones, but for him this, apparently, is important. It’s better to just carefully step aside from the path and give him the opportunity to pass, and not die a would-be bullfighter.
On the same path, if there is a tent on it. The bear generally likes to walk along field roads and human paths, and in general he uses any animal paths, if he doesn’t have his own personal trodden under his paws. It can be understood, since you also don’t want to climb the bushes with such a carcass once again. One gets the impression that he perceives a tent or a standing car on such a path / road as a personal insult.
When trying to drive away from the garbage or from a baited place. On a hike, without any problems, he can come and taste the porridge that the tourist has not eaten. Most often, he is not averse to eating supplements, but is sincerely offended by its absence.
When passing by half-eaten bear prey. From his point of view, he quite rightly drives us away from it, like a scavenger-freeloader.
When you try to come up and stroke, or poke a camera in the face. I myself am surprised that this kind of suicide exists, but they do exist, although not for long.
Trying to run away from the bear while he is watching. He perceives our escape exclusively with enthusiasm and interest - but is it weak to catch up? You will not believe it, but in 100% of cases it catches up.
Dislikes children and dogs. More precisely, he loves, but in his own way.

Safety measures are relative, since there is no one to tell that the action turned out to be unsuccessful. It's like with dolphins - a lot of testimonies from those they pushed to the shore, but none from those who were pushed the other way.

If there is a bear somewhere, then he must hear or smell us. In most cases, he will leave.
Do not stroke bears - neither sleeping, nor small, nor adults, not even the cutest, sweetest and most cute.
Do not dump leftovers near the camp, burn canned food at the stake. By the way, the clubfoot is not afraid of the fire, like all other animals. He does not like, of course, but he is not afraid.
You need to make more noise. Reading Mayakovsky aloud helps a lot - the animals around not only retreat, but move. Unusual sounds attract attention, such as a whistle. He is not afraid of such sounds, but he receives information about us. He does not pay attention to the impact of stones on stones, sticks on stones or trees.
At night, move only in case of emergency and by the light of a flashlight.

Model of behavior of a loner in the wild and when meeting with predators

Move around the terrain with confidence and don't broadcast your fear.
Look around and watch, read the tracks. Know who lives here and who walks at the moment.
Remember that most of the "terrible" sounds are made by animals that are safe for you.
Identify yourself, make noise. Use a whistle or otherwise broadcast your movement along the route in the wilderness.
Do not run in wilderness areas.
Do not leave leftovers and half-eaten food in the pot overnight, burn canned food.
Do not feed even small wild animals.
If a young bear or tiger is following you, do not be nervous and do not show fear, do not try to drive it away if the predator does not show open aggression. Young bears are very curious and can follow a loner or a group for two or three days. Tigers are curious at any age and can also follow travelers for a while, or walk around the bivouac. After leaving their territory or when approaching the boundaries of someone else's, they leave.
If a bear tries to eat leftovers, then do not try to drive him away. If for food - try a hunter's shot or firecrackers. However, a large adult bear may not respond to a threat.
Food storage containers must be clean and well-packed so as not to attract the smell of a bear.
In case of persistent pursuit by a bear, leave food for the night not in a tent, but at a distance. It is better to let him eat them there than to pick them out of the tent.
If the predator needs to give way, do so without fuss by pulling to the side and/or slightly back.
In case of open aggression, raise your arms up and to the side, opening the jacket. Sticks or an alpenstock in your hands, as well as a backpack worn, make you visually larger. Bare your teeth, scream or growl. The predator must see your size and readiness to resist.
Felines often only indicate an attack when they feel a danger to themselves or their offspring. Roar and back away slowly until you're out of danger.
Walk away from any animals during the rut, hunting or their fights for females and territory.
Walk away from animals with their prey, as well as carrion and the remains of a meal of predators.
Set the camp at least a kilometer further from the discovered predators' lair, leave the place quickly, but not running.
Stay away from animal cubs.
Do not take dogs with you to places rich in animals.
If a relatively small animal openly and immediately comes close to you, then it may be sick with rabies.
If you are dressing open wounds, burn the dressing or bury it deep in rocks or under turf.
Don't run away from a predator with eye contact.
Don't hurt the animals. Some of them are rightly vindictive.

findings

People tend to exaggerate the danger from wild animals. In most cases, a person himself provokes animals to attack.

But this does not mean that a person in the forest should not be afraid of other predators. You should be careful and vigilant.

Note: the issue of firearms was not considered in the campaign due to its uselessness in most regions and the debatable use in the rest. The problem is the legality of carrying weapons with you, as well as the inability to handle them. Often a weapon turns into a negative factor, as a person tries to shoot at everything he is afraid of or does not understand.

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